CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 1 Early Societies Objective & Short Answer Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Where we found the use of glass bottles?
(a) Rome
(b) Egypt
(c) Greece
(d) Sudan
Answer:
(b) Egypt

Question 2.
Where we found the first cultivation of wheat and barley?
(a) Rome
(b) Egypt
(c) Grece
(d) Sudan
Answer:
(c) Grece

Question 3.
Where we found early agricultural settlements?
(a) Rome
(b) Egypt
(c) Baluchistan
(d) Grece
Answer:
(c) Baluchistan

Question 4.
In which year Charles Darwin’s on the origin of species was published?
(a) 24th November 1859
(b) 24th November 1858
(c) 24th November 1856
(d) 24th November 1850
Answer:
(a) 24th November 1859

Question 5.
Who made the excavations at Olduvai and Laetoli?
(a) Mary Leakey
(b) Mary
(c) Leakey
(d) None
Answer:
(a) Mary Leakey

Question 6.
The name Aulstalopithecus comes from a _______word ‘austral’ meaning southern.
(a) Latin
(b) Greek
(c) French
(d) English
Answer:
(a) Latin

Question 7.
A Greek word ‘Pilhekos’ mean:
(a) Ape
(b) Monkey
(c) Human
(d) Dogs
Answer:
(a) Ape

Question 8.
Order the early humans as fortune :
(a) Homahabilis
(b) Homeerctus
(c) Homo
(d) Australopithecus
(a) CABD
(b) ABCD
(c) ACBD
(d) ACDB
Answer:
(a) CABD

Question 9.
The earliest evidence of burials is found to be a custom _______year ago.
(a) 300,000
(b) 30,000
(c) 30,00,000
(d) 40,00,00
Answer:
(a) 300,000

Question 10.
Development of voice box:
(a) 2,000
(b) 400,000
(c) 30,00,00
(d) 200
Answer:
(b) 400,000

Question Question11.
The invention of early sewing needles _________ years ago.
(a) 21,000
(b) 20,000
(c) 30,000
(d) 22,000
Answer:
(a) 21,000

Question 12.
Early agriculture was found in Mesopotamian plains around:
(a) 7,000-6,000 BCE
(b) 7,000-8,000 BCE
(c) 3,200 BCE
(d) 32,000 BCE
Answer:
(a) 7,000-6,000 BCE

Question 13.
Mesopotamia is situated between two rivers.
(a) Euphrates and Tigres
(b) Nile and Tigres
(c) Meso and Euphrates
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Euphrates and Tigres

Question 14.
Where the Hebrew language was usually spoken:
(a) Iraq
(b) Rome
(c) Greece
(d) England
Answer:
(a) Iraq

Question 15.
In which country early use of fire is found?
(a) China
(b) Italy
(c) Greece
(d) India
Answer:
(a) China

Question 16.
The first cultivation of beans goes to:
(a) Australia
(b) America
(c) China
(d) India
Answer:
(b) America

Question 17.
When earliest stone tools were found to exist?
(a) 2.6 – 2.5 mya
(b) 2.5 – 2.6 mya
(c) 2.2 mya
(d) 1.3 mya
Answer:
(a) 2.6 – 2.5 mya

Question 18.
Where Lazaret cave is situated:
(a) France
(b) Italy
(c) China
(d) Greece
Answer:
(a) France

Question 19.
The earliest fossils of Homo Erectus have been found:
(a) Africa
(b) Asia
(c) Both Africa artel Asia
(d) None
Answer:
(c) Both Africa artel Asia

Question 20.
Early humans are different from each other on the basis.
(a) Faces
(b) Places
(c) Bone structure
(d) Skulls
Answer:
(c) Bone structure

Question 21.
Homo sapiens are found in different parts of _________.
(a) Greece
(b) Africa
(c) Asia
(d) America
Answer:
(b) Africa

True And False Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Discoveries of human fossils, store foals, and cave paintings help us to understand early human history.
Answer:
True

Question 2.
The Olduvai Gorge was first discovered by a German butterfly collector.
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Hazards are the food collection.
Answer:
False

Question 4.
Hazards are a small group of hunters.
Answer:
True

Question 5.
The evolution of the vocal font was around 2,00,00 years ago.
Answer:
False

Question 6.
The evolution of the vocal font was around 2,00,000 years ago.
Answer:
True

Question 7.
The development of language is closely related to art.
Answer:
True

Question 8.
Altamira is a cave site in Greece.
Answer:
False

Question 9.
Altamira is a cave site in Spain.
Answer:
True

Question 10.
Animal paintings are discovered in the caves of Lascaux and Chauvet.
Answer:
True

Question 11.
Lascaux and Chauvet are in Greek.
Answer:
False

Question 12.
Lascaux and Chauvet are in France and Spain.
Answer:
True

Question 13.
Hadza is known as hunter.
Answer:
True

Question 14.
The last ice age came around about 130 years ago.
Answer:
True

Question 15.
Assyrian king acknowledged the southern region of Babylonia as the center of high culture.
Answer:
True

Question 16.
Homo habits have been discovered in Africa
Answer:
False

Question 17.
Homa habits have been discovered at Omo in Ethiopia and at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania
Answer:
True

Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Where pieces of baked clay and burnt bone were found?
Answer:
Pieces of baked clay and burnt bone along with stone tools dated between 1.4 and 1 mya have been found at Chesowanja, Kenya, and Swartkrans South Africa.

Question 2.
Describe the punch blade technique.
Answer:
The top of a large pebble is removed using a hammerstone. This produces a flat surface called the striking platform. This is then struck using a hammer and a punch, made at bone or antler. This leads to the production of blades that can be used as knives or modified to serve as chisels or burins which could be used to engrave bone, antler, ivory, or wood.

Question 3.
Who first discovered the cave painting at Atamira?
Answer:
Marcelino Sanz de saultuela a local landowner and an amateur archeologist by his daughter, Maria in November 1879 first brought painting at Altamira.

Question 4.
Who are Hominoids?
Answer:
Hominoids are different from monkeys in ways. They have a larger bodies and do not have a tail. There is a longer period of infant development and dependency among hominoids. They belong to the family of Hominoids.

Question 5.
Write the characteristics- of hominoids.
Answer:
Hominoids include a large brain size, upright posture, bipedal locomotion, and specialization of the hand.

Question 6.
What is the major difference between Australopithecus and Homo?
Answer:
They are different in brain size, jaws, and teeth. The former has a smaller brain size, heavier jaws, and larger teeth than the latter.

Question 7.
What archaeologists believed about Homos?
Answer:
They suggest that early hominoids such as Homo abilities probably consumed most of the food where they found it, slept in different places, and spent much of their time in trees.

Question 8.
Where did Hadza live?
Answer:
Hadza’s are a group of hunters and gathers living in the vicinity of lake Eyasi, a salt, rift valley lake.

Question 9.
What is ethnography?
Answer:
It is the study of contemporary either groups. It includes an examination of their modes of livelihood, technology, gender roles, rituals, political institutions, and social customs.

Question 10.
Why Mesopotamia is important to Europeans?
Answer:
Mesopotamia was important to Europeans because of references to it in the old testament. The first part of the Bible. For instance, the Book of Geneses of the old testament refers to ‘ Shimar’ meaning summer, as the land of brick built city.

Question 11.
Which story of Bible is similar to the story of the Mesopotamian tradition of Ziusudra or Uthapishtiom?
Answer:
The story of Noah who was sent by God with a huge boat to look a pair each of all species of animals and birds on board the ark and survived in the flood.

Question 12.
What are the things Mesopotamians traded?
Answer:
They could have traded their abundant textiles and agricultural produce for wood, copper, tin, silver, gold, shell, and various stores from Turkey and Iran or across the Gulf.

Question 13.
When did spoken language emerge?
Answer:
It has been suggested that the brain of Homo habilis had certain features which would have made it possible for them to speak. Thus language may have developed as early as 2 mya.

Question 14.
What are Fossils?
Answer:
Fossils are the remain or impressions of a very old plant, animal, or human which have turned into stone. These are often embedded in rock and are thus preserved for millions of years.

Question 15.
Who are primates?
Answer:
Primates are a subgroup of a larger group of mammals. They include monkeys, apes, and humans. They have body hair, a relatively long gestation period following birth, mammary, glands, different types of teeth, and the ability to maintain a constant body temperature.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit Unit 5 Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Who did describe the 19th century as the age of Nationalism?
(a) Kant
(b) Hegel
(c) Edmund Burke
(d) Winston Churchill
Answer:
(c) Edmund Burke

Question 2.
Who did clamor – ‘revenge of Sedan’?
(a) Italians
(b) French
(c) English
(d) Americans
Answer:
(b) French

Question 3.
Who was the king of Germany during World War 1?
(a) William I
(b) William II
(c) Alexander I
(d) Alexander II
Answer:
(b) William II

Question 4.
Which three countries did from the Tripple Alliance?
(a) France, Russia, and Britain
(b) May, France, and Britain
(c) Austria, Germany, and Italy
(d) Austria, Britain, and Russia
Answer:
(c) Austria, Germany, and Italy

Question 5.
With which treaty did the Balkan war come to end?
(a) Treaty of Prague
(b) Treaty of Versailles
(c) Frankfurt Treaty
(d) Treaty of Bucharest
Answer:
(d) Treaty of Bucharest

Question 6.
When was Archduke Francis Ferdinand killed?
(a) 1914, June 24
(b) 1914, June 28
(c) 1914, July 24
(d) 1914, July 28
Answer:
(b) 1914, June 28

Question 7.
When did the U.S.A. join the First World War?
(a) 1914
(b) 1915
(c) 1916
(d) 1917
Answer:
(d) 1917

Question 8.
Who was known as Kaiser?
(a) Emperor of Russia
(b) Emperor of Germany
(c) Emperor of Austria
(d) Emperor of Italy
Answer:
(b) Emperor of Germany

Question 9.
Name of the Tsar who was killed by the nihilists?
(a) Alexander I
(b) Alexander II
(c) Alexander II
(d) Nicholas II
Answer:
(b) Alexander II

Question 10.
Who was Rasputin?
(a) A Siberian monk
(b) War minister ofRussia
(c) Prince ofRussia
(d) A famous clergy of France
Answer:
(a) A Siberian monk

Question 11.
By which name the national parliament ofRussia was known?
(a) Diet
(b) Duma
(c) Congress
(d) Senate
Answer:
(b) Duma

Question 12.
When was the war between Russia and Japan fought?
(a) 1902
(b) 1905
(c) 1908
(d) 1911
Answer:
(b) 1905

Question 13.
Where was Karl Marx born?
(a) England
(b) Russia
(c) Germany
(d) France
Answer:
(c) Germany

Question 14.
Who did give the slogan ‘Peace, Land and Bread’?
(a) Bolsheviks
(b) Mensheviks
(c) Women Workers
(d) Socialists
Answer:
(a) Bolsheviks

Question 15.
Who did edit the magazine ‘Iskra’?
(a) Karim Marx
(b) Joseph Stalin
(c) Leon Trotsky
(d) Lenin
Answer:
(d) Lenin

Question 16.
Which treaty did Lenin sign with Germany in 1918?
(a) Treaty of Paris
(b) Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
(c) Treaty of Bucharest
(d) Treaty of Praque
Answer:
(b) Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Question 17.
Who found Nazi Party in Germany?
(a) Mussolini
(b) Hitler
(c) William II
(d) General Franco
Answer:
(b) Hitler

Question 18.
Which place was occupied by Japan in 1931?
(a) Manchuria
(b) Siberia
(c) Abyssinia
(d) Czechoslovakia
Answer:
(a) Manchuria

Question 19.
Which country did commit aggression upon Ethiopia in 1935?
(a) Italy
(b) Japan
(c) France
(d) Russia
Answer:
(a) Italy

Question 20.
Name the two countries to adopt the policy of Appeasement during Second World War.
(a) Austria and Russia
(b) U.S.A. and Britain
(c) Britain and France
(d) Itlay and Japan
Answer:
(c) Britain and France

Question 21.
When did Hitler attack Poland?
(a) 1937
(b) 1938
(c) 1939
(d) 1940
Answer:
(c) 1939

Question 22.
Where did Churchill and Stalin meet for the first time in 1943?
(a) Talta Conference
(b) London Conference
(c) Potsdam Conference
(d) Teheran Conference
Answer:
(d) Teheran Conference

Question 23.
Who did enunciate the ‘Doctrine of Containment?
(a) Geroge F. Kennan
(b) Harry S. Trumon
(c) Harriman
(d) Roosevelt
Answer:
(a) Geroge F. Kennan

Question 24.
Which country took leadership in the formation of NATO?
(a) France
(b) Russia
(c) Britain
(d) America
Answer:
(d) America

Question 25.
Which crisis led to the Sino- Vietnamese War of 1979?
(a) Korean Crisis.
(b) Congo Crisis
(c) Kampuchean Crisis
(d) Suez Crisis
Answer:
(c) Kampuchean Crisis

Question 26.
When did Bush and Boris Yeltsin declare an end to the Cold War?
(a) 1990
(b) 1991
(c) 1992
(d) 1993
Answer:
(c) 1992

Question 27.
Which year did see the birth of the U.N.O?
(a) 1944
(b) 1945
(c) 1946
(d) 1947
Answer:
(b) 1945

Question 28.
How many countries did represent UNO at the time of its formation?
(a) 50
(b) 51
(c) 52
(d) 53
Answer:
(b) 51

Question 29.
In which conference the ‘Veto’ formula of the UNO voting structure was accepted?
(a) Yalta Conference
(b) Teheran Conference
(c) Moscow Conference
(d) Bretton Woods Conference
Answer:
(a) Yalta Conference

Question 30.
How many members are there in the Security Council of UNO?
(a) 12
(b) 13 7
(c) 14
(d) 15
Answer:
(d) 15

Question 31.
Which of the following languages is not an official language of the United Nations?
(a) Arabic
(b) Chinese.
(c) English
(d) Hindi
Answer:
D

Question 32.
Where is the headquarters of the International Court of Justice situated?
(a) London
(b) Newyork
(c) Haque
(d) Delhi
Answer:
(c) Haque

Question 33.
By which body the Secretary General of the UNO Secretariat is appointed?
(a) The General Assembly
(b) The Trusteeship Council
(c) The Economic and Social Council
(d) The International Court of Justice
Answer:
(a) The General Assembly

Question 34.
Who was the Secretary-General of UNO in the year 1946?
(a) Kurt Waldheim
(b) U Thant
(c) Dag Hammarskjold
(d) Trygve Lie
Answer:
(d) Trygve Lie

True And False Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
World War -1 fought on all three fronts land, air, and water.
Answer:
True

Question 2.
World War began in 1918.
Answer:
False

Question 3.
World War began in 1914.
Answer:
True

Question 4.
World War ended in 1918.
Answer:
True

Question 5.
Taylor has written a book “History of Modem Wars” which describes the World War.
Answer:
True

Question 6.
The first cause of the great war aggressive nationalism.
Answer:
True

Question 7.
Russian Revolution started in 1918.
Answer:
False

Question 8.
Russian Revolution started in 1917.
Answer:
True

Question 9
Russians called the true revolution in the name of February and October.
Answer:
True

Question 10.
The roots of the Russian Revolution lie deeply embedded in the history of Russia.
Answer:
True

Question 11.
Russia called their king Kaiser.
Answer:
False

Question 12.
Russain called their king a Tsar.
Answer:
True

Question 13.
German emperor was known as Kaiser.
Answer:
True

Question 14.
Tsar controlled nearly 98 percent of the National Wealth and Income of Russia.
Answer:
True

Question 15.
The place of Paris in the French Revolution was taken by Petrograd in the Russian Revolution.
Answer:
True

Question 16.
The first milestone on the road to Second World War was the Manchurian crisis of 1931.
Answer:
False

Question 17.
France, Italy, and England, and they’re allied formed the ‘Allied Camp’.
Answer:
False

Question 18.
France, England, and their allies formed the Allied Camp.
Answer:
True

Question 19.
Hitler’s attack on Poland forced England and France to retaliate.
Answer:
True

Question 20.
After First World War Benito Mussolini took charge of leadership after First World War.
Answer:
True

Question 21.
The Soviet Union signed the Warsaw Pact with other communist nations.
Answer:
True

Question 22.
Hitler’s attack of Poland forced England and France to retaliate.
Answer:
True

Question 23.
Under the leadership of England, the NATO alliance was formed.
Answer:
False

Question 24.
Under the leadership of the United States, the NATO alliance was formed.
Answer:
True

Question 25.
Mikhail Gorbachev wanted to bring an end to the Cold War.
Answer:
True

Question 26.
UN is based on the principle of sovereign equality of all its members.
Answer:
True

Question 27.
The United Nations Organisation has six primary organs.
Answer:
True

Question 28.
The United Nations Organisation came into being on October, 24,1946.
Answer:
False

Question 29.
The United Nations Organisation came into being on October, 24,1945.
Answer:
True

Question 30.
The primary rights of the UN are human rights.
Answer:
False

Question 31.
The primary rights of the UN are Human rights.
Answer:
False

Question 32.
The primary right of the UN is Human rights and Fundamental freedoms.
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 3 Changing Traditions Objective & Short Answer Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Where was Jesus Christ born?
(a) Bethelham
(b) Galilee
(c) Nazareth
(d) Madina
Answer:
(a) Bethlehem

Question 2.
Who was the king of Judea during the time of Jesus’s birth?
(a) Herod
(b) B John
(c) Nero
(d) Constantine
Answer:
(a) Herod

Question 3.
By whom Jesus Christ was baptised?
(a) John
(b) Saint Peter
(c) Pontius Pillate
(d) Moses
Answer:
(a) John

Question 4.
Which of the following is called the temple of Jeusish?
(a) Pyramid
(b) Masque
(c) Church
(d) Synagogus
Answer:
(d) Synagogus

Question 5.
When did the Gospels come to be complied?
(a) 1st Century A.D.
(b) 2nd Century A.D.
(c) 3rd Century A.D.
(d) 4th CenturyA.D.
Answer:
(a) 1st Century A.D.

Question 6.
What was the previous name of Paul?
(a) Peter
(b) Saul
(c) Mark
(d) Mathew
Answer:
(b) Saul

Question 7.
When was Prophet Mohammed born?
(a) 570 A.D.
(b) 610 A.D.
(c) 622 A.D.
(d) 632A.D.
Answer:
(a) 570 A.D.

Question 8.
Who brought up Mohammed when he was a child?
(a) Abutalib
(b) Abu Bakr
(c) Omar
(d) AK
Answer:
(a) Abutalib

Question 9.
Which of the following events is called as“Hijrat”?
(a) Meditation at Mount Hira.
(b) Advice of Angel Gabriel.
(c) Journey of Mohammed to Medina.
(d) Mohammed’s acquisition of knowledge.
Answer:
(c) Journey of Mohammed to Medina.

Question 10.
How many chapters of suras are there in Koran?
(a) 112
(b) 113
(c) 114
(d) 115
Answer:
(c) 114

Question 11.
What is Haj?
(a) Holy tax giving on wealth.
(b) Visit to Mecca once in lifetime.
(c) Fasting in the month of Ramzan.
(d) Prayer for five times a day.
Answer:
(b) Visit to Mecca once in lifetime.

Question 12.
Who was the first caliph of Islamic religion?
(a) Abu Bakr
(b) Omar
(c) AH
(d) Abdulla
Answer:
(a) Abu Bakr

Question 13.
Who was the first order of society in Europe?
(a) Knight
(b) People ofState
(c) Clevgy
(d) Monk
Answer:
(c) Clevgy

Question 14.
Doon de Mayence a 13th century poem recounting the adventures of______.
(a) People
(b) Clergy
(c) Knights
(d) Soldier
Answer:
(c) Knights

Question 15.
The word monastery derived from the Greek word_______.
(a) Monos
(b) Mono
(c) Mana
(d) Manas
Answer:
(a) Monos

Question 16.
In Benedictine monastries of France this are________chapter of rules which were followed by monks.
(a) 74
(b) 73
(c) 75
(d) 80
Answer:
(b) 73

Question 17.
Who has written Canterbury tales?
(a) Geoflry Chaucer
(b) Beowolf
(c) Shakespeare
(d) Flowman
Answer:
(a) Geoflry Chaucer

Question 18.
Who has written piers Floman contrasting the ease and luxury lives of some monks.
(a) Geoflry Chaucer
(b) Langland
(c) Shakespeare
(d) Flowman
Answer:
(b) Langland

Question 19.
Which period is known as Black death?
(a) 1347-50
(b) 1347-58
(c) 1347-60
(d) 1347-90
Answer:
(a) 1347-50

Question 20.
In which year peasant revolted?
(a) 1380
(b) 1381
(c) 1375
(d) 1395
Answer:
(b) 1381

Question 21.
Who is given the ‘poet laureate’ title in Rome in the year 1341.
(a) Georflry Chaucer
(b) Ottonman
(c) Petrach
(d) Leonoardo
Answer:
(c) Petrach

Question 22.
What was the name of the painting of Leonardo da vinici?
(a) Monalisa
(b) The Last Super
(c) Manarch
(d) Both A&B
Answer:
(d) Both A&B

Question 23.
When Thomas More’s Utopia was published?
(a) 1516
(b) 1517
(c) 1522
(d) 1518
Answer:
(a) 1516

Question 24.
Who has published the Principia Mathematica book?
(a) Issac Newton
(b) Luther
(c) Gregorian
(d) Harvey
Answer:
(a) Issac Newton

Question 25.
When Gregorian calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII?
(a) 1582
(b) 1583
(c) 1584
(d) 1589
Answer:
(a)1582

Question 26.
Where Academy of Science was set up?
(a) France
(b) Italy
(c) Paris
(d) England
Answer:
(c) Paris

Question 27.
Who translated the Bible into German?
(a) Luther
(b) Harvey
(c) Issac
(d) More
Answer:
(a) Luther

Question 28.
In which new Columbus discovered India?
(a) Santa Maria
(b) Santa Cruise
(c) Santa Merry
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Santa Maria

Question 29.
Where did Vasco da Gama reach in India?
(a) Calicut
(b) Kozhikode
(c) Both Calicut or Kozhikode
(d) None
Answer:
(c) Both Calicut or Kozhikode

Question 30.
In which year Cortes defeats Aztecs?
(a) 1520
(b) 1521
(c) 1530
(d) 1533
Answer:
(b) 1521

True or False Type Questions with Answers

Question 1.
Jesus is not called Nazareth.
Answer:
False

Question 2.
Jesus spent 25 years of Nazareth.
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Christians sacred text is Bible.
Answer:
True

Question 4.
Muslims sacred text is Koran.
Answer:
True

Question 5.
Islam is based on principles of Namaz, Zakat, Ramzan and Haj.
Answer:
True

Question 6.
Christians believe that three days after Jesus death, he came back to life.
Answer:
True

Question 7.
At age 40 years Jesus baptised by John.
Answer:
False

Question 8.
At age 30 years Jesus baptised by John.
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Mohammed died in 630 AD.
Answer:
False

Question 10.
Mohammed died in 632 AD.
Answer:
True

Question 11.
Clovis became king of France in 481.
Answer:
True

Question 12.
Nomans defeat Anglo Saxons and conquer England in 1068.
Answer:
False

Question 13.
Nomans defeat Anglo Saxons and conquer England in 1066.
Answer:
True

Question 14.
Leon Batista Albeti wrote an art theory and architecture.
Answer:
True

Question 15.
Niccala Machiavelli wrote about human nature in his books Human’.
Answer:
False

Question 16.
Niccala Machiavelli wrote about human nature in his books “The Prince”.
Answer:
True

Question 17.
Gregorian calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII.
Answer:
True

Question 18.
Issac Newton’s Principia Mathematica was published in 1688.
Answer:
False

Question 19.
Issac Newton’s Principia Mathematica was published in 1687.
Answer:
True

Question 20.
Balboa crosses Panama Isthmus sights pacific ocean in 1513.
Answer:
True

Question 21.
John Caborts Englishman explores North American coast.
Answer:
True

Question 22.
True History of the conquest of Mexico was written by Bernard Diaz Del Castello.
Answer:
True

Short type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Write some rules of Benedictine monasteries of 13 rules for monks?
Answer:
Rules are:
(a) Permission to speak should rarely be granted to monks.
(b) Humility means obedience.
(c) No monk should own private property.
(d) Idleness is the enemy of sould.

Question 2.
Where did monk lived?
Answer:
Monk lived in religious communities called abbeys or monasteries, often in places very far from human habitation.

Question 3.
What are two well known monasteries?
Answer:
Two of the well known monasteries were those establised by St. Benedict in Italy and of Cluny in Burgundy.

Question 4.
Why France and England were often at war?
Answer:
William, the Duke of Normandy, crossed the English Channel with an army and defeated the Saxon king of England often at war because of disputes over territory and trade.

Question 5.
What was the famous Catherdal in England then?
Answer:
Salisbury Cathedral.

Question 6.
Whom Historians called the new monarchs and why?
Answer:
In 15th and 16th centuries European kings strengthened their military and financial power. They created powerful new states in Europe. They are Louix XI in France, Maximellionin Austria Henry VII in England and Isabella and Ferdin and in Spain.

Question 7.
Who had written the book “The Prince”?
Answer:
Niccola Machiavelli wrote about the human nature in fifteenth chapter of his book “The Prince”.

Question 8.
What is the meaning of Nao?
Answer:
Nao means a heavy ship in Spanish. It is derived from Arabic and this is explained by the fact of Arab occupation of the region till 1492.

Question 9.
Which place does Calumbus claim to be Spain?
Answer:
Bahama Island and Cuba.

Question 10.
Who is Dona Marina?
Answer:
The people of Tabasco gave Cortes a woman attendant called Dona Marina. She was fluent in three local languages and was able to play a crucial role as an interpreter of Cortes. Without Dona Marina, we could not have understood the language of New Spain and Mexico.

Question 11.
What is the meaning of Malinchista?
Answer:
It means someone who slavishly copies the costumes and language of other people.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 3 Changing Traditions Long Answer Questions

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Discuss the life and teaching of Jesus.
Answer:
According to New Testament Jesus was born on 25th. December 4 B.C. He was born in Bethlehem in province of Judea. Bethlehem was a village, five miles way from Jerusalem.

His father Joseph was a poor carpenter and his mother was Virgin Mary. They lived in the village of Nazaerth near city of Galilee.

Mary had recieved a divine message that a son would be born to her who would deliver the world from its sins. They shifted from Nazareth to Bethlehem where they took shelter inside a stable. In that stable was born Jesus. Many miracles were associated with Jesus before and after he was born.

To the Jesus, these were auspicious signs that the king of kings would be born to deliver them from their sufferings. Joseph could not give proper education to his son. However, Jesus attended the synagogue and was greatly moved by the recitation of the holy scriptures by the priests.

Not much is known about his childhood Teachings of Jesus Christ teaching were primarily oral. These were delivered through the word of his mouth.

Our chief sources of information regarding these are principally five. Fistofthese are the writings of the New Testament and the Gospels. The compositions of Apocrypta constitute of second source of information.

The third source, the writing of Philo, name great help to understand the then ‘conduction of society and the attitude of the people to religion’. The writings of Josephus from our fourth source, though these appear to carry some meaning only for Pelemics. Finally comes the Old Testament.

The Jewish Portions of the Old Testament like the book of Daniel and the book of Enoch are important in that these tell us about the theories associated with the rise of prophets or messiahs.

Also they give us a clear picture as associated with the rise of prophets or messiahs. Also they give us a clear picture us frequently used, ‘son of man’ can be understood properly after reading about it from the book of Enoch.

The Gospels came to be complied during the later half of the 1 st. century A.D. These are filled with stories of miracles and supernatural elements.

The four Gospels named after the four Apostles, namely Mathew, Mark, John and Luke were not authored by then but carry the traditions that prevailed during the time of each one of them.

These Gospels historic significance. The Gospels are historic significance. The Gospel of Luke is in particular, based upon the documents of the time so it is historical. These Gospels echo the teaching of Jesus.

The teaching of Jesus were not written down and complied during his lifetime. They came to be written down into the New Testament of the Bible during 70 and 100 A.D. ‘

Jesus has ‘the words of eternal life’. He didn’t proclaim himself as the Massiah. He rejected the superistion of the Jewish faith. He believed in the one god of the early Jewish faith. The God was their father. He asked them to pray so that father’s will would be done on earth. It would them be that the kingdom would be stablished.

This divine kingdom was in the hearts of men and women. Virtues would entitle them to this kingdom, so he asked the people to develop love, faith, charity, justice, equality and humility etc. ‘Love your enemies’ the kingdom of God is come high to you’ ‘bless them that curse you’ ‘do good to ‘them that hate you’ were some of his own words.

All are equal before God. He preached for universal brotherhood. He praised truth asked people to avoid falsehood. Jesus died the death of a martyr. In his own words ‘Better the death of one man than the ruin of a people’.

He anticipated his death at hands of the pilate, so he said ‘my kingdom is not of this world’.

When he was crucified his final prayer was an appeal to God to excuse his murderers. The crucifixation took place in 33rd. year of the Christian Era. “Jesus was not a founder of dogma or a maker of a creed; he infused into the world a new spirit”.

Question 2.
Describe the life and teaching of Mohammed?
Answer:
Prophet Mohammed, the founder of Islam or Mahammedianism was born in Arabia. Arabia is a land of sandy deserts and green cases in the middle east. Its people are known as the Arabs. Arabs important towns were Mecca and Medina.

Mecca however is famous for something much more wonder than the haaba shrine of their chief God, here was born the prophet of Isam Mahammed in 570 A.D.

His father was Abdulah and mother Fatima were poor and by his sixth year Mohammed last birth. The orphan boy was brought up by grandfather Abdul Matailb and uncle Abu Talib.

This illustrate shephered boy was made to near sheep and whenever he was alone and felt inspired he would leave the sheep to graze and go to the cave to meditate all by himself.

In his youth he was chooser by a wealthy widow of Mecca named Khadija to look after her trade. He later looked after her as well after he married1 her. Soon a daughter was homed to them known as Fatima.

He was deeply influenced by the idea of one God or monotheism of the Syrian Jews. The Christianity of Palestine also influenced him.
This influence led him to the critical of the Arabs who worshipped many idols.

Often he retired to Mount Hera near Mecca and meditated. Then suddenly a realization or divine message came to him.

It was said that Archangel Gabriel was sent by God to advise Mohammed to preach the divine message the people as a prophet of God.
Mohammed founded Islam. It meant total surrender to the will of the God or Allah.

He started to convert others. But for long he could not convert any other than Khadija and Slalve Zeid as well as adopted son Ali and friend Abu. People opposed them.

Gradually other converted. The authorities of Mecca tried to punish him so he flee from Mecca to escape trial and prosecution. Medina invited Mohammed.

His flight from Mecca to Medina is known as the Hijra from these day was started the first Islamic year, to mark the down of a new era. People of Medina accepted him get converted to his faith and made him their governor.

His followers used force on other Arab tribes to convert them to Islam. He stayed in Medina for long eight years. During this time he built the first mosque after the synagogue of the Jews.

In 630A.D. the prohet of Islam became the leader in the first major among military success of Islam when his Medina ary defeated Mecca.

Mohammed entered into Mecca in a triumphant procession. He convinced and converted the inhabitants of Mecca. Soon whole Arabia came to accept him. They spread Islam far and wide. He died on 632 A.D., Holy Koran is the sacred scripture of the Mohammedans or Islametas or Muslims.

It has 114 chapters or suras. Mohammed was illiterate but he used to dictate his visions and sermons to his followers. They wrote these down and records are preserved carefully one of Mohammed’s wives in a box. This collection later known as Koran.

Teaching Islam as noted earlier means the ‘surrender to the God’. This God is Allah, the supreme and kind, the only God. They believed that God sent prophets to the earth, that Abraham and Moses had been the prophets earlier and Mohammed was the last and greatest prophet.

They believed in the final day of judgement on which the refers non Muslims will go to hell and the good Koran abiding believer will enter paradise. This last belief is directly borrowed from Jews and Christians.

Mohammed believed in tire Heaven of only physical enjoyment. Thus his idea of Heaven is different from thsoe of the Christians and the Hindus.

A true Mohammed performs five duties of his life, He should offer prayers five times a day, at fixed hours he must recite. There is not God but true god is Allah and Mohammed is his prophet. He should give alms to the poor. He must observe fasting from down to dusk during the month of Ramzan.

This is the month when Mohammed received the Words of God from Gabriel, finally life of the believer would be incomplete without at least a single pilgrimage to Mecca. Mohammed expected his followers to defend their faith even at the cost of their lives.

Question 3.
Describe about the first order of three orders society?
Answer:
Priests placed themselves in the first order, and nobles in the second. The nobility had, in reality, a central role in social processes. This is because they controlled land. This control was the outcome of a practice called ‘vassalage’.

The kings of France were linked to the people by ‘vassalage’, similar to the practice among the Germanic peoples, of whom the Franks were one. The big landowners the nobles were vassals of the king, and peasants were vassals of the landowners.

A nobleman accepted the king as his seigneur (senior) and they made a mutual promise: the seigneur/lord (lord’ was derived from a word meaning one who provided bread) would protect the vassal, who would be loyal to him. This relationship involved elaborate rituals and exchange of vows taken on the Bible in a church.

At this ceremony, the vassal received a written charter or a staff or even a clod of earth as a symbol of the land that was being given to him by his master.

The noble enjoyed a privileged status. He had absolute control over his property, in perpetuity. He could raise troops called ‘feudal levies’. The lord held his own courts of justice and could even coin his own money.

He was the lord of all the people settled on his land. He owned vast tracts of land which contained his own dwellings, his private fields and pastures and the homes and fields of his tenant-peasants. His house was called a manor.

His private lands were cultivated by peasants, who were also expected to act as foot-soldiers in battle when required, in addition to working on their own farms.

Question 4.
What are importance of church in society?
Answer:
The Catholic Church had its own laws, owned lands given to it by milers and could levy taxes. It was thus a very powerful institution which did not depend on the king. A

t the head of the western Church was the Pope. He lived in Rome. The Christians in Europe were guided by Bishops and clerics – who constituted the first ‘order’.

Most villages had their own church, where people assembled every Sunday to listen to the sermon by the priest and to pray together.

Everyone could not become a priest. Serfs were banned, as were the physically challenged. Women could not become priests. Men who became priests could not marry.

Bishops were the religious nobility. Like lords who owned vast landed estates the Bishops also had the use of vast estates, and lived in grand palaces. The Church was entitled to a tenth share of whatever the peasants produced from their land over the course of the year, called a ‘tithe’.

Money also came in the form of endowments made by the rich for their own welfare and the welfare of their deceased relatives in the afterlife.

Some of the important ceremonies conducted by the Church copied formal customs of the feudal elite. The act of kneeling while praying, with hands clasped and head bowed, was an exact replica of the way in which a knight conducted himself while taking vows of loyalty to his lord.

Similarly, the use of the term ‘lord’ for God was another example of feudal culture that found its way into the practices of the Church. Thus, the religious and the lay worlds of feudalism shared many customs and symbols.

Question 5.
Describe about the third order: Peasants, free and unfree society?
Answer:
Let us now turn to the vast majority of people, namely, those who sustained the first two orders. Cultivators were of two kinds: free peasants and serfs (from the verb to serve’)

Free peasants held their farms as tenants of the lord. The men had to render military service (at least forty days every year). Peasant families had to set aside certain days of the week, usually three but often more, when they would go to the lord’s estate and work there. The output from such labour, called labour-rent, would go directly to the lord.

In addition, they could be required to. do other unpaid labour services, like digging ditches, gathering firewood, building fences and repairing roads and buildings. Besides helping in the fields, women and children had to do other tasks. They spun thread, wove cloth, made candles and pressed grapes to prepare wine for the lord’s use.

There was one direct tax called that kings sometimes imposed on peasants (the clergy and nobles were exempted from paying this).
Serfs cultivated plots of land, but these belonged to the lord. Much of the produce from this had to be given to the lord. They also had to work on the land which belonged exclusively to the lord.

They received no wages and could not leave the estate without the lord’s permission. The lord claimed a number of monopolies at the expense of his serfs.

Serfs could use only their lord’s mill to grind their flour, his oven to bake their bread, and his wine-presses to distil wine and beer. The lord could decide whom a serf should many, or might give his blessing to the serfs choice, but on payment of a fee.

Question 6.
What were the development of science in 11th- 17th centuries?
Answer:
By the eleventh century, there is evidence of several technological changes. Instead of the basic wooden ploughs, cultivators began using heavy iron-tipped ploughs and mould-boards.

These ploughs could dig much deeper and the mould-boards turned the topsoil properly. With this the nutrients from the soil were better utilised.

The methods of harnessing animals to the plough improved. Instead of the neck- harness, the shoulder-harness came into use. This enabled animals to exert greater power.

Horses were now better shod, with iron horseshoes, which prevented foot decay. There was increased use of wind and water energy for agriculture.

More water-powered and wind-powered mills were set up all over Europe for purposes like milling com and pressing grapes.
There were also changes in land use.

The most revolutionary one was the switch from a two-field to a three-field system. In this, peasants could use a field two years out of three if they planted it with one crop in autumn and a different crop in spring a year and a half later.

That meant that farmers could break their holdings into three fields. They could plant one with wheat or rye in autumn for human consumption. The second could be used in spring to raise peas, beans and lentils for human use and oats and barley for the horses. The third field lay fallow. Each year they rotated the use among the three fields.

With these improvements, there was an almost immediate increase in the amount of food produced from each unit of land. Food availability doubled.

The greater use of plants like peas and beans meant more vegetable proteins in the diet of the average European and a better source of fodder for their animals. For cultivators, it meant better opportunities.

They could now produce more food from less land. The average size of a peasant’s farm shrank from about 100 acres to 20 to 30 acres by the thirteenth century.

Holdings which were smaller could be more efficiently cultivated and reduced the amount of labour needed, This gave the peasants time for other activities.

Some of these technological changes cost a lot of money. Peasants did not have enough money to set up watermills and windmills. Therefore the initiative was taken by the lords. But peasants were able to take the initiative in many things, such as extending arable land.

They also switched to the three-field rotation of crops, and set up small forges and smithies in the villages, where iron-tipped ploughs and horseshoes were made and repaired cheaply.

From the eleventh century, the personal bonds that had been the basis of feudalism were weakening, because economic transactions were becoming more and more money based.

Lords found it convenient to ask for rent in cash, not services, and cultivators were selling their crops for money (instead of exchanging them for other goods) to traders, who would then take such goods to be sold in the towns.

The increasing use of money began to influence prices, which became higher in times of poor harvests. In England, for instance, agricultural prices doubled between the 1270s and the 1320s.

Question 7.
Why the Europeans economic expansion slowed down?
Answer:
In Northern Europe, by the end of the thirteenth century the warm summers of the previous 300 years had given way to bitterly cold summers.

Seasons for growing crops were reduced by a month and it became difficult to grow crops on higher ground. Storms and oceanic flooding destroyed many farmsteads, which resulted in less income in taxes for governments.

The opportunities offered by favourable climatic conditions before the thirteenth century had led to large-scale reclamation of the land of forests and pastures for agriculture.

But intensive ploughing had exhausted the soil despite the practice of the three-field rotation of crops, because clearance was not accompanied by proper soil conservation.

The shortage of pasturage reduced the number of cattle. Population growth was outstripping resources and the immediate result was famine. Severe famines hit Europe between 1315 and 1317, followed in the 1320s by massive cattle deaths.

In addition, trade was hit by a severe shortage of metal money because of a shortfall in the output of silver mines in Austria and Serbia. This forced governments to reduce the silver content of the currency and to mix it with cheaper metals.

The worst was yet to come. As trade expanded in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, ships carrying goods from distant countries had started arriving in European ports. Along with the ships came rats -carrying the deadly bubonic plague infection (the Black Death’).

Western Europe, relatively isolated in earlier centuries, was hit by the epidemic between 1347 and 1350. The modern estimate of mortality in that epidemic is that 20 percent of the people of the whole of Europe died, with some places losing as much as 40 percent of the population.
As trade centres, cities were the hardest hit.

In enclosed communities like monasteries and convents, when one individual contracted the plague, it was not long before everyone did. And in almost every case, none survived.

The plague took its worst toll among infants, the young and the elderly. There were other relatively minor episodes of plague in the ,1360s and 1370s. The population of Europe, 73 million in 1300, stood reduced to 45 million in 1400.

This catastrophe, combined with the economic crisis, caused immense social dislocation. Depopulation resulted in a major shortage of labour. Serious imbalances were created between agriculture and manufacture, because there were not enough people to engage in both equally.

Prices of agricultural goods dropped as there were fewer people to buy. Wage rates increased because the demand for labour, particularly agricultural labour, rose in England by as much as 250 percent in the aftermath of the Black Death. The surviving labour force could now demand twice their earlier wages.

Question 8.
What are the political changes occured during 11th and 17th centuries?
Answer:
Developments in the political sphere paralleled social processes. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, European kings strengthened their military and financial power.

The powerful new states they created were as significant for Europe as the economic changes that were occurring. Historians have therefore called these kings ‘the new monarchs’.

Louis XI in France, Maximilian in Austria, Henry VII in England and Isabella and Ferdinand in Spain were absolutist rulers, who started the process of organising standing armies, a permanent bureaucracy and national taxation and, in Spain and Portugal, began to play a role in Europe’s expansion overseas (see Theme 8).

The most important reason for the triumph of these monarchies was the social changes which had taken place in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.

The dissolution of the feudal system of lordship and vassalage and the slow rate of economic growth had given the first opportunity to kings to increase their control over their powerful and not-so-system of feudal levies for their armies and introduced professionally trained infantry equipped with guns and siege artillery (see Theme 5) directly under their control.

The resistance of the aristocracies crumbled in the face of the firepower of the kings.

Question 9.
Describe culture, literature and art of Europe?
Answer:
From the fourteenth to the end of the seventeenth century, towns were growing in many countries of Europe. A distinct ‘urban culture’ also developed. Townspeople began to think of themselves as more ‘civilised’ than rural people. Towns particularly Florence, Venice and Rome became centres of art and learning.

Artists and writers were patronised by the rich and the aristocratic. The invention of printing at the same time made books and prints available to many people, including those living in distant towns or countries.

A sense of history also developed in Europe, and people contrasted their ‘modem’ world with the ‘ancient’ one of the Greeks and Romans.

Religion came to be seen as something which each individual should choose for himself. The church’s earth-centric belief was overturned by scientists who began to understand the solar system and new geographical knowledge overturned the Europe-centric view that the Mediterranean Sea was the centre of the world.

There is a vast amount of material on European history from the fourteenth century – documents, printed books, paintings, sculptures, buildings, textiles. Much of this has been carefully preserved in archives, art galleries and museums in Europe and America.

From the nineteenth century historians used the tenn ‘Renaissance’ (literally, rebirth) to describe the cultural changes of this period.

The historian who emphasised these most was a Swiss scholar Jacob Burckhardt (1818-97) of the University of Basle in Switzerland. He was a student of the German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886), Ranke had taught him that the primary concern of the historian was to write about states and politics using papers and files of government departments.

Burckhardt was dissatisfied with these very limited goals that his master had set out for him. To him politics was not the be-all and end-all in history writing, History was as much concerned with culture as with politics.

In 1860, he wrote a book called The Civilisation of the Renaissance in italti in which he called his readers’ attention to literature, architecture and painting to tell the story of how a new ‘humanist’ culture had flowered in Italian towns from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century.

This culture, he wrote, was characterised by a new belief – that man, as an individual, was capable of making his own decisions and developing his skills. He was ‘modern’, in contrast to ‘medieval’ man whose thinking had been controlled by the church.

Question 10.
Describe about the education of Europe.
Answer:
The earliest universities in Europe had been set up in Italian towns. The universities of Padua and Bologna had been centres of legal studies from the eleventh century.

Commerce being the chief activity in the city, there was an increasing demand for lawyers and notaries (a combination of solicitor and record-keeper) to write and interpret rules and written agreements without which trade on a large scale was not possible.

Law was therefore a popular subject of study, but there was now a shift in emphasis. It was studied in the context of earlier Roman culture.
Francesco Petrarch (1304-78) represented this change.

To Petrarch, antiquity was a distinctive civilisation which could be best understood through the actual words of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

He therefore stressed the importance of a close reading of ancient authors. This educational programme implied that there was much to be learnt which religious teaching alone could not give. This was the culture which historians in the nineteenth century were to label ‘humanism’.

By the early fifteenth century, the term ‘humanist’ was used for masters who taught grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy. The, Latin word humanitas, from which ‘humanities’ was derived, had been used many centuries ago by the Roman lawyer and essayist Cicero (106-43 BCE), a contemporary of Julius Caesar, to mean culture.

These subjects were not drawn from or connected with religion, and emphasised skills developed by individuals through discussion and debate.

These revolutionary ideas attracted attention in many other universities, particularly in the newly established university in Petrarchis own hometown of Florence. Till the end of the thirteenth century, this city had not made a mark as a centre of trade or of learning, but things changed dramatically in the fifteenth century.

A city is known by its great citizens as much as by its wealth and Florence had come to be known because of Dante Alighieri (1265¬1321), a layman who wrote on religious themes, and Giotto (1267-1337), an artist who painted lifelike portraits, very different from the stiff figures done by earlier artists. From then it developed as the most exciting intellectual city in Italy and as a centre of artistic creativity.

The term ‘Renaissance Man’ is often used to describe a person with many interests and skills, because many of the individuals who became well known at this time were people of many parts. They were scholar-diplomat- theologian-artist combined in one.

Question 11.
Describe about the Artists and Realism of Europe?
Answer:

Formal education was not the only way through which humanists shaped the minds of their age. Art, architecture and books were wonderfully effective in transmitting humanist ideas.

Artists were inspired by studying works of the past. The material remains of Roman culture were sought with as much excitement as ancient texts: a thousand years after the fall of Rome, fragments of art were discovered in the ruins of ancient Rome and other deserted cities.

Their admiration for the figures of ‘perfectly’ proportioned men and women sculpted so many centuries ago, made Italian sculptors want to continue that tradition. In 1416, Donatello (1386-1466) broke new ground with his lifelike statues.

Artists’ concern to be accurate was helped by the work of scientists. To study bone structures, artists went to the laboratories of medical schools. Andreas Vesalius (1514-64), a Belgian and a Professor of Medicine at the University of Padua, was the first to dissect the human body. This was the beginning of modem physiology.

Painters did not have older works to use as a model. But they, like sculptors, painted as realistically as possible. They found that a knowledge of geometry helped them understand perspective and that by noting the changing quality of light, their pictures acquired a three-dimensional quality.

The use of oil as a medium for painting also gave a greater richness of colour to paintings than before. In the colours and designs of costumes in many paintings, there is evidence of the influence of Chinese and Persian art, made available to them by the Mongols.

Thus, anatomy, geometry, physics, as well as a strong sense of what was beautiful, gave a new quality to Italian art, which was to be called ‘realism’ and which continued till the nineteenth century.

Question 12.
What is the Copernican Revolution? Discuss.
Answer:
The Christian notion of man as a sinner was questioned from an entirely different angle – by scientists. The turning point in European science came with the work of Copernicus (1473-1543), a contemporary of Martin Luther. Christians had believed that the earth was a sinful place and the heavy burden of sin made it immobile.

The earth stood at the centre of the universe around which moved the celestial planets. Copernicus asserted that the planets, including the earth, rotate around the sun. A devout Christian, Copernicus was afraid of the possible reaction to his theory by traditionalist clergymen.

For this reason, he did not want his manuscript, De revolutionibus (The Rotation) to be printed. On his deathbed, he gave it to his follower, Joachim Rheticus. It took time for people to accept this idea.

It was much later – more than half a century later, in fact – that the difference between ‘heaven’ and earth was bridged through the writings of astronomers like Johannes Kepler (1571¬1630) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642).

The theory of the earth as part of a sun-centred system was made popular by Kepler’s Cosmographical Mystery, which demonstrated that the planets move around the sun not in circles but in ellipses.

Galileo confirmed the notion of the dynamic world in his work 7he Motion. This revolution in science reached its climax with Isaac Newton’s theory of gravitation.

Galileo once remarked that the Bible that lights the roads to heaven does not say much on how the heavens work. The work of these thinkers showed that knowledge, as distinct from belief was based on observation and experiments.

Once these scientists had shown the way, experiments and investigations into what came to be called physics, chemistry and biology expanded rapidly.

Historians were to label this new approach to the knowledge of man and nature the Scientific Revolution. Consequently, in the minds of sceptics and non-believers, God began to be replaced by Nature as die source of creation.

Even those who retained their faith in God started talking about a distant God who does not directly regulate the act of living in the material world.

Such ideas were popularised through scientific societies that established a new scientific culture in the public domain. The Paris Academy, established in 1670 and the Royal Society in London for the promotion of natural knowledge, formed in 1662, held lectures and conducted experiments for public viewing.

Question 13.
Was there a European ‘Renaissance’ in the fourteenth century? Discuss.
Answer:
Let us now reconsider the concept ‘ of the ‘Renaissance’. Can we see this period as marking a sharp break with the past and the rebirth of ideas from Greek and Roman traditions? Was the earlier period (twelfth and thirteenth centuries) a time of darkness?

Recent writers, like Peter Burke of England, have suggested that Burckhardt was exaggerating the sharp difference between this ‘ period and the one that preceded it, by using the term ‘Renaissance’, which implies that the Greek and Roman civilisations were reborn at this time and that scholars and artists of this period substituted the pre-Christian world¬view for the Christian one. Both arguments were exaggerated.

Scholars in earlier centuries had been familiar with Greek and Roman cultures and religion continued to be a very important part of people’s lives. To contrast the Renaissance as a period of dynamism and artistic creativity and the Middle Ages as a period of gloom and lack of development is an over-simplification.

Many elements associated with the Renaissance in Italy can be traced back to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It has been suggested by some historians that in the ninth century in France, there had been similar literary and artistic blossoming.

The cultural changes in Europe at this time were not shaped only by the ‘classical’ civilisation of Rome and Greece. The archaeological and literary recovery of Roman culture did create a great admiration of that civilisation. But technologies and skills in Asia had moved far ahead of what the Greeks and Romans had known.

Much more of the world had become connected and the new techniques of navigation enabled people to sail much further than had been possible earlier. The expansion of Islam and the Mongol conquests had linked Asia and North Africa with Europe, not politically but in terms of trade and of learning skills.

The Europeans learned not just from the Greeks and Romans, but from India, Arabia, Iran, Central Asia, and China. These debts were not acknowledged for a long time because when the history of this period started to be written, historians saw it from a Europe-centred viewpoint.

An important change that did happen in this period was that gradually the ‘private’ and the ‘public’ spheres of life began to become separate: the ‘public’ sphere meant the area of government and of formal religion; the ‘private’ sphere included the family and personal religion. The individual had a private as well as a public role.

He was not simply a member of one of the ‘three orders’; he was also a person in his own right. An artist was not just a member of a guild, he was known for himself. In the eighteenth century, this sense of the individual would be expressed in a political form, in the belief that all individuals had equal political rights.

Another development was that the different regions of Europe started to have their separate sense of identity, based on language. Europe, earlier united partly by the Roman Empire and later by Latin and Christianity, was now dissolving into states, each united by a common language.

Question 14.
Explain the civilization of Aztecs?
Answer:
In the twelfth century, the Aztecs had migrated from the north into the central valley of Mexico (named after their god Mexitli). They expanded their empire by defeating different tribes, who were forced to pay tribute. Aztec society was hierarchical. The nobility included those who were nobles by birth, priests, and others who had been awarded the rank.

The hereditary nobility were a small minority who occupied the senior positions in the .government, the and the priesthood. The nobles chose from among them a supreme leader who ruled until his death. The king was regarded as the representative of the sun on earth.

Warriors, priests and nobles were the most respected groups, but traders also enjoyed many privileges and often served the government as ambassadors and spies. Talented artisans, physicians and wise teachers were also respected.

Since land Was limited, the Aztecs undertook reclamations. They made chinampas, artificial islands, in Lake Mexico, by weaving huge reed mats and covering them with mud and plants. Between these exceptionally fertile islands, canals were constructed on which, in 1325, was built the capital city Tenochtitlan.

Its palaces and pyramids rose dramatically out of the lake. Because the Aztecs were frequently engaged in war, the most impressive temples were dedicated to the gods of war and the sun.

The empire rested on a rural base. People cultivated corn, beans, squash, pumpkins, manioc root, potatoes and other crops. Land was owned not by individuals but by clans, which, also organised public construction works, Peasants, like European serfs, were attached to lands owned by the nobility and cultivated them in exchange for part of the harvest.

The poor would sometimes sell their children as slaves, but this was usually only for a limited period and slaves could buy back their freedom.
The Aztecs made sure that all children went to school. Children of the nobility attended the calmecac and were trained to become military and religious leaders.

All others went to the tepochcalli in their neighborhood, where they learned history, myths, religion and ceremonial songs. Boys received military training as well as training in agriculture and the trades. Girls were trained in domestic skills.

In the early sixteenth century, the Aztec empire was showing signs of strain. This was largely to do with discontent among recently conquered peoples who were looking for opportunities to break free from central control.

Question 15.
Describe the civilization of the Mayas.
Answer:
The Mayan culture of Mexico developed remarkably between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries, but in the sixteenth century they had less political power than the Aztecs. Com cultivation was central to their culture, and many religious ceremonies were centred on the planting, growing and harvesting of com.

Efficient agricultural production generated surplus, which helped the ruling classes, priests and chiefs to invest in architecture and in the development of astronomy and mathematics. The Mayas devised a pictographic form of writing that has only been partially deciphered.

Question 16.
What was the largest civilization in the South America. Discuss.
Answer:
The largest of the indigenous civilisations in South America was that of the Quechuas or Incas in Peru. In the twelfth century the first Inca, Manco Capac, established his capital at Cuzco. Expansion began under the ninth Inca and at its maximum extent the Inca empire stretched 3,000 miles from Ecuador to Chile.

The empire was highly centralised, with the king representing the highest source of authority. Newly conquered tribes were absorbed effectively; every subject was required to speak Quechua, the language of the court. Each tribe was ruled independently by a council of elders, but the tribe as a whole owed its allegiance to the ruler.

At the same time, local rulers were rewarded for their military cooperation. Thus, like the Aztec empire, the Inca empire resembled a confederacy, with the Incas in control. There are no precise figures of the population, but it would seem that it included over a million people.
Like the Aztecs, the Incas too were magnificent builders.

They built roads through mountains from Ecuador to Chile. Their forts were built of stone slabs that were so perfectly cut that they did not require mortar. They used labour-intensive technology to carve and move stones from nearby rock falls. Masons shaped the blocks, using an effective but simple method called flaking.

Many stones weighed more than 100 metric tons, but they did not have any wheeled vehicles to transport these. Labour was organised and very tightly managed. The basis of the Inca civilisation was agriculture. To cope with the infertile soil conditions, they terraced hillsides and developed systems of drainage and irrigation.

It has been recently pointed out that in 1500, cultivation in the Andean highlands was much greater than what it is today, The Incas grew com and potatoes and reared llamas for food and labour.

Their weaving and pottery were of a high quality. They did not develop a system of writing. However, there was an accounting system in place – the quipu, or cords upon which knots were made to indicate specific mathematical units. Some scholars now suggest that the Incas wove a sort of code into these threads.

The organisation of the Inca empire, with its pyramid-like structure, meant that if the Inca chief was captured, the chain of command could quickly come apart. This was precisely what happened when the Spaniards decided to invade their country. The cultures of the Aztecs and Incas had certain features in common, different from European culture.

Society was were very hierarchical, but there was no private ownership of resources by a few people, as in Europe. Though priests and shamans were accorded an exalted status, and large temples were built, in which gold was used ritually, there was no great value placed on gold or silver. This was also in marked contrast to contemporary European society.

Question 17.
Discuss the voyages of exploration by Europeans.
Answer:
The people of South America and the Caribbean got to know of the existence of European people when the latter began to sail across the Atlantic Sea. The magnetic compass, which helped identify the cardinal points accurately, had been known since 1380, but only in the fifteenth century did people use it when they ventured on voyages into unknown areas.

By this time many improvements had been made in European sailing ships. Larger ships were built, that could carry a huge quantity of cargo as well as equipment to defend themselves if attacked by enemy ships.

The circulation of travel literature and books on cosmography and geography created widespread interest right through the fifteenth century.

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was a self-taught man who sought adventure and glory. Believing in prophecies, he was convinced that his destiny lay in discovering a route to the East (the ‘Indies’) by sailing westwards.

He was inspired by reading Imago Mundi (a work on astronomy and geography) by Cardinal Pierre d’Ailly written in 1410. He submitted his plans to the Portuguese Crown, only to have them turned down. He had better luck with the Spanish authorities who sanctioned a modest expedition that set sail from the port of Palos on 3 August 1492.

Nothing, however, prepared Columbus and his crew for the long Atlantic crossing that they embarked upon, or for the destination that awaited them. The fleet was small, consisting of a small nao called Santa Maria, and two caravels (small light ships) named Pinta and Nina.

Columbus himself commanded the Santa Maria along with 40 capable sailors. The outward journey enjoyed fair trade winds but was long. For 33 days, the fleet sailed without sight of anything but sea and sky. By this time, the crew became restive and some of them demanded that they turn back.

On 12 October 1492, they sighted land; they had reached what Columbus thought was India, but which was the island of Guanahani in the Bahamas. (It is said that this name was given by Columbus, who described the Islands as surrounded by shallow seas, Baja mar in Spanish.)

They were welcomed by the Arawaks, who were happy to share their food and provisions; in fact, their generosity made a deep impression upon Columbus.

As he wrote in his log-book, They are so ingenuous and free with all they have, that no one would believe it who has not seen of it, anything they possess, if it be asked of them, they never say no, on the contrary, they invite you to share it and show as much love as if their hearts went with it.

Columbus planted a Spanish flag in Guanahani (which he renamed San Salvador), held a prayer service and, without consulting the local people, proclaimed himself viceroy.

He enlisted their cooperation in pressing forward to the larger islands of Cubanscan (Cuba, which he thought was Japan!) and Kiskeya (renamed Hispaniola, today divided between two countries, Haiti and the Dominican Republic).

Gold was not immediately available, but the explorers had heard that it could be found in Hispaniola, in the mountain streams in the interior.
But before they could get very far, the expedition was overtaken by accidents and had to face the hostility of the fierce Carib tribes. The men clamoured to get back home.

The return voyage proved more difficult as the ships were worm-eaten and the crew tired and homesick. The entire voyage took 32 weeks. Three more voyages followed, in the course of which Columbus completed his explorations in the Bahamas and the Greater Antilles, the South American mainland and its coast.

Subsequent voyages revealed that it was not the ‘Indies’ that the Spaniards had found, but a new continent. Columbus’s achievement had been to discover the boundaries of what seemed like infinite seas and to demonstrate that five weeks’ sailing with the trade wind took one to the other side of the globe.

Since places are often given the names of individuals, it is curious that Columbus is commemorated only in a small district in the USA and in a country in northwestern South America (Columbia), though he did not reach either of these areas.

The two continents were named after Amerigo Vespucci, a geographer from Florence who realised how large they might be, and described them as the ‘New World’. The name ‘America’ was first used by a German publisher in 1507.

Abstract

We have seen how, by the ninth century, large parts of Asia and America witnessed the growth and expansion of great empires – some nomadic, some based on 1 -developed cities and trading networks that centred on them.

The difference between the Macedonian, Roman and Arab empires and the ones that preceded them (the Egyptian, Assyrian, Chinese, Mauryan) was that they covered greater areas of territory and were continental or transfer continental in nature.

The Mongol empire was similar. Different cultural encounters were crucial to what took place. The arrival of empires was almost always sudden, but they were almost always the result of changes that had been taking place over a long time in the core of what would become an empire.

Traditions in world history could change in different ways. In western Europe during the period from the ninth to the seventeenth century, much that we connect with modem times evolved slowly the development of scientific knowledge based on experiment rather than religious belief, serious thought about the organisation of government, with attention to the creation of civil services, parliaments and different codes of law, improvements in technology that was used in industry and agriculture.

The consequences of these changes could be felt with great force outside Europe. As we have seen, by the fifth century CE, the Roman Empire in the west had disintegrated.

In western and central Europe, the remains of the Roman Empire were slowly adapted to the administrative requirements and needs of tribes that had established kingdoms there. However, urban centres were smaller in western Europe than further east.

By the ninth century, the commercial and urban centres, Aix, London, Rome, Sienna – though small, could not be dismissed. From the ninth to the eleventh centuries, there were major developments in the countryside in western Europe. The Church and royal government developed a combination of Roman institutions with the customary rules of tribes.

The finest example was the empire of Charlemagne in western and central Europe at the beginning of the ninth century. Even after; its rapid collapse, urban centres and trading networks persisted, albeit under heavy attack from Hungarians, Vikings and others. What happened was called ‘feudalism’.

Feudalism was marked by agricultural production around castles and ‘manor houses’, where lords of the manor possessed land that was cultivated by peasants (serfs) who pledged them loyalty, goods and services.

These lordis in turn pledged their loyalty to greater lords who were ‘vassals’ of kings. The Catholic Church (centred on the papacy) supported this state of affairs and itself possessed land.

In a world where uncertainties of life, poor sense of medicine and low life expectancy were common, the Church showed people how to behave so that life after death at least would be tolerable Monasteries were created where God-fearing people could devote themselves to the service of God in the way Catholic churchmen thought fit.

Equally, churches were part of a network of scholarship that ran from the Muslim states of Spain to Byzantium and they provided the petty kings of Europe with a sense of the opulence of the eastern Mediterranean and beyond.

The influence of commerce and towns in the feudal order came to evolve and change encouraged by Mediterranean entrepreneurs in Venice and Genoa (from the twelfth century).

Their ships carried on a growing trade with Muslim states and the remains of the Roman Empire in the east. Attracted by the lure of wealth in these areas, and inspired by the idea of freeing ‘holy places’ associated with Christ from Muslims, European kings reinforced links across the Mediterranean during the ‘crusades’.

Trade within Europe improved (centred on fairs and the port cities of the Baltic Sea and the North Sea and stimulated by a growing population). Opportunities for commercial expansion coincided with changing attitudes concerning the value of life.

Respect for human beings and living things that marked much of Islamic art and literature, and the example of Greek art and ideas that came to Europe from Byzantine trade encouraged Europeans to take a new look at the world.

And from the fourteenth century (in what is called the ‘Renaissance’), especially in north Italian towns, the wealthy became less concerned with life after death and more with the wonders of life itself. Sculptors, painters and writers became interested in humanity and the discovery of the world.

By the end of the fifteenth century, this state of affairs encouraged travel and discovery as never before. Voyages of discovery took place. Spaniards and Portuguese, who had traded with northern Africa, pushed further down the coast of western Africa, finally leading to journeys
around the Cape of Good Hope to India which had a great reputation in Europe as a source of spices that were in great demand.

Columbus attempted to find a western route to India and in 1492 reached the islands which the Europeans called the West Indies. Other explorers tried to ’ find a northern route to India and China via the Arctic.

European travellers encountered a range of different peoples in the course of their journeys. In part, they were interested in learning from them.

The papacy encouraged the work of the North African geographer and traveller Hasan al-Wazzan (later known in Europe as Leo Africanus), who wrote the first geography of Africa in the early sixteenth century for Pope Leo X.

Jesuit churchmen observed and wrote on Japan in the sixteenth century. An Englishman Will Adams became a friend and counsellor of the Japanese Shogun, Tokugawa Ieyasu, in the early seventeenth century.

As in the case of Hasan al-Wazzan, peoples that the Europeans encountered in the Americas often took a great interest in them and sometimes worked for them.

For example an Aztec woman – later known as Dona Marina – befriended the Spanish conqueror of Mexico, Cortes, and interpreted and negotiated for him.

In their encounters, Europeans were sometimes cautious, self-effacing and observant, even as they frequently attempted to establish trade monopolies and enforce their authority by force of arms as the Portuguese attempted to do in the Indian Ocean after Vasco da Gama’s arrival in Calicut (present-day Kozhikode) in 1498.

In other cases, they were overbearing, aggressive and cruel and adopted an attitude of superiority to those they met, considering such people ignorant. The Catholic Church encouraged both attitudes.

The Church was the centre for the study of other cultures and languages, but encouraged attacks on people it saw as ‘un-Christian.

From the point of view of non-Europeans, the encounter with Europe varied. For much of the Islamic lands and India and China, though, Europeans remained a curiosity until the end of the seventeenth centuiy. They were perceived as hardy traders and seamen who had little to contribute to their sense of the larger world.

The Japanese learnt some of the advantages of European technology quickly-for instance, they had begun large-scale production of muskets by the late sixteenth century. In the Americas, enemies of the Aztec empire sometimes used Europeans to challenge the power of the Aztecs.

At the same time the diseases the Europeans brought devastated the populations, leading to the death of over 90 percent of the people in some areas by the end of the sixteenth century.

An Introduction to Feudalism
The term ‘feudalism’ has been used by historians to describe the economic, legal, political and social relationships that existed in Europe in the medieval era.

Derived from the German and word ‘feud’, which means ‘a place of land’, it refers to the kind of society that developed in medieval France, and later in England and in Southern Italy.

In an economic sense, feudalism refers to a kind of agricultural production which is based on the relationship between lords and peasants. The latter cultivated their own land as well as that of the lord. The peasants performed labour services for the lords, who in exchange provided military protection.

They also had extensive judicial control over peasants. Thus, feudalism went beyond the economic to cover the social and political aspects of life as well.

Although its roots have been traced to practices that existed in the Roman Empire and during the age of the French king Charlemagne (742 – 814), feudalism as an established way of life in large parts of Europe may be said to have emerged later, in the eleventh century.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 5 Short Answer Questions

Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Why it is said, Industrialization gave birth to “imperialism”?
Answer:
Industrialization gave birth to imperialism. This is on the nature of the effect of the industrial revolution among the developed nations. As industrialization grew, there also grew keen competition among these advanced countries for finding more raw material abroad and finding more markets for their fences products. Pure economic greed lay at the root of it all. Thus industrialization led to commercialism, colonialism to imperialism. Imperialism to militarism and finally to war.

Question 2.
What is a balance of power?
Answer:
The countries of Europe had agreed upon the balance of power. It meant that no country would be allowed to grow stronger than others. Napoleon was defeated only by a coalition of European powers because France was stronger than any of them. Thus they adopted in 1815 that no single country would be allowed to grow stronger than others.

Question 3.
Who are the big powers of Europe?
Answer:
The big powers of Europe were Britain, Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Italy.

Question 4.
What are the factors which lead to World War-I?
Answer:
The factors that led to war were aggressive nationalism, the intense race for colonization, a mad arms race, the formation of the military alliance, an international crisis, and the absence of an international organization to show the path of sanity.

Question 5.
Who formed the Triple Entente and Triple Alliance?
Answer:
Austria, Germany, and Italy formed Tripple Alliance while France, Russia, and England formed Tripple Entente.

Question 6.
Why Austria declared war against Serbia?
Answer:
Serbia refused to accept the request given by Austria, it declared war upon Serbia. When Russia lent support to Serbia other powers turned toward their respective allies.

Question 7.
Who established socialism and how?
Answer:
The Second or Bolshevik Resolution adopted the ideas of Karl Marx and Dr. Friedrich Engles. These two German geniuses developed their idea of socialism during the days of the Industrial Revolution in Europe.

Question 8.
What is February and October Revolution?
Answer:
Russian Revolution was known as February or October Revolution because the Russian calendar that day was normally thirteen days behind the international calendar. The Russians called these two revolutions of March 1917 and November 1917 as “February” and “October” revolutions because as per their calendar they occurred in the last week of February and October respectively.

Question 9.
What is the Great October Revolution?
Answer:
The Russian Revolution broke out in its second phase in November 1917 and as per the Russian calendar, it was in October in Russia so it is called the great October Revolution.

Question 10.
How the problem of land was a cause of the October Revolution?
Answer:
Peasants had been freed from their bondage to the landlords since 1861. They were unhappy because they were not allowed to own any land and had to also pay a heavy amount as the price for their liberty. Inspired by the poem of Nekrasov, they believed that tillers of the soil must become the owners of the land, which caused the October Revolution.

Question 11.
Who is Lenin?
Answer:
Lenin’s real name was Vladimir Hyich Ulyanov. He was born in 1870 in a middle-class family. While studying law, he was drawn to Marxism.

Question 12.
Why have people lost faith in Czar?
Answer:
After losing the Crimean War and Russo-Japanese War, people in generally lost faith in the Czar.

Question 13.
Which are three periods of the new world order.
Answer:
20th. century would reveal three distinct phases. The first beginning -from 1900AD to 1945 could rightly be classified as the period of the world wars, and the second extending from 1945 -1991 till the dissolution of the Soviet Union is the crucial phase of the 20th century and it is the period of the Cold War. The thirst spanning from 1991 and moving on into the 21st. century is the period of the World Trade Organisation.

Question 14.
When World War – II broke out? Describe events leading to war.
Answer:
World War II broke but in September 1939. A chain of events followed in quick succession after the First World War and all such events led to the outbreak of the Second World War.

Question 15.
What are the main causes of the Second World War?
Answer:
The cause is the failure of the Treaty of Versailles, the rise of fascism and Nazism, the growth of Militarism in Japan, and the French search for security. The rise of communism and its propaganda machinery, the failure of the League of Nations, and the formation of military alliances were all cataclysmic events that paved the path for the outbreak of war.

Question 16.
What is the impact of the Treaty of Versailles?
Answer:
The Treaty of Versailles deprived Germany of its industrial wealth. Its colonial empire broke its military and naval strength. The German General staff was disbanded and its ammunition industry was dismantled. It resulted in inflation unemployment and an acute shortage of food.

Question 17.
How did Italy fight against the consequences of the First World War?
Answer:
The new leadership under Benito Mussolini and his Fascist Party took charge. He propagated the idea that war was inevitable for achieving power.

Question 18.
What is NATO?
Answer:
NATO is North Atlantic Treaty organization. On April 4, 1949, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United States created NATO.

Question 19.
What is the difference between LON and UNO?
Answer:
LON is the League of nations and UNO is United National Organisations. UNO borrowed heavily from its predecessor the League of Nations had certain characteristics which differentiated it from the league. League in actuality since lacked to be a truly international character.

Question 20.
How UNO was formed?
Answer:
The organization has been framed by an international agreement known as the ‘charter’ of the United Nations and the maker of the UN charter, were basically the representatives of the victorious power of the Second World War.

Question 21.
What is the structure of the United Nations?
Answer:
The charter of the United Nation provides for six principal organs. These are

• The General Assembly
• The Security Council
• The Economic and Social Council
• The Trusteeship Council
• The Secretariat
• The International Court of Justice.

Question 22.
What is the composition of the General Assembly?
Answer:
The General Assembly has the states as its members, and all member nations are equally represented in this organ. Each member state is entitled to send 5 representatives and 5 alternate representatives. Irrespective of the number of its delegates present in the General Assembly, each member country is entitled to one vote only.

Question 23.
Explain the jurisdiction of the General Assembly.
Answer:
General Assembly can discuss any issue affecting international peace and security, it cannot discuss any matter falling within the domestic jurisdiction of any member state. Since the General Assembly is not a world parliament, its decisions are not obligatory but only recommendatory in character. Members states are free to accept or reject the decisions of the General Assembly.

Question 24.
What is the role of the Security Council in UNO?
Answer:
The Security Council functions as the executive wing of the UNO as long as there is unanimity among the Big Five. This organ can function very effectively and efficiently. Article – 7 of the charter states that the Security Council like the General Assembly is a primary organ of UNO.

Question 25.
Write four functions of the Security Council.
Answer:

• To maintain international peace and security.
• To investigate any dispute which might lead to international friction.
• To take military action against the aggressor.
• To recommend the admission of new members.

Question 26.
What is ECOSOC?
Answer:
It is a primary organ of the UN and works under the direct supervision of the General Assembly. It consists of 54 members.

Question 27.
Write the seven functional commissions of ECOSOC.
Answer:
The seven functional commissions are:
1) The Statistical Commission
2)Population Commission
3) Commission for Social Development
4) Commission on Human Rights
5) Commission on the Status of Women
6) Commission on Narcotic Drugs
7) Commission on Commodity Trade

Question 28.
What is Trusteeship Council?
Answer:
Trusteeship Council shall be a primary organ of the United Nations. But like ECOSOC the trusteeship council does not have an independent jurisdiction. It is directly subordinated to two other primary organs like

Question 29.
How many types of trust territories are there in Council?
Answer:
There are two types of trust territories
(1) Strategic Trust Territory
(2) Non- Strategic Trust Territory.

Question 30.
Write the four objectives of the Trusteeship council.
Answer:
They are:

1. To further international peace and security.
2. To promote political, economic, social, and educational advancement.
3. To promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedom for all people.
4. To provide equal treatment to all countries.

Question 31.
Explain the three factors on which Trusteeship Council is based.
Answer:
The composition of the Trusteeship Council is based on three factors:

• All the administering powers are to be represented on the Trusteeship Council
• All the permanent members of the Security Council who are not administering powers are also to be represented on the Trusteeship Council.
• The elective members of the Trusteeship Council are

Question 32.
What is the International Court of Justice?
Answer:
Article – 38 of the Permanent Court of International Justice of the League of Nations is an amended form that became Article 38 of the statute of the International Court of Justice of the United Nations. It is UNO’s principal judicial organ and is also designated as one of its primary organs.

Question 33.
What is the composition of the International Court of Justice?
Answer:
The Court consists of fifteen judges, elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council legal luminaries from all over the world are chosen to be represented on this body and basically, judges to the ICJ are chosen on the basis of their qualifications, not on the basis of their nationality. All principal and civilized legal systems of the world are represented in the Court. No two judges can be nationals of the same state.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 5 Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
When the First World War began and what are its causes?
Answer:
The First World War began in 1914. It ended in 1918. As a war it is unique. It was a war that made all regions of the world take part in it, either directly or indirectly. A century before it, the great wars of Napoleon’s time were limited only to Europe. In other words, before 1914, wars were regional or confined to a continent. But the First World War was a war in which all continents fought on behalf of any one of the two main groups of nations.

Thus, Winston Churchill says, “the great war differed from all previous wars.” The world fought this war for 1565 days from 28 June 1914 to 11 November 1918. Major General Taylor, in his book “History of Modem Wars” describes this war as the bloodiest and the costliest, till 1938.
More than 13 million people died and over 15 million were wounded out of whom 7 million were rendered invalid for the rest of their lives.

These figures are more than twice the total of all wars from 1790 to 1913 taken together. The soldiers killed in the war molded into the soil, and the common people, the civilians, suffered from miseries of starvation, epidemics, massacres, raids, and diseases. The birth rate of many nations came to be affected. The economic losses of a modem war are incalculable.

Speaking of the First World War, Lipson says, “a modem war is fought on two fronts the fighting front and the home front.” Because of the incalculable economic losses in a modem war, “in an economic sense, there are no victors (of a war).” However, according to One account, the world lost 270 billion dollars as a result of the First World War. This great war had no precedent, and it produced a new out¬look to war as an institution.

Causes of the First World War (1914-1918):
The First World War was the first great war of its kind. It involved the big powers and their colonies; as such it was a global war such a great war was bound to have a number of causes at the root of its outbreak. No single cause, however important, could alone have produced such a war. Multiple causes lay behind the outbreak of the First World War.

Aggressive Nationalism :
The first cause of this great war was aggressive nationalism. The French Revolution (1789) had given a new emphasis to nationalism. It came to promote the ideas of nationalism in all countries in general and in Poland, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands in particular. That is why Edmund Burke came to describe the 19th century as the ‘age of nationalism.

During the hundred years from the defeat of Napoleon till the outbreak of the First World War, not only the people in all countries wanted to strengthen their nations but also a sense of national pride led them to work out ways and means for making their nation stronger than other nations.

Industrial Competition:
The second cause of the First World War was the economic competition among the nations as a result of the industrial revolution. It is said, ‘‘Industrialisation gave birth to imperialism.” This is explained by the nature of the effect of the industrial revolution among tile developed nations. As industrialization grew, there also grew keen competition among these advanced countries for finding more raw – materials abroad and finding more markets for their finished products.

Pure economic greed lay at t root of it all. Britain, France, Germany, Spain, and Portugal came to be engaged n a cut-throat competition in Asia and Africa for this purpose. Thus industrialization led to commercialism, commercialism to colonialism, colonialism to imperialism, imperialism to militarism, and finally to war.

Commercial Competition :
Commercialism became the natural cause of the Great War. The primary of every commercial nation was to find out new markets and monopolize those markets for individual purposes. Production of industrial goods must be matched by more sales of those so as to bring more profit and more production.

Thus, to increase sales, new markets were necessary. The more the markets, the more the sale and so, so profit. The British did the same in India, and the European powers and Japan did it to China by the end of the 19th century. There were no accepted rules for international commerce and business was the business of the powers.

Sometimes the interests of one came in conflict with that of another. For example, in Morocco in 1906, there was almost a war between Germany on the one hand and Britain and France on the other. War might have been avoided in such cases, but the relationships grew bitter. This made a final show-down among the rivals almost certain. The First World War came as a climax to this international bitterness.

Colonial Rivalries :
One way of relief from this bitterness was to establish one’s own colonies for oneself. A colony would be only under the ‘mother country’ to whom alone it would give its raw- materials and from whom it would purchase the finished products. Regions in Asia, Africa, and South America came to see competition among these powers for colonization.

Examples of colonial rivalries were many, but the most outstanding ones were Japan’s conflict with the USA and Russia in China, Austro-German rivalry with Russia in the Balkans and Central Europe, and Anglo-German enmity arising out of naval competition and armament. Thus, international friendship and rivalries were already determined, before 1914, out of economic interests.

Imperialist Competition:
Naturally, colonialism led to imperialism, resulting in wars, sometimes small but finally the big one in 1914. The two centuries before the First World War had seen the powerful European countries establishing vast overseas empires for themselves. During the 19th century, in particular, these imperialist countries fought for more colonies.

Just as India was the colonial ‘Jewel’ in the British Crown, so every country including Germany after 1871 wanted to establish colonies or to acquire more colonies. Imperialism stands for power, strength, and forceful domination. In this game of ‘might is right’, there are no rules or referees.

Question 2.
Short Notes on.
Militarism and race for armaments :
Conquest by force was the order of the day during the forty years before the Great War. So militarism was the result of this process. Victory is possible through better and superior military power. The race for armaments began among all. Each power wanted to have the latest, the best, and the most lethal weapons. Advancements in scientific research brought many new, though inhuman, weapons, without better arms, victory is impossible in modem wars.

The race for armaments was a never-ending process. A minor spark in this race was bound to bring in conflagrations; a minor conflict might end up in a major war. Thus, aggressive nationalism, industrial competition, commercial rivalries, colonial competition, imperialism, and militarism made the First World War inevitable. The basic causes were translated to actual war by the following practical causes.

Power Politics:
The big powers of Europe were Britain, Germany, France,- Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Italy. They all looked upon one another with suspicion as all of them were engaged in the competition for more power. The rise of two non-European powers, the USA and Japan, also came to add to this struggle for power.

Thus the relations of nations came to be determined along two lines, namely, the power-politics relationship and the convenient-cooperation relationship. In the former, a friend of a friend and the enemy of an enemy was regarded as friends; the friend of an enemy and the enemy of a friend were enemies. Inconvenient cooperation relationship, two or more countries come together as long as this helped both sides.

The Russain-German friendship till 1882 and the Anglo-Japanese alliance till the war can be cited as two of the many such friendships of the period. This was the game of politics or power politics. Also, in this struggle for power, no country was sure of victory over its enemy in a war, because of the ‘balance of power’.

Balance of Power :
Since the Congress of Vienna, the countries of Europe had agreed upon a ‘balance of power’. It meant that no country would be allowed to grow stronger than others. Napoleon was defeated only by a coalition of European powers because France was stronger than any of them. Thus, they adopted the policy in 1815 that no single country would be allowed to grow stronger than others.

Thus, when a country would not sure of victory over another country, it would not resort to war; and in the absence of war, peace would prevail. From 1815 to 1914, there was no major war except the Crimean War. The peace of this period was due to the balance of power. Lord Hankey, therefore, says that the balance of power “held peace in Europe for the longest time” before the First World War.

Triple Alliance :
But this was an uneasy peace. Countries now decided to safeguard themselves by forming themselves into groups of friends or ‘alliance groups’. Countries with similar interests and having common enemies now came to form themselves into groups or ‘Collective-fronts.’ Germany had defeated France and become the strongest power in Europe. France was now its enemy, determined to avenge the Sedan- defeat. Britain was afraid of Germany.

Austria- Hungary, and Russia were the traditional enemies. After 1882, Germany neglected Russia and openly supported Austria. Italy continued to be the friend of Germany. The Balkan region was now open to domination; Austria-Hungary, with German support, wanted to dominate the region at the cost of Russia. Thus, when Italy, in 1882, decided to join the Austro-German alliance of 1879, the three of them formed the Triple Alliance.

Question 3.
How Germany is responsible for the war?
Answer:
Germany was defeated in the First World War and in the peace conference of 1919, was declared to be guilty of having started the First World War. The defeated party ways take the blame. So, British and French historians say that Germany was primarily responsible for the First World War. This is neither reasonable nor true.

No single individual or country can be held solely responsible for the outbreak of a global war. Germany had become a newly unified nation in 1871. It was rich in natural resources but did not have colonies as markets for its industry. France was defeated by Germany in 1870-71, but France had its colonies, like Britain, years before the birth of Germany in 1871.

Germany, after 1871, was not only the strongest but also the richest in Europe. It was natural for Germany to search for colonies for herself. This brought her into conflict with France, Britain, and Russia. To hold Germany ‘solely’ responsible for these conflicts is unreasonable. For example, for the crisis in Morocco (1906), France and Britain, and even, the USA were as much responsible for the danger to peace as was the German Emperor, ‘Kaiser’ William II.

Bismarck was the first Chancellor of a United Germany. He continued to enjoy the support of his Emperor ‘Kaiser’ William I in all his steps in making Germany a more industrialized imperial power. But when William I died in 1888, his successor William II could not tolerate Bismarck. ‘There can never be more than one horse in a stable.

So, Bismarck was given retirement in 1890 and William II became the sole guardian of German destiny. Wiliam II was an ambitious militant nationalist. ‘Germany was the result of Bismarck’s policy of ‘blood an iron’. The Kaiser now wanted her to dominate the world. For that, Germany was to have a strong navy.

Napoleon’s France suffered because it did not have a strong navy. So, Germany started building up a strong navy for itself. But Britain had the strongest navy in the world and never liked any other country challenging her superior navy. Therefore, when Germany started having an equally strong navy for itself, Britain wanted an early end to this German challenge and worked for it, while putting the blame on Germany for this naval race.

Imperialism could not be the monopoly policy of one nation. When German imperialism rose from strength to strength, Britain and France were alarmed and wanted to destroy it by all means. Germany had joined the race for armaments, started by Britain and others. The Kaiser asked the German people to be strong nationalists and remember their racial, cultural and military superiority always. German industries started producing to their best capacity.

The Germans now wanted to extend their dominance over the Balkans and Central Asia. Germany started constructing the railway lines to Baghdad. The Persian sea was to be made into a German lake. This naturally alarmed the ‘entente’ members. It posed a direct threat to the Russi empire and to the British Empire in India in terms of security. But this German policy was not illegal, though it came to endanger peace in the region.

Question 4.
Why Historians are confused about Russian Revolution?
Answer:
Many historians have confused ideas about the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was 1917 when Russia saw two great revolutions, one in March and the other in November. Each of these was historic*. The March revolution was purely a popular revolution for the overthrow of Tsarist rule. The people, not the Bolsheviks or Mensheviks, not Lenin Stalin, or Trotsky brought about this revolution.

It was spontaneous and leaderless. “The revolution found them sleeping”, comments Lipson on the revolutionary leaders. No revolutionary group or party prepared for it or anticipated it. It is only after Tsarism was overthrown and a provisional government set up in Russia that the revolutionary groups became active.

The Bolshevik revolutionary party, then, successfully brought about the second revolution of the year, in November and captured power under Lenin’s leadership. The latter is known as Bolshevik Revolution, with its ideals of socialism. But the March Revolution was aimed at the liberation of the people from the oppressive rule of the Tsars.

Thus, it can be said that the people of Russia liberated themselves; only after that, the Bolsheviks captured power to teach them the doctrine of socialism as opposed to capitalism. The second Bolshevik Revolution adopted the ideas of Karl Marx and Dr. Friedrich Engels. These two German geniuses developed their idea of socialism during the days of the industrial revolution in Europe.

They called for the overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of socialism in its place. Mainly they wanted all powers of production and distribution for the workers and laborers and from private owners. The means of production, privately owned under capitalism should be socially owned under socialism.

Capitalism stood for profit but socialism stood for service to all the people. Capitalism is based on conflict whereas socialism is based on cooperation. Socialism stood to end the capitalist system of exploitation of man by man. Socialism bridges the gap between the rich and the poor; capitalism widens this gap.

Question 5.
What are ‘February’ and ‘October’ Revolutions?
Answer:
The Russian Revolution of March 1917 can be described as two revolutions or a single revolution that developed in two-phase. The first phase of March 1017 was the political phase. “It sealed the fate of autocracy” and the monarchy was Overthrown. The second phase was the social phase the Bolshevik revolution of November 1917 – which brought into existence the first Republic of the workers.

It is interesting to remember that the Russian calendar of those days was normally thirteen days behind the international calendar. The Russians called these two revolutions as ‘February’ and ‘October’ revolutions because, as per their calendar, these occurred in the last week of February and October respectively.

The roots of the Russian Revolution lie deeply embedded in the history of Russia. Russia is an old country with a rich history. It was a big empire, almost one-sixth of the total land- area of the world. Though most of this empire was in Asia and the rest of it in Europe, Russia historically has been more European than Asiatic.

Since the early 17th century, it was ruled over by the Romanov dynasty. This dynasty was founded by Romanov. The Russians called their emperor as Tsar (of Czar), just as the Ger Emperor was known as ‘Kaiser’. Both these titles are derived from the title of Caesar, which meant the absolute head ofthe empire. Russia was traditionally an orthodox country.

It did not want to modernize itself as others in Europe were doing. Only Tsar Peter, the Great, wanted to modernize Russia with European ideas and ventures. He is said to have opened a ‘window’ to Europe, it was shut down after him till the 19th century when the people came to be in a revolting mood against their oppressive Tsars.

The military defeats of Russia in the Crimean (1854) and Russo-Japanese (1904-05) wars had resulted in popular revolts which were suppressed easily. But the series of defeats(from 1914 till 1917) during the First World War led to a mass eruption (‘February Revolution, 1917) that swept away the Tsars and the old order.

At the beginning of the 19th Century, Tsar Alexander-I was regarded as a leader of Europe. After him, Tsar Nicholas-I came to be an oppressive ruler who even brought the Crimean war for Russia. His successor, Tsar Alexander II brought in some reforms which roused the people more than benefitted them. This Tsar was killed by the extremists called ‘nihilists’.

The last two Tsars, Alexander-Ill (1881 -1894) and Nicholas-II (1894-1917) were oppressive and inefficient. Popular consciousness, roused since the 19th century could not tolerate the Tsars. The people voluntarily rose in revolt and overthrew the last Tsar in February 1917. This first phase is called the ‘February Revolution’.

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Question 6.
What are the causes of the Russian Revolution?
Answer:
Oppressive Rule of Tsars :
Among the many causes of the Russian Revolution of 1917, the first and foremost cause was the oppressive nature of Tsarist rule in Russia. Russia was a country of extremely rich and extremely poor. Tire Tsar and his royal family, ministers, and officials of the empire formed 1.5 percent of the total population but they controlled nearly 98 percent of national wealth and income.

The rest of the population were poor peasants who worked as slaves (serfs till 1861) and were made to pay the tax that was more than their income. Punishment was heavy and the will of the officers was the law of the land. This was possible because Russia was a backward country, depending only on agriculture, without any attempt at industrialization till 1891, and without an educated middle class.

In a word, Russia was a reactionary state in a liberal Europe. Those members of rich families who got liberal education outside Russia from the latter half of the 19th century, returned to Russia to realize how backward Russia was, and wanted to correct the evils of society by educating the masses. The people ultimately came to blame the Tsar for everything.

The poverty of the people and the military defeats of Russia during the First World War made them violent and revolting. Like in the French Revolution (1789), this Russian Revolution began (March 8, 1917) with cries of ‘bread’ and ‘down with autocracy’. The place of Par in the French Revolution was taken by Petrograd in the Russian Revolution.

The misery of the People of Russia:
The miserable condition of the Russian people was the next cause. The people were poor and illiterate. They had no independent income till 1861 because they worked as ‘Serfs’ in the agricultural lands of their masters (Gentry). After 1861 when the ‘Serf system was abolished, they became agricultural laborers without any land for themselves on a permanent basis.

They were heavily taxed and were also forced to pay an additional tax for having been made free from ‘Serf status. The rotation of land allotments among them made agriculture suffer. No modem methods of cultivation and the total absence of industries (till 1891) made them groan under poverty. Families were frequent. Whatever little industrialization took place after 1891 failed to satisfy the revolutionary mood of the industrial workers.

Peasants and Workers :
The popular unrest of the peasants and industrial workers was directed against the Tsar. People were convinced that Tsar cannot solve their problems of poverty, nor could he bring Russia any wealth and glory. So the people rose in rebellion against Tsar Nicholas II. They had nothing to lose and everything to gain. This was their mood on March 8, 1917.

Question 7.
Discuss the rise of the middle class and political parties.
Answer:
The rise of the middle class in Russia and their role in the revolution was the third cause. As mentioned earlier, the second half of the 19th century saw the rise of an educated middle class. The members of this middle class were educated in Europe. They realized that Russia was poor because her people were neither educated nor conscious of nationalism.

So, they started educating the people. The Tsar’s government wanted to prevent them from doing so, by threats of punishment and exile. So, they organized themselves into political parties, like the Social Democrat and the Social Revolutionary parties. Leaders like Plekhanov worked to strengthen the political parties with grass-root support and organization.

Even extremists like ‘nihilists’ came to carry out their programs for the overthrow of Tsarism with popular support. Tsar Alexander-II was killed by the nihilists in 1881 .’Tsar Alexander III then wanted to root out the nihilists. These revolutionaries were underground, organized popular support for them, and worked tirelessly for a revolution to overthrow Tsarism.

Military Defeats:
Military defeats of Russia during the first three years of the First World War I made the people of Russia violent against Tsar Nicholas II. Russians, by nature, are sensitive about national glory. So, whenever Russia lost a war, the people rose in revolt against the Tsar. In 1856, they revolted against Tsar Alexander II for Russia’s defeat in the Crimean war in 1905 they did so against Tsar Nicholas II for Russia’s defeat in the war with Japan. They would never forgive Tsar Nicholas II for a second time for the military defeats from 1914 to 1917.

Racialism:
Racialism of the Tsars was another cause of the revolution, Russia had a large number of Jews. The Jews were rich but without a homeland. The policy of Tsar Nicholas II was to capture the wealth of the Jews by killing them for any slight excuse. He organized ‘pogroms’ in Russia where Jews in large numbers would be assembled and then massacred. This led the Jews in Russia to oppose the racialist policy of the Tsar. They got the support of the Poles, Finns, Muslims, and other subjects of Russia.

Rasputin :
Another cause of the February Revolution was the notorious role played by Rasputin in the governance ofRussia. Rasputin was a Siberian monk. He was invited by the Tsar and the Tsarina to the palace at St. Petersburg, the capital of Russia The cause of this invitation was that the baby prince was suffering from a disease that only Rasputin could cure with his magical powers. Rasputin stayed in the palace and won the queen to his side.

The Tsar being away at the battlefields during the First World War, Rasputin influenced the Tsarina to act as per his advice. Soon Rasputin’s words became law. The Tsar also fell for him, as Rasputin was the only hope for the baby prince to be cured. But the people of Russia knew the true nature of Rasputin. They hated him for his oppressive measures. They wanted his removal either by fair or foul means. He was the object of universal hatred and the target of the revolutionaries. He was killed by the revolutionaries in 1916.

Question 8.
What is the ‘Bread’ riot – March 1917, Overthrow of Monarchy and Provisional Govt?
Answer:
Russia was basically an agricultural country. Industries were very few in number. The Russian peasants used to serve as soldiers in the country in times of war. Most of them were busy in the battles that Russia fought during the first three years of the Great War. So agriculture was neglected. Production of food grains fell down so much that a famine-like situation came over the whole country.

Long queues for bread led to disturbances. These led to strikes and protests against the monarchy. On March 8, 1917, the women workers of textile mills in Petrograd came out with a general strike. They demanded ‘bread’. Soon the workers and general public of Petrograd joined them. Cries for ‘bread’ soon took the tone of ‘Down with the War’ and ‘Down with monarchy’.

Within a week the agitation grew into a revolt. The Tsar ordered the Petrograd troops to go and suppress the revolt. Unfortunately, the troops, sent to suppress the revolt, joined the masses and turned against the Tsar himself. The Tsar had no other alternative. He abdicated the throne. The revolt became a revolution.

It was crowned with the success of the fall of the monarchy in Russia for all times to come. The masses set up a Provisional Government. This government abolished the monarchy in Russia and took over the administration of the whole of Russia. The deposed Tsar was murdered in July 1918 along with his family The workers who had overthrown the monarchy soon realized that they themselves cannot form the new government in Russia.

So they offered the reins of the administration of Russia to the middle class of Russia. The latter controlled the national parliament (Duma) and enjoyed the loyalty of the Russian army. The middle-class (bourgeoisie) would prevent any attempt on the part of the royal supporters for a counter-revolution.

So the ‘Petrograd Soviet of workers and soldiers ’ decided to hand over the power to the Duma. Thus ended the first successful phase of 1917, i.e., the ‘February Revolution’, This was purely and primarily a mass movement, sudden and spontaneous. No political party or person had any major role behind it.

The people, the Duma members, and the Petrograd Garrison were the only instruments of this totally leaderless movement. The leaders rose to give shape to the future destiny of Russia only after the Provisional Government took the place vacated by the monarchy for good.

Question 9.
What is the Great October Revolution (November 1917) and what caused the October Revolution?
Answer:
The Russian Revolution broke out, in its second phase, in November 1917. As per the Russian calendar which was behind the international calendar by thirteen days it was October in Russia. So it is called the October Revolution As a revolution, it was monumental and unique. It brought into focus a new ideology and a new dictatorship.

The ideology was Marxism, modified by Lenin to suit Russian conditions. The dictatorship was the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat (workers and laborers)’. Karl Marx, who was bom in Germany and who developed his doctrine of socialism in England, became the prophet of Russia.

Causes Of The October Revolution, 1917 (The Bolshevik Revolution):
First World War and the problem of Peace:
The February Revolution had overthrown Tsarism. But it had not been able to solve certain fundamental issues. The Provisional Government set up by the Duma could neither continue the war for Russia nor could it withdraw Russia from the First World War. The soldiers of Russia were tired of war and defeats. Now they “refused to fight”.

The Russian army had ceased to function, for all practical purposes, after the overthrow of the Tsar. Many in Russia believed that it was a war in which Russia took part due to the wrong policies of the Tsar; now that the Ts&r was no more there, why should Russia suffer by continuing the war? But the Provisional Government could not find a suitable way out of the problem.

Organized political parties used this popular discontent with the Government. The Bolshevik Party of Lenin made it an issue for its revolution. Why should Russia fight the imperialist war, they questioned? They commanded full popular support for this cause. Thus the first c use of the October (or Bolshevik) Revolution centered around the problem of war.

Failure of the Bourgeois Ministry:
The second cause of the October Revolution was the failure of the leadership during February-October, 1917. The Provisional Government was formed by the middle-class (bourgeoisie) ofRussia. This bourgeois ministry was liberal but dependent upon the support of the socialists. Since 1905, Russia had come to have a revolutionary body called “the Soviet of Workers’ deputies.”

It continued as a parallel institution to the Provisional Government after February 1917. The Soviets lost no opportunity to criticize the Government over the latter’s failure. The Provisional Government became extremely unpopular. It came to be known as a ‘Government on sufferance and invited its Overthrow.

The problem of land:
The third cause of the Revolution was the problem of land. Though the peasants had been freed from their bondage to the. land-lords since 1861, they were unhappy because they were not allowed to own any land and had to also pay a heavy amount as the price of their liberty (called redemption dues).

The peasants were unhappy because there was a shortage of land and no ownership of them over the land they cultivated. Inspired by the poem of Nekrasov, they believed that tillers of the soil must become the owners of the land. They were, therefore, for a fresh distribution of land and the dissolution of large land holdings of the big land owners.

With the fall of the Tsar, these peasants now became an important factor in rural Russia No government could ignore them. But the Provisional Government did nothing for them. The peasants ’ disaffection was exploited by the Bolsheviks to their advantage in the October Revolution.

Question 10.
What is ‘October’ or Bolshevik Revolution (7 November 1917) and state its results?
Answer:
The Bolsheviks had an armed guard, called the ‘Red guard’, numbering about 25,000. The number was too little against Government troops. The Bolsheviks won over the Petrograd garrison through its propaganda The Kerensky Government, unpopular due to the Bolshevik propaganda, was now defenseless and helpless Therefore, the Bolsheviks succeeded in over-running this government.

The Bolshevik Revolution began at 2 AM on November 7, 1917, their revolution by capturing the railways, banks, post and telegraph offices, and other government buildings. There was no resistance from the government, no opposition from any quarter to the Bolsheviks. Trotsky described the revolution as highly successful and almost bloodless.

He said, “There is no example in history of a revolutionary movement involving such gigantic masses being so bloodless.” But, without any opposition to it, the Revolution was one of the bloodiest. Yet, the Bolshevik Revolution was a signal triumph and Lenin captured power in Russia on the very day of the Revolution.

Results of the Bolshevik Revolution :
The Bolshevik Revolution is ‘great’ because of its results. These results were as significant for Russia as for the world at large. Firstly, Capitalism was overthrown in Russia. Russia became a dictatorship of the proletariat. It was the first government of its kind in the world. This dictatorship was a government of the proletariat consisting of peasants, soldiers, and industrial workers.

Secondly, all industrial establishments in Russia came to be nationalized. Their old owners were dispossessed and the Government became the owner and manager of all industrial and commercial establishments. Thirdly, all agricultural lands were nationalized. New committees of peasants came to be formed at the village level.

These were to not only allot land to farmers but look after agricultural production while protecting the interests of the farmers. Fourthly, the Soviets of workers came to be formed and these were given the charge of production and distribution. Thus a state of workers and peasants came to be formed. Marx developed his theory for an industrial society.

Lenin modified the theory to suit the agricultural and industrial set-up in Russia. Bolshevism, thus, stands for Marxism- Leninism. Fifthly, Lenin wanted no part in the 1 imperialist First World War. He wanted Russia to withdraw from the war. He had to sign a peace treaty with Germany. Germany dictated the terms of the treaty to Russia.

Though insulting to Russia, Lenin signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in 1918. Russia thereby withdrew from the First World War. Lenin could now focus all attention on the internal reorganization of Russia. Sixthly, the Bolshevik government did not forgive its enemies inside Russia. After November 1917, the government started a ‘Red Terror’.

The deposed Tsar and his family members were killed in 1918. The opponents of the Bolsheviks called upon the ‘Allied Powers’ led by Britain and France to protect their life and property from the Bolshevik’s Red j Terror’. Seventhly, the Civil War in Russia came to be fought between the opponents and supporters of Bolshevism.

The former was led by Gen. Denikin and Admiral Kolchak, with the direct support of the foreign powers. The foreign powers did not want the Bolshevik experiment to succeed in Russia, because if it succeeds, it may infect them like a contagious disease. The foreign and Russian troops fought against the Bolshevik Red Army.

The Civil War continued for three years arid ended with success for Lenin and Bolshevik Russia. After the civil war, Lenin’s Russia came to be known by the new name of the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). Lorain fondly ed that the example of the USSR would inspire the workers and peasants in other countries to start a series of national revolutions.

Eighthly, the Bolshevik Revolution came as an alarm to the world. After 1918, the countries of Europe as well as the USA came to stand as opposed to USSR. The world now witnessed a tug-of-war between Communist Russia and the capitalist countries. Communism came as a new ideology. Fear of Bolsheviks- a type of uprising in their own countries made every Government fearful.

Small countries in Europe and South America were the first to come under the spell of the Bolshevik ideas. Marx had given the slogan “Workers of the world unite you have nothing to lose except your chains.” This became the bible of poor workers everywhere throughout the world. Ninthly, Soviet Russia recovered economically within a short time. This was given as a credit to the Soviet system of nationalization of property and new methods of production and distribution there since 1918.

This came as an example to be followed by people from many countries. For them, it was a reality, though, in reality, it was an illusion. Communism was the enemy of democracy and this was highlighted by the military and economic steps of Lenin and Stalin. Hitler would describe communism as “a bluff, a comedy, a speculation, and a blackmail.” Gorbachev would realize the truth of it in the USSR in 1986.

Question 11.
What is the Treaty of Versailles?
Answer:
Retrospectively with the wisdom of hindsight, one could emphatically assert that the germs of the Second World War could already be seen in the Treaty of Versailles, signed in Paris. In their obsession to cripple Germany, the Alliance, France, and Great Britain in particular, encouraged the development of a revenge psychosis in Germany that needed an opportunity to break the shackles.

The Treaty of Versailles was a symbol of national humiliation for the Germans and it was logical that German nationalism would assert itself to free itself from the obligations of Versailles. It was evident that peace could prevail as long as the status quo of Paris was maintained but when Germany made gross violations of the status quo in 1939, war became inevitable.

Question 12.
What are the features of the Weimar Republic and the rise of Hitler’s Nazi Party?
Answer:
The Allies, by redeeming Germany of the autocracy of King Kaizer William-H, had set up a republic in Germany known as the Weimar Republic. From the outset, however, the Weimer Republic was doomed to failure since it appeared to Germans to be a pliant tool in the hands of the Allies. It was denounced by the Nazi Party as the Weimar Jewish Republic, which more than anything else was responsible for the defeat of Germany.

A feeling soon grew that the Republic not only compromised German nationalism but also symbolized the betrayal of the Fatherland. In 1933, the Weimar Republic was ousted and its place was taken by the National Socialists better known as the Nazi Party of Adolf Hitler. Hitler’s rise to power in Germany paved the way for another global crisis.

Rise of Fascism :
Of the many ominous developments during the interwar period, one that truly convulsed European civilization was the birth and growth of fascism in Italy. The frustration of Italians not being able to extract concessions in Paris after their victory in the First World War led to the collapse of the parliamentary government in Italy.

Italians in their zeal for social and economic stability party promised everything to the Italians. The Fascist Party of Benito Mussolini was against parliamentary democracy and international peace and when in its zeal, it sought to destroy the balance of power in Europe, it invited the Second World War.

Question 13.
What is the Cold war? Its origin and initial actors?
Answer:
The cold war is characterized by a situation where there is neither a direct confrontation nor a lasting peace. It is a situation marked by mutual suspicion, jealousy, hostility, and rivalry. The term ‘war’ implies that a real war was actually going on but that war was fought not by ‘hot’ or nuclear weapons, but by ‘cold’ or conventional arms.

The two superpowers avoided a direct confrontation but met each other indirectly through their respective allies. A mistaken notion that has generally been accepted as a fact is that the cold war originated between the United States and the Soviet Union. Nothing could be more fallacious. The original players in the Cold war were Great Britain and the Soviet Union with the Americans playing the role of mediators.

Such a situation remained unchanged virtually till the end of World War II and the death of American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. As long as Franklin Roosevelt was alive he thought in terms of a new world order where the Americans and Russians would cooperate for the maintenance of international peace and security.

The end of World War II saw the relegation of Great Britain to a distant background depending upon the United States for its survival and the death of Roosevelt brought Harry S. Truman as the new President of the United States. Unlike Roosevelt, Truman detested communism and the Soviet Union, just as much as British Prime Minister Winston Churchill did.

Roosevelt’s political acumen lay in pacifying both Churchill and Stalin, the Soviet Premier. But, Truman’s ascendence to the Presidency saw the Americans be the major opponents of the Russians and after 1945, the Americans replaced Great Britain as the major player in the cold war.

Different views on the cold war:
To trace the origins of the cold war, some historians believe that it started as early as 1917 when the Bolshevik party under VI Leninousted Czarist misrule from Russia after the October Revolution. The Bolshevik victory in Russia led to the establishment of communism which appeared to be a direct challenge to the capitalist world. Hence, to nip communism in the bud, a sustained effort was made by western powers, and therein lies the genesis of the cold war.

Another group of historians however believes that the cold war originated during the course of the Second World War when Churchill and Stalin met for the first time during the Teheran Conference of 1943. Whatever the timing of the cold war, it remains the most, complex political development of the 20th century. All international developments after 1945 took shape under the shadow of the cold war.

Evolving of Cold war in East Europe:
The basis of the cold war, in its initial phase undoubtedly centered on developments in East Europe. For centuries East and West had been struggling with each other for control of the huge area rich inhuman and industrial resources and one that was strategically vital to both sides, either to Russia as a buffer against the west or to Germany and France as a gateway for invasion of Russia.

Till almost 1940, East Europe had sided with the west. But when East Europe was devasted by the marauding Nazi troops, the Russians bore the brunt of the war and were finally successful in liberating East Europe. Russia after 1945 controlled East Europe and this crucial result of World War II destroyed the Grand Alliance between the United States, Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union and gave birth to the Cold War.

The American view of Friendly East European Governments:
The West, with America leading the way, was unwilling to accept Russian domination of East Europe. Although the Anglo-Americans were willing to allow Stalin a major say in the politics of the region and realized that Russian security demanded friendly governments there, they were not prepared to abandon East Europe altogether.

The Americans had a mistaken notion that it was still possible to have East European governments that were both capitalistic but friendly to Russia The Russians on the other hand forcefully put forth their plea that a ‘friendly’ government in East Europe meant only a communist government.

British intervention in Greece starts the cold war:
The first move in the cold war was, however, made by Great Britain when British Prime Minister Churchill intervened in Greece with the help of British ground forces. Though Greece had been liberated by Soviet troops and the Russian troops won the admiration of the Greeks, Churchill could never think of giving up Greece for fear of losing the entire Mediterranean zone. Stalin for the time being allowed the British to move to Greece.

Russian countermove in Poland and Rumania:
But the brazen British action in Greece had profound Churchill and far-reaching consequences and as retaliation to this action, Stalin brought Poland into the Russian fold by according to recognizing the provisional Government there. Then it was the turn of Rumania. Vyshinsky, the Soviet Foreign Minister on February 27, 1945, visited Bucharest, the Rumanian capital, and demanded the dismissal of the coalition government.

On March 6, 1945, a communist-dominated Government was sworn in. Neither the Americans nor the British could raise any objection since the Soviet action in Poland and Romania was an answer to the British action in Greece. Thus the onset of the cold war led to the formal division of Europe and it was reflected in all parts of the world.

The turning point in Soviet-American Relations :
The real turning point in Russo-American relations came during the period between December 1944 and April 1945. It was during this period that the American ambassador to the Soviet Union, Harriman, brought about a drastic changeful his attitude toward the Russians. Till very recently an ardent proponent of close Russo-American ties, Harriman, ring March- April 1945 constantly advised the American foreign office to adopt a tough attitude towards the Russians.

According to him, the Russians had violated the spirit of the Yalta Conference of February 1945 to cooperate with the west for establishing a new world order, through their action in Rumania. Hence Harriman believed that the only way of making the Russians stick to the agreements made by them was to force them to do so.

Death of Roosevelt and Ascendence of Truman:
Another major factor was the death of Roosevelt and the entry of Harry S. Truman as the President of the United States. Truman was new to international diplomacy and personally, he had an intense dislike for communism and the Soviet Union. Whereas Roosevelt always tried to act as a mediator between extreme British and Soviet positions, Truman pushed aside Great Britain to make the United States the chief antagonist of the Soviet Union in the cold war.

Common Enemy collapsed after 1945:
A basic factor that must be home in mind was that there never was any cordiality in Russo-American relations. They had merely come closer during World War II since both found a common enemy in Hitler. With Hitler gone, the Grand Alliance between the East and the West which had been forged during the war, also collapsed.

UN making exposed differences:
The process of the U.N. making also contributed to the growing suspicion between the parties. Stalin, never a proponent of having a strong United Nations, demanded certain built-in devices in the UN charter that would make Soviet participation in the world body meaningful. Russian stubbornness led to the formulation ofthe ‘Veto’ formula in the Security Council ensuring that no issue could pass through the U without the approval of all the five permanent members of the Security Council.

Hard Stance by Americans:
President Truman’s hostility towards the Soviet Union was further demonstrated When he stopped the supply of loans to the Soviet Union. These loans had been promised to the Russians for their help during the war. The Russians had been expecting a large American post-war loan for the purpose of Reconstruction and this sudden stoppage at the end of the war in Europe convinced the Russians of American betrayal.

Question 14.
What is the Truman Doctrine? States its criticism.
Answer:
The genesis of the Truman Doctrine: The American declaration of the cold war came about on March 12, 1947, when President Harry Truman went before a joint session of Congress to deliver a truly epochal speech in American history. President Truman was provoked by the British who shocked Washington by declaring that an economically burdened Britain could no longer sustain a pro-western government in Greece. Great Britain further warned that once they withdrew from Greece, communist guerillas there would receive help from their communist patrons in the Soviet Union which would probably seize control of Greece.

Greece would then gravitate within the Soviet orbit, and the position of neighboring Turkey which was already unstable would become untenable Iodine to the strategically vital eastern Mediterranean fell into Soviet hands with dangerous consequences for the western world. It was imperative, therefore, on the part of the United States as the champion of democracy to intervene in Greece and Turkey to not only save these countries from communist infiltration but also to safeguard western interests in the Mediterranean zone.

Enunciation of the Doctrine :
After hurried consultations with military and congressional leaders, President Truman outlined the situation in Greece and spelled out what was to become known as the Truman Doctrine. What he said in essence was “It must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.”

A bolder statement, far more elaborate in scope could be interpreted when he said “wherever aggression, direct or indirect, threatens the peace, the security of the United States was involved.” The President asked congress to appropriate $400 million for economic aid and military supplies for Greece and Turkey and to authorize the dispatch of American personnel to assist with reconstruction and to provide their armies with proper instruction. Thus the United States began the policy of containment and its initial implementation was to be witnessed in Greece and Turkey.

Justification of the Doctrine :
President Truman justified his position by emphasizing that Soviet expansionist efforts left the United States with no choice but to adopt a countervailing policy. It was further stated that anti-communism had never been a major American policy during the Second World War, but hostile Soviet behavior and words were the reasons for the gradual shift of American policy and public opinion from amity to enmity.

Truman declared that despite, the universalism of the Truman Doctrine, its application was intended to be specific and limited, not global. In other words, containment was to be implemented only where the Soviet state appeared to be expanding its power.

Criticism of the Doctrine :
Despite all the show of morality and democratic pretensions, the Truman Doctrine was far from being flawless. With all talk of democratic purposes, Truman Doctrine’s first application was to Greece and Turkey, neither of which was democratic. One had to shut off one’s reasoning capacity to call Greece of the day or Turkey “free” countries both had unpopular, fascist regimes against which the United States had so recently fought World War II.

Their strategic location was considered more important than their domestic nature. The doctrine had the impact of oversimplifying issues by conveniently dividing the world into two hostile camps – the one free and the other totalitarian and declared that every nation must now choose between the two. This was tantamount to drawing the battle lines.

Henceforward, American policy all over the world was geared toward defining this split – one who is not with me is against me. The United States firmly rejected the existence of a third and middle course and in its anxiety to isolate the Soviet bloc, included all reactionary, undemocratic, and unpopular regimes in the ‘free’ camp.

At home, the Trueman Doctrine came in for severe criticism. It was stated that the scheme would cost too much since communism could not be fought with dollars. Rich though America was she would bankrupt herself by helping bankrupt governments all over the world. Americans by poking their noses into the internal affairs of foreign governments might unite the world against them.

Although Truman had been careful not to mention Soviet Russia by name, there could be no doubt that he was aiming his doctrine at her, with the imminent danger of provoking her into war. Nevertheless, the Truman Doctrine was approved in the House by 297 to 107 and in the Senate by 67 to 23, on May 15, 1947.

The Truman Doctrine was of incalculable significance. Through it, the United States seized the tactical offensive in the cold war to contain communism, Although limited for the present to Greece and Turkey the new policy was actually general in scope and led by dire steps to tire vastly more important Marshall Plan and the North Atlantic Pact.

Question 15.
What is the Marshall Plan?
Answer:
The genesis of the Marshall Plan :
The commitment to Greece and Turkey was only the beginning of the first act under the American project of containing Soviet expansion; Soon, however, the United States realized that aid for only Greece and Turkey was quite inadequate. The war in Europe had devastated the economies of all the countries and western Europe particularly was not making the necessary economic recovery.

The deepest fear was that the Soviet Union would be able to exploit Europe’s post-war economic collapse and if the situation was allowed to prevail, the communists would probably seize control of Italy and France.

American and European interests were interlinked:
The collapse of Europe posed once again the basic question of whether Europe was vital to U.S. security. The answer was obvious since America’s two previous interventions had been made to protect Europe. During both world wars, the United States had been drawn by Germany and both wars had been fought to uphold democracy in Europe.

Europe’s vital importance became quite evident since it ranked second only to the United States in its potential power – in industry, productivity, skilled manpower, scientists, and technicians. If these vital assets moved toward the Soviet side the strategic military balance would swing sharply toward the Russians and U.S. security would be endangered.

Given its huge potential and its strategic geographic position, it became apparent that Europe’s security was indeed inseparable from U.S. security. Moreover, the United States could never allow the Soviet Union the control the Western approaches to the Atlantic. Hence it was imperative for the U.S. to find a way to help Europe recover.

With Europe on the verge of not only economic ruin, but also a complete social and political breakdown, everything seemed to force it into dependence upon it. America Almost every item needed for reconstruction like wheat, cotton, coal, sulfur, sugar, machinery, and trucks, could be obtained in sufficient quantities only from the United States.

Tragically enough, Europe in 1947 had lost her capacity to buy. The only cure for Europe’s sick state was a massive injection of dollars since only a tremendous program of economic aid could restore Europe’s economy and enable it to surpass its prewar agricultural and industrial production.

Enunciation of Marshall Plan :
To come to Europe’s rescue, Secretary of State George C. Marshall announced a policy in his address at Harvard University on June 5, 1947, which eclipsed the Truman Doctrine in importance. The essence of his speech was that, if the nations of Europe would get together and devise far-visioned plans for economic recovery, concentrate on self-help and mutual assistance and present to Washington a specific statement of their needs, the United States would support them with financial help so far as it may be practical.

In “other words, American aid to Europe was made conditional upon economic cooperation among the European states and it put the burden of initiative on Europe’s shoulders. However, it soon became apparent that the Marshall scheme, unlike the Truman Doctrine which aimed at military aid or temporary relief to Greece and Turkey, was an all-inclusive plan looking toward long-range rehabilitation of Europe.

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CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 3 Social Institutions Long Answer Questions

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Describe the general characteristics of a family.
Answer:
A mating relationship :
A family comes into existence when a man and woman establish mating relations between them. This relation may be of a shorter duration of life long.

A form of marriage :
The mating relationship is established through the institution of marriage. Marriage may be solemnized in a simple way or in a grand manner as in India.

A system of nomenclature :
Every family is known by a name and has its own system of reckoning descent through the male line or female line. Usually, the wife goes and joins her husband’s relatives.

An economic provision:
Every family needs an economic provision to satisfy their economic needs. The head of the family carries on certain profession and earn money to maintain the family.

A common habitation :
A family respires a home or household for its living. Without a dwelling place, the task of childbearing and child-rearing cannot be adequately performed.

Distinctive characteristics of the family:
Universality :
Family is the most universal group. It is the first institution in the history of men. It has existed in every society and is found in all parts of the world. No culture or society has ever existed without some form of family organization. No other group is so universal as the family is.

Emotional basis :
A family is a fundamental unit of human society. It is based on our impulses of mating, procreation, and parental care. It is a close-knit group that fortifies these emotions.

Limited size:
The size of the family is of necessity limited for it is defined by biological conditions that it cannot transcend. Other groups may be smaller than a family but they are not so because of biological conditions.

Formative influence :
The family exercises the most profound influence over its members. It molds the character of the individuals. Its influence in infancy determines the personality structure of the individual. Psychologists have proved that a child exhibits the same character and mental tendencies in adult age that he acquires in the family.

Nuclear Position:
The family is the nucleus of all other social groups. The distinctive characteristics of marriage, parental obligations, and sibling relations make the family the primary institutional cell of society. The whole social structure is built of family units.

Responsibility of the members :
In the family, the child learns the meaning of social responsibility and the necessity for cooperation. As Maclver aptly describes. “In times of crisis, men may work and fight and die for their country but they toil for their families all their lives.” In it the child develops his basic attitudes and ideals. It is a great agency for the socialization of file children.

Social Regulations :
The family is peculiarly guarded by social customs and legal regulations. It isn’t easy to violate them. Family is the group in which the consenting parties may freely enter but which they can not easily leave or dissolve. Marriage is not trivially taken.

Permanent:
Family as an institution is permanent and universal. While as an association it is temporary and transitional. When the son marries he goes out of the family and starts another family which again may give rise to more families.

Question 2.
Define family. Discuss its various types.
Answer:

• M.F. Nimkoff says that “Family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife with or without a child, or of a man or woman alone, with children”.
• Maclver: “Family is a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children”.

Different types of families are found in different societies. Family is a universal institution but all families are not one type. The family has been classified on the basis of authority, structure, residence, marriage, and descent.

The various types of families are discussed below.
Single or Nuclear Family :
The nuclear family tot type of family which consists of a husband and wife and their unmarried children. The size of the nuclear family is very small. Because it includes only a few members. It is autonomous until and free from the control of elders. It is regarded as the ideal form of family in the modem civilized society.

Joint Family:
The size of the joint family is very large. It is formed by a large number of members. A joint family is composed of rather, a mother, their sons, the son’s wife, and children,’ uncles, aunts, grandfather, grandmother, and so on. The members of a joint family belong to several generations. In a joint family eldest male member is the head of the family and has supreme authority.

Patrilocal Family:
A patrilocal family is a type of family in which after marriage the wife goes and lives in the family, and the husband occupies a central position and plays a dominant role. Hence, the patrilocal family is regarded as an ideal family in modern society.

Matri-local Family:
Matri-local family is that type of family in which after marriage. The husband goes and lives in the family of his wife. Therefore it is generally known are a wife-dominated family. In this family, the husband occupies a secondary position. The matrilocal family as only found among the Khasi tribes of Assam.

Monogamous Family :
A monogamous family is composed of one man and one woman. In this family, one man marries a woman only one. Under the monogamous family system, a man can not have more than one wife.

Polygynous Family:
Polygynous family one man marries more than one woman at a time and lives with more than three children in the same house. This type of family is found among the Eskimo tribes, African Nigros and Muslims. The short polygynous family is constituted by one man and several women.

Polyandrous Family:
A polyandrous family is composed of one woman and many men. In this type of family one woman marries many men and lives with of them or reaches them alternatively. The Pandava family is a bright example of a polyandrous family.

Patriarchal Family :
A patriarchal family is a joint family is directly led by the eldest married male member on the father. In this family the father head authority and possesses all intensive powers. All the family members are under the direct control of the father. The children are known by the name of the family of their father. The property is transferred patriarchal family is a joint family that is composed of a father, mother, younger brother, married sons, their wives, children, unmarried sons, and daughters. This type of family was found among the Romans and Aryans of India.

Matriarchal Family:
In the matriarchal family, the mother is the head of authority and possesses all powers. Mother is the owner of the property and rules over the family. In this family, the name, status, and experience of property are transferred through the name of the mother. The female members alone have the right to succeed property in a matriarchal family. In this family, the position of the husband is secondary. This family is found among the Nayar and Tiya caste of Kerala. This type of family is a mother or wife-dominated family.

Patrilineal Family:
In the patrilineal family, the descent is traced through the father. In this family, ancestry continues through the male members or father. In other words, a family where the father is the center of authority is considered as a patrilineal family. This is regarded as the best type of family in the modem times.

Matrilineal Family:
In a matrilineal family, the descent is traced through the mother. Mother is the center of power is called a matrilineal family. In this family female members enjoy all the rights and privileges including the rights of property and inheritance. The rights and privileges are handed down by the mother to her daughter.

Question 3.
Define family and discuss its functions.
Answer:

• According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife with or without children or a man or woman alone with children”.
• According to Maclver, “Family is a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children”.

The function of the family – Different sociologists have classified the functions of the family differently. But Maclver and Page made only two divisions of family functions namely Essential and Non-essential.

Essential Functions:
Satisfaction of Sex needs:
This is an essential function which the family functions which the family performs. The satisfaction of sex instinct brings the desire for lifelong partnership among males and females. The modem family satisfies the instinct to a greater, degree than the Traditional Family. It is generally found that many problems arise in the family owing to be non-fulfillment of the sex needs of the husband and wife.

Reproduction:
The inevitable result of sexual satisfaction is procreation Every married couple desires to have their own children to continue the ‘Kula’, some Hindu thinkers say that reproduction or, procreation or a child, preferably a son is the sole aim of marriage procreation perpetuates the family and helps increase the Population of the country and ultimately perpetuates the human nature as a whole.

Protection and care of young :
The family acts as a protective should for an individual. It safeguards him against the odds at different stages of life. When a child is in the mother’s womb, the family serves him by taking proper care of the expectant mother. Soon after the child is bom family brings him up with utmost care and love.

Provision as homes:
The home in which both husband and wife live together after the marriage is regarded as an important institution for procreation, protection, and care of the children. Man after the hard toil of the day returns home and forgets his worries. Home is like a heaven and sanctuary where its members find comfort and affection.

Non-essential Education:
Economic function:
Family services as an economic unit. It fulfills the economic needs of its members such as food, clothing housing, etc. It is regarded as a production as well as a consumption unit. The women engage themselves in all domestic work and the men generally work outside for the economic welfare of the family. Besides these, the family also looks after the family properties social housing farm money, etc.

Education functions:
The family is an important educational agency. The child leams first letters under the guidance of parents. The child receives the qualities of love, affection, and sympathy from the family. For the child, the mother happens to be the best teacher. She would the character and career of the child. The three ‘RS’ Reading writing and arithmetic were taught to children by holder family members. It also provides vocational training to children.

Religion function:
Family is a center for the religious training of the children. It lays the foundation for the moral standards ofthe child. The family observes different religious ceremonies, out of which children develop good qualities and learn various religious virtues.

Recreational functions :
The family serve as a center of recreational activity, on festive occasions all the member sing, dance, and play together. They play visits to their near and dear ones for the sake of change. Usually, a man returns home for relaxation after his day’s work. The family thus provides recreation to all of the members.

The function relating to health :
The family looks after the health condition of its member. It takes care of sick old and expectant mothers.

Socialization of the young:
Family is the primary socializer of the child. It molds the original nature of man into social nature. The habits and attitudes of the parents are transmitted to the children through the process of socialization the virtues of love, cooperation, tolerance, sacrifice, obedience, and discipline are fixed and learned by the child in the family. These qualities enable him to grow into a good citizen.

Question 4.
Explain the changing functions of the family in India.
Answer:
The family as a basic social institution has been undergoing change. The modem family radically differs from that of the traditional one. The family has never been at rest. Both in its structure and functions changes take place. Some of these changes may be examined here. The first and foremost changing function is that the modern family has lost its educational functions.

It does not import education to children. Nowadays children do not receive vocational training from families. They get education from different educational institutions. Schools, colleges, and various technical institutes provide educational and vocational training to the children which the family could not furnish adequately in the past.

In the education of children, teachers play a more vital role than parents in the present time. In the past, the family was taking care of the health of its members and was providing all medical facilities. But nowadays health is no longer a worry of the family. The family does not perform the functions relating to health. Hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, etc. are taking care of the health of an individual.

Diseases persons are admitted to hospitals and are treated by medical practitioners such as doctors, nurses, midwives, etc. Similarly, in the past. The child was bom in the family and was nurtured under the care of kinsmen. But now children get birth in various delivery centers like women’s hospitals. Clinics and soon. Pregnant women are properly treated by gynecologists.

All kinds of diseases are treated by medical experts in the hospitals scientifically, and various medical centers such, as maternity hospitals, women’s hospitals, baby clinics, etc. provide adequate medical treatment to different categories of patients Thus all the functions of families related to health has undergone considerable changes in modem times.

The ancient family was regarded as the center of production, consumption, and distribution of goods. All types of economic goods required by the members for the purpose of consumption were produced by the family. But now family only acts as a consumption unit. The members of the family consume goods that are produced in mills and factories and sold in the marketplace.

In the past, agriculture was the main economic basis of the family. All economic needs of the members were fulfilled only by agricultural profession and they followed their family occupation compulsorily. But today the members of families avoid their hereditary agricultural occupation and engage in various offices, industries, factories, public sectors, and so on.

There are many families that today avoid the task of preparing food for their family members and depend upon hotels and restaurants. As a result of which the responsibilities of the members of the family decrease considerably in the present time. They do not work at home collectively and are scattered over a wide area where each of them works independently.

Thus external agencies such as mills. Factories, officers, hotels, and restaurants are performing the economic functions that families had to perform in the past. In the past socialization was one of the main functions of family Children were living under the care of their parents in the family. The socialization process of a child begins in the family.

But the socialization function of the family in respect of child care seems to have declined to a considerable extent in modem progressive countries. Due to the tire impact of rapid industrialization and urbanization, a number of working places come into existence and the social status of women has undergone considerable change.

Women are self-dependent due to their engagement in various servicing centers. In the modem civilized countries, women usually go to work leaving their small children under the care and guidance of educated women. Various outside institutions such as nursery schools, Kindergarten schools, and Montessori schools provide care and education to the children.

Thus in modem times, various outside agencies play more important roles than family in the socialization process of the child. Now the family is not following the religious practices which it was performing in the past. Religious dogmas or rituals were the fundamental basis of home organization in the ancient family system.

The ancient families had been performing certain religious practices like idol worship, prayer, idolatry, religious discourses, etc. But now modem family unlike the old or traditional family has become secular in its outlook. Religious practices have lost their significance and become outdated in modem times.

Thus, the importance of religion in the twentieth century has considerably decreased, modem people do not believe in religious practices due to the impact of industrialization, urbanization, modernization, sanslcritization, westernization, democratization, and so on. Traditionally, the family provided all kinds of recreation and entertainment to its members, But in modern, times family does not provide the kind of recreation that its members want.

They seek entertainment outside their families. Various outside recreational centers such as clubs, cinema halls, hotels, parks, gymnasiums, and so on provide recreational functions for the traditional family but have declined in modem times. In the past one of the fundamental functions of the family was caring for and assistance to old, invalid, and unemployed members.

But nowadays the government and a number of specialized agencies have come forward to perform this particular function of old and traditional families. The government provides houses, pensions, and other allowances to these helpless people.

Question 5.
Mention the types of kinship with suitable examples.
Answer:
Man is a social animal. He does not live alone in society. From birth to death, he is surrounded by a number of persons. They are his relatives, friends, neighbors, and strangers. Some are known while others are unknown persons. He is bound to all those persons who are related to him in one way or the other. These relations are based on blood and marriage.

The bond of blood or marriage which binds people together in a group is called kinship means society recognized relationships based on supposed as well as actual genealogical ties. These relationships are the result of social interaction and are recognized by society types of kinship. Kinship is of two types:

• Affinal kinship, and
• Consanguineous kinship

Affinal Kinship :
The bond of marriage is called affinal kinship when a person marries, he establishes a relationship not only with the girl whom he marries but also with a number of persons in the girl’s family. It is not only the person marrying, who gets bound to the family members of the girl but his family members also get bound to the family members of the girl. Thus a host of relations are created as soon as a marriage takes place. After marriage, a person becomes not only a husband but also becomes brother-in-law and son-in-law.

Here it may be noted that in the English language a number of relations created by marriage are referred to by some terms. Thus the same term brother-in-law is used for bahnoi, sale jija, and Saddhu.” On marriage, a person also becomes Foofa, nandoi, and mausa. Likewise a girl marriage becomes ‘Chachi, bhabhi, during, jethani, mausi” etc. Thus marriage creates a host of relationships which are called affinal.

Consanguineous Kinship :
The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The Consanguineous kin is related through blood whereas the affinal kin are related through marriage. The bond between parents and children and that between siblings is consanguineous kinship. Siblings are the children of the same parents.

Thus son, brother, sister, uncle (chacha), elder uncle (tau) nephew, and cousin are consanguineous kin i.e., related through blood. In this connection, it may be pointed out that blood relationships may be actual as well as supposed. Among polyandrous tribes the actual father of a child is unknown. An adopted child is treated as if it were one own biologically produced child. Thus blood relationships may be established not only on a biological basis but also on the basis of social recognition.

Degree of Kinship:-
On the basis of the nearness of distance, relatives can be classified into several categories. Some relatives are very close, direct, and near, for example, father, son, sister, brother, husband, and wife. They are called primary kin. According to Dr. Dubey, there is eight such primary kin. They are husband, wife, father, son, mother, daughter, father, daughter, mother, son, younger elder brothers, younger elder sisters, and sister brothers.

Secondly, there are secondary kins. They are primary kin of primary kin. In other words, they are related through primary kin. They are not our primary kin but are the primary kin of our primary kin hence, our secondary kin. For example, the father’s brother (chacha) and sister’s husband (bahnoi) are secondary kin.

The father is my primary kin and his brother is the primary kin of my father. Therefore father’s brother is my secondary kin, the primary kin of primary kin. Similarly, my sister is my primary kin but her husband is my secondary kin. Thirdly, there are tertiary kins. They are the secondary kin of the primary kin of our secondary kin.

Thus the wife of the brother-in-law (sala) called (sarhaj) in Hindi is tertiary kin because the brother-in-law is secondary kin and his wife is the primary kin brother-in-law. Similarly, the brother-in-law of my brother is my tertiary kin because the brother is my primary kin and his brother-in-law is the secondary kin of my brother According to Mindock, “there are 33 secondary and 151 tertiary kinds of a person”.

Kinship is a universal institution. There is no society in the world that does not recognize kinship. Though the nomenclature might be different yet the relationship does exist and is deep-rooted. All kinship can be traced from some sort of sexual relationship or descent near or remote.

Question 6.
What is the broader meaning of education? Give at least three definitions and explain them.
Answer:
The meaning of education is complex in nature. It may refer to formal schooling or to life-long education. Each person who reads or hears the word interprets it is terms of his personal interest in and expectations of it. For example, a parent considers education as a positive force to enable the child to prosper in life or to earn a name and fame in society.

A teacher may interpret education as a means for the creation of a new man as well as a new society and a new nation. To a student education is nothing but the acquisition of knowledge, attitudes, and skills passing examinations and receiving degrees and diplomas. An educational administrator believes that education is a source of assistance and support to pass examinations.

An artist looks upon education as a way to love and enjoy the beauty. An artisan may think of it is a means to master a skill. To a religious preacher, education is a device to abolish material barbarism and to impart spiritual values in the minds of the people. A statesman may claim that it is a means to train ideal citizens. Thus, there is an almost universal interest in education.

Since it does not have a simply unitary meaning, the parents, teachers, housewives, administrators, farmers, religious, preachers, military men, politicians, artists, and artisans interpret the term ‘education’ in their own ways. Education may include all learning processes. Since we learn many tilings in many ways and on manifold occasions this definition is too broad to be distinctive and useful.

Another definition would describe education only as the learning of socially approved behavior. Finally, the narrowest definition which we shall adopt for our present purposes identifies education with schooling, the transmission of culture. Particularly knowledge from generation to generation with a specialized organization in the school.

Since education is a dynamic concept its meaning differs from place to place, from time to time, and from person to person. It has passed through many ages and stages in the process of evolution and at every stage, it has/had a different meaning according to the then-existing social conditions.

Education is a complex idea. It is not at all possible to express the scope of education through a single term. Though a biologist, a priest, a psychologist, a philosopher, a teacher, a statesman, a merchant, or a shopkeeper gives different definitions of education according to their own outlook, it is very difficult to explain in definite terms.

Hence, there are variations in the meaning of education. Definition of Education Gandhi says that “By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in the child and man body, mind, and spirit”. John Dewey says that “Education is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences.

It is the development of all these capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities”. Rigveda says, “Education is something which makes man self-reliant and selfless”.Education may be considered a life-long process. It begins at birth and continues throughout life till death.

The child learns through its experience. He gains experience when he comes in contact with different social institutions, persons, places, and things. There is no end to this experience. It goes on forever without any breaks or barriers. Thus, education becomes an active and dynamic process.

Question 7.
Discuss critical functions towards society.
Answer:
Education can be has been and is used for many different purposes. We call these purposes the function of education. In other words, functions refer to what education actually does. Thus, the function of education is multi-dimensional within the school system and outside it. Therefore, scholars thinkers and educationists differ about the nature of these functions. Thus, education performs various functions towards the society given below.

• Society and Education.
• Education is a social process.
• School as a society – in miniature.
• Social Conservation.
• Education as continuous Reconstruction and Integration of Activities and experiences.

Society and Education:
Education is an integral part of the total social pattern. It takes place in the interaction of individual groups and the entire cultures. It is the process of interaction resulting in charges in the behavior of both the individual and the society. Education through its various processes of instruction tied to modifying society and the behavior of the individual. Thus education and society are closely related. Education functions as the chief agency for the society of socializing the human beings living in it.

Education is a social process :
Man is essentially a social being a citizen growing and thinking in a vast complex of interactions and relations. The term complex interaction refers to the democratic scientific and industrial movement of society. Right education helps the child to adjust himself to the social environment.

He can also change them according to his own needs. Education thus is the fundamental method of social progress and individual upliftment. Social reconstruction takes place in the adjustment through education of individual action on the basis of social consciousness.

School as a society-in- miniature :
The school is to be considered a society in miniature. The school must be vitally interlinked with the society outside. Varied experiences are to be provided to the child so that in his own way he is prepared to shoulder the responsibilities of after-school life. Let the school engage the child as a whole enabling him to participate in as many activities as he likes.

Social Conservation:
Life without society is uncertain, incomplete, and meaningless. Social education is necessary for a man so that he can mix with other members of society and get the inspiration to move at the same pace as them. Society guarantees the safety of man’s life and prosperity. Man leams the value of cooperation in social life by means of education. The social experience of one generation is preserved for generations to come through the medium of education and in this way, the process of social preservation remains dynamic.

Education as continuous, Reconstruction and Integration of Activities and experiences :
Education is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It is the development of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities. We help him to grow and while growing he comes across various experiences and each experience leaves a mark on him.

Education is a reconstruction of experience: “Experience is off as well as in nature. It is not experience which is experienced, but nature stones, plants, animals diseases, health temperature, electricity and soon. Things interacting in certain other ways with another natural object – the human organism are how things are experienced as well.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 5 Sociology, Methods and Techniques Short Answer Questions

Answer In One Sentence

Question 1.
What are three stages of August Comte?
Answer:
Three stages of August Comte are:
1. Theological or fictious.
2. The metaphysical or abstract.
3. The scientific or positive.

Question 2.
When the law of three stages appeared and where?
Answer:
This law appeared in the year 1822 in his book positive philosophy.

Question 3.
What is theological or fictious stage?
Answer:
The theological stage is the first and it characterised this would prior to 1300. Hence all theoretical conceptions whether general or special bear a supernatural impress.

At this level of thinking there is a marked lack of logical and orderly thinking. Overall theological thinking implies belief in supernatural power.

Question 4.
What is Fetishism?
Answer:
This is one of three stages of August ‘fetish’ means inanimate and ‘ism’ means philosophy. This is a philosophy which believes that super natural power dwells in inanimate object.

Question 5.
What is polytheism?
Answer:
This is the second stage of three stages of August Comte ‘Poly’ means many. So the belief in many Gods is called polytheism. Human beings received variety or diversity of natural phenomenon.

Each phenomenon was kept under the disposal of one God. One God was believed to be-in charge of one particular natural phenomenon.

Question 6.
What is Monolthcism?
Answer:
It means we belief in one single God. He is all in all. He controls everything in their world. He is the maker of human destiny. Monotheism is the climax of the theological stage of thinking. The monoltheistic thinking symmblics the victory of human intellect.

Question 7.
What is metaphysical?
Answer:
‘Meta’ means beyond and physical, means material world. So metaphysical means beyond physical word.

Question 8.
What are two main societies?
Answer:
Comte identified by his three stages. Comte identified two major types of societies they are, theological-mility society and scientific-industrial society.

Question 9.
Who has written the book suicide?
Answer:
French Sociologist Emile Durkheim in 1897 was written suicide.

Question 10.
Name the three types of suicide of Durkheim?
Answer:
Three types of suicide are anomic suicide, Altruistic suicide and Egoistic suicide.

Question 11.
What is Anomic suicide?
Answer:
Anomic suicide happens when the deint engrating forces in the society make individuals feel lost or alone. Teenage suicide is usually cited as an example of this type of suicide, as is suicide committed by those who have been sexually abused as children or whose parents are alcoholic.

Question 12.
What is Altruistic suicide?
Answer:
Altruistic suicide happens when there is excessive regulation of individuals by social forces. An example is someone who commits suicide for the sake of religious or political cause.

Question 13.
What is Egoistic suicide?
Answer:
Egoistic suicide happens when people feel totally detached from society. Ordinarily people are entegrated into society by work roles, ties to tamely and community, and other social bonds.

When these bonds are weakened through retirement or loss of family and friends, the livelihood of egoistic suicide increases.

Question 14.
What is Sanskritization?
Answer:
Sanskritization is the process by which a low Hindu caste or tribal or other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and way office in the direction of a ‘high’ and frequently a twice-born caste.

Question 15.
What is Applied Research?
Answer:
Applied research is focussed up on areal life problem requiring an action or policy decision.

Question 16.
Write the types of Action Research?
Answer:
Types of action Research are:

• Classical design
• Interdependence of action and research.
• Evaluate research built into action programme.
• Action for research.

Question 17.
Write four characteristics of observation research?
Answer:
It is physical and mental activity. It is selective and purposeful. It is a scientific tool of research. It is a direct study of situation or phenomenon.

Question 18.
What are the five sequential steps of observation method?
Answer:
They are:

• Preparation and tracing.
• Entry into the study of environment.
• Initial interaction.
• Observation and training.
• Termination of fieldwork.

Question 19.
Write types of observation?
Answer:

• Participant observation.
• Nonparticipant observation.
• Controlled observation.
• Uncontrolled observation.
• Direct observation.
• Indirect observation.

Short Type Questions And Answers

Question 1.
What is August Comte’s law of three stages? Discuss?
Answer:
The Law of three stages is the comer stone of Auguste Comte’s approach. Comte’s ideas relating to the law of three stages reveal that man is becoming more and more rational and scientific in his approach by gradually giving up speculations, imagination etc.

He has shown that there is a close association between intellectual evolution and social progress.

The law of three stages is the three stages of mental and social development. It is the coordination of feeling, thought and action in individuals and society. There are three important aspects of our nature. Such as our feelings, our thought and our actions.

Our feelings:
The emotions and impulses which prompt us.

Our thought:
Which are undertaken in the service of our feelings but also helps to govern them.

Our actions:
Which are undertaken in the service of our feelings and thought. For the continuity and existence of society there must be some order of institutions, valiles, beliefs and knowledge which can successfully correlate the feelings, thought and activity of its members.

In the history of mankind during which the social order bringing these elements into relation with each other has been worked out three types,of solution, three, stages of development can be distinguished.

According to Comte, each of our leading conceptions-each branch of our knowledge passes successively through different theoretical conditions’.
1. The Theological or fictitious,
2. The Metaphysical or abstract,
3. The Scientific or positive.

Question 2.
Discuss the Comte’s three stages of observation?
Answer:
Comte considered his law of Three stages based upon belief in social evolution to be the most important. There has been an evolution in the human thinking, so that each succeeding stage is superior to and more evolved than the preceding stage.

It can hardly be questioned that Comte’s law of three stages has a strong mentalist or idealistic bias. He co-related each mental age of mankind with its characteristic accompanying social organisation and type of political dominance. This law appeared in the year 1822 in his book Positive Philosophy.

The Theological or Fictitious stage:
The theological stage is the first and it characterised the world prior to 1300. Here all theoretical conceptions, whether general or special bear a supernatural impress. At this level of thinking there is a marked lack of logical and orderly thinking. Overall the theological thinking implies belief in super natural power.

Metaphysical or Abstract Stage: The metaphysical stage started about 1300 A.D. and was short lived roughly till 1800. It forms a link and is mongrel and transitional. It is almost an extension of theological thinking. It corresponds very roughly to the middle Ages and Renaissance.

It was under the sway of churchmen and lawyers. This stage was characterised by Defence. Here mind pre-supposes abstract forces. ‘Meta’ means beyond and physical means material world.

Supernatural being is replaced by supernatural force. This is in form of essences, ideas and forms. Rationalism started growing instead of imagination.

The Positive or Scientific stage: Finally in 1800 the world entered the positivistic stage. The positive stage represents the scientific way of thinking. Positive thought ushers in an industrial age.

The positive or scientific knowledge is based upon facts and these facts are gathered by observation and experience. All phenomena are seen as subject to natural laws that can be investigated by observations and experimentation.

Question 3.
What is The Theological or Fictitious stage?
Answer:
The theological stage is the first and it characterised the world prior to 1300. Here all theoretical conceptions, whether General or special bear a supernatural impress.

At this level of thinking there is a marked lack of logical and orderly thinking. Overall the theological thinking implies belief in super natural power.

This type of thinking is found among the primitive races. In theological stage, all natural phenomena and social events were explained in terms of super natural forces and deities, which ultimately explaining everything as the product of God’s will. This stage is dominated by priests and ruled by military men.

Human mind is dominated by sentiments, feelings and emotions. Every phenomenon was believed to be the result of immediate actions of super-natural beings. Explanations take the form of myths concerning spirits and super natural beings.

Man seeks the essential nature of all beings, first and final causes, origins and purposes of all effects and the overriding belief that all things are caused by super natural beings. Theology means discourse in religion. Religion dominates in this state of development.

This state is characterised by conquest. The theological—military society was basically dying. Priests were endowed with intellectual and spiritual power, while military exercised temporal authority.

It has three sub-stages:
Fetishism:
‘Fetish’ means inanimate and ‘is’m’ means philosophy. This is a philosophy which believes that super natural power dwells in inanimate object. Fetishism as a form of religion started which admitted of no priesthood.

When everything in nature is thought to be imbued with life analogous to our own, pieces of wood, stone, skull etc. are believed to be the dwelling place of super natural powers, as these objects are believed to possess divine power.

But too many fetishes created confusion for people. Hence they started believing in several gods. Thus arose polytheism.

Polytheism:
‘Poly’ means many. So the belief in many Gods is called polytheism. Human being received variety or diversity of natural phenomena. Each phenomenon was kept under the disposal of one God.

One God was believed to be in charge of one particular natural phenomenon. In polytheism, there is an unrestrained imagination person the world with innumerable Gods and spirits.

People created the class of priests to get the goodwill and the blessings of these gods. The presence of too many gods also created for them mental contradictions. Finally they developed the idea of one God, i.e. monotheism.

Monotheism:
It means belief in one single God. He is all in all. He controls everything in this world. He is the maker of human destiny. Monotheism is the climax of the theological stage of thinking.

The monotheistic thinking symbolizes the victory of human intellect and reason over non-intellectual and irrational thinking. Slowly feelings and imaginations started giving place to thinking and rationality.

In monotheism a simplification of many gods into one God takes place, largely in the service of awakening reason, which qualifies and exercises constraint upon the imagination.

In theological stage, soldiers, kings, priests etc. were given respect in the society. Everything was considered in terms of family welfare. Love and affection bonded the members of a family together.

In this stage social organisation is predominantly of a military nature. It is the military power which provides the basis of social stability and conquest which enlarges the bounds of social life.

(a) Progress is observable in all aspects of society: physical, moral, intellectual and political.
(b) The intellectual is the most important. History is dominated by the development of ideas leading to changes in other areas.
(c) Auguste Comte says on the “Co-relations” between basic intellectual stages and stages of material development, types of social units, types of social order and sentiments.

Question 4.
What is Metaphysical or Abstract Stage?
Answer:
The metaphysical stage started about 1300 A.D. and was short lived roughly till 1800. It forms a link and is mongrel and transitional. It is almost an extension of theological thinking. It corresponds very roughly to the middle Ages and Renaissance.

It was under the sway of churchmen and lawyers. This stage was characterised by Defence. Here mind pre-supposes abstract forces. ‘Meta’ means beyond and physical means material world.

Supernatural being is replaced by supernatural force. This is in form of essences, ideas and forms. Rationalism started growing instead of imagination.

Rationalism states that God does not stand directly behind every phenomenon. Pure reasoning insists that God is an Abstract being. Under metaphysical thinking it is believed that an abstract power or force guides and determines the events in the world.

Metaphysical thinking discards belief in concrete God. It is characterised by the dominance of “ratiocination.”

In metaphysical stage speculative thought is unchecked by any other principle. Human body was considered to be the spark of divinity. This kind of thinking corresponded with the legal type of society; and law, lawyers and churchmen dominated the society; Law remained under the control of the state.

Question 5.
What is The Positive or Scientific stage?
Answer:
Finally in 1800 the world entered the positivistic stage. The positive stage represents the scientific way of thinking. Positive thought ushers in an industrial age.

The positive or scientific knowledge is based upon facts and these facts are gathered by observation and experience. All phenomena are seen as subject to natural laws that can be investigated by observations and experimentation.

The drawn of the 19th Century marked the beginning of the positive stage in which observation predominates over imagination. All theoretical concepts have become positive.

The concept of God is totally vanished from human mind. Human mind tries to establish cause and affect relationship. Mind is actually in search of final and ultimate cause.

The scientific thinking is thoroughly rational and there is no place for any belief or superstition in it. This stage is governed by industrial administrators and scientific moral guides. At this stage of thought, men reject all supposed explanations in terms either of Gods or essences as useless.

They cease to seek ‘original causes’ or ‘final ends’. This stage is dominated by the entrepreneurs, technologists etc. Unit of society was confined to the mankind as a whole, vision of mind was broad and there is no parochial feeling. Kindness, sympathy etc to the cause of the humanity prevailed.

This is the ultimate stage in a series of successive transformations. The new system is built upon the destruction of the old; with evolution, come progress and emancipation of human mind.

Human history is the history of a single man, Comte, because the progress of the man mind gives unity to the entire history of society. For Comte, all knowledge is inescapably human knowledge; a systematic ordering of propositions concerning our human experience of the world.

Corresponding to the three stages of mental progress; Comte identified two major types of societies. The theological-military society which was dying, the scientific-industrial society which was being born during his life time.

Flere the main stress is on the transformation of the material resources of the earth for human benefit and the production of material inventions. In this positive or scientific stage the great thought blends itself with great power.

Question 6.
Comte’s law of three stages have been criticized by different philosophers and sociologists. Discuss?
Answer:
According to Bogardus, Comte failed to postulate a fourth mode of thinking, i.e. socialized thinking, a system of thought which would emphasize the purpose of building the constructive, just and harmonious societies.

Bogardus also says, Comte however, should be credited with opening the way for rise of socialized thinking.

According to Prof. N.S. Timasheff, Comte’s law of three stages could not stand the test of facts. He opines, “Neither the later approaches (metaphysical and scientific) wholly supersedes the religious approach; rather there has been accumulation and often admixture of the three”.

C.E. Vaughan has said, “But its foundation is purely negative and destructive. It is powerless to construct and when credited with the ability to do so, it brings forth nothing but anarchy and bloodshed.”

Question 7.
Discuss the Emile Durkheim Suicide and its stages?
Answer:
Suicide, written by French sociologist Emile Durkheim in 1897, was a groundbreaking book in the field of sociology. It was a case study of suicide, a publication unique for its time that provided an example of what the sociological monograph should look like.

In it, Durkheim explored the differing suicide rates among Protestants and Catholics, arguing that stronger social control among Catholics results in lower suicide rates.

He also found that suicide rates were higher among men than women, higher for those who are single than those who are married, higher for people without children than people with children, higher among soldiers than civilians, and higher at times of peace than in times of war.

Durkheim was the first to argue that the causes of suicide were to be found in social factors and not individual personalities. Observing that the rate of suicide varied with time and place, Durkheim looked for causes linked to these factors other than emotional stress.

He looked at the degree to which people feel integrated into the structure of society and their social surroundings as social factors producing suicide and argued that suicide rates are affected by the different social contexts in which they emerge. Durkheim also distinguished between three types of suicide:

Anomic Suicide: Anomic suicide happens when the disintegrating forces in the society make individuals feel lost or alone. Teenage suicide is usually cited as an example of this type of suicide, as is suicide committed by those who have been sexually abused as children or whose parents are alcoholics.

Altruistic Suicide: Altruistic suicide happens when there is excessive regulation of individuals by social forces. An example is someone who commits suicide for the sake of a religious or political cause, such as the hijackers of the airplanes that crashed into the World Trade Centre, the Pentagon, and a field in Pennsylvania on 9/11/01.

People who commit altruistic suicide subordinate themselves to collective expectations, even when death is the result.

Egoistic Suicide: Egoistic suicide happens when people feel totally detached from society. Ordinarily, people are integrated into society by work roles, ties to family and community, and other social bonds.

When these bonds are weakened through retirement or loss of family and friends, the likelihood of egoistic suicide increases. Elderly people who lose these ties are the most susceptible to egoistic suicide.

Question 8.
What is the Concept of Sanskritisation?
Answer:
The term ‘sanskritisation ’ was conceived by M.N. Srinivas. It helps to describe the process of cultural mobility in the traditional social structure of India. Srinivas found empirical evidence for constructing sanskritisation in his study of religion and society among Coorgs in Mysore.

Caste system in theory is a closed system. Movement upwards or downwards within it is inadmissible, although there is some movement in practice. Despite this limitation of caste system, the concept of ‘sanskritisation’ helps to explain social change within the caste system.
The term ‘sanskritisation’ was conceived by M.N. Srinivas.

It helps to describe the process of cultural mobility in the traditional social structure of India. Srinivas found empirical evidence for constructing sanskritisation in his study of religion and society among Coorgs in Mysore.

He found that “lower castes, in order to raise their position in the caste hierarchy, adopted some customs of the Brahmins and gave up some of their own, considered to be impure by the higher castes.

For instance, they gave up meat-eating, consumption of liquor and animal sacrifice to their deities; they imitated the Brahmins in matters of dress, food and rituals. By doing this, within a generation or so, they could claim higher positions in the hierarchy of caste”. M.N. Srinivas, initially defined sanskritisation to denote Brahminisation.

Later on, he replaced it by sanskritisation. Brahminisation was limited in its scope and did not include other models, of caste mobility. His findings of Coorgs, thus, were of a specific kind and did not include the other non-Brahmin castes, which were twice-born. The concept of sanskritisation redefined by M.N. Srinivas runs as below:

Sanskritisation is the process by which a Tow’ Hindu caste or tribal or other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and way of life in the direction of a ‘high’ and, frequently, ‘twice-born’ caste.

Generally, such changes are followed by a claim to a higher position in the caste hierarchy than that traditionally conceded to the claimant caste by the local community. The claim is usually made over a period of time, in fact, a generation or two, before the ‘arrival’ is conceded.

Sanskritisation, in fact, is the process of cultural and social mobility within the framework of caste. In this case, the source of social change lies within the caste system. In other words, the source of social change is indigenous.

In terms of general sociology it is a process of socialisation wherein the lower castes socialise themselves with the customs, rituals and ideology of the higher castes, i.e., the twice-born castes of Brahmins, Rajputs and Banias.

The scope of sanskritisation also extends beyond the cast system. It includes non-caste groups also, such as tribals. For social change, the caste of a local place makes its model of imitation. This imitation model could be any twice-born caste. Yogendra Singh applies the redefined concept of sanskritisation to the ‘varna’ system.

He says that the central idea of Sanskritisation is that of hierarchy in caste system, theoretically represented by varna. There are four names, viz., the Brahmin, the Kshatriya, the Vaishya and the Shudra in the same hierarchical order, and all individual castes or sub-castes, with the exception of the untouchables, can be classified on the basis of varna into a hierarchical order.

The untouchables have traditionally been outside the varna hierarchy and form the lowest rung of the caste stratification.

Question 9.
Discuss the Characteristics of Sanskritisation.
Answer:
When the concept of Sanskritisation emerged in sociological literature in 1952, it created much academic uproar among social anthropologists and sociologists.

It was agreed that the concept is useful to analyse social change among villagers, especially in terms of cultural change.

Both Indian and foreign social anthropologists reacted to the usefulness of the concept on the basis of whatever is available in sociological research material, we give below a few of the basic characteristics of Sanskritisation:

1. It is a cultural paradigm: Ideas, beliefs, traditions, rituals, and things of this kind constitute the culture of a caste. When there is a change in these aspects of social life, it is a change in cultural life. Thus, Sanskritisation is a cultural change among the lower castes and non-caste groups.

2. Sanskritisation is a change directed to twice-born castes: Though, initially, Sanskritisation meant Brahmiriisation, later on, Srinivas included other models of higher castes for imitation.

It was Milton Singer (1964) who had drawn the attention of Srinivas by saying that there existed not one or two models of Sanskritisation but three if not four.

He said that the local version of Sanskritic Hinduism may use the four labels Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra but the defining content of these labels varies with locality and needs to be empirically determined for any particular locality.

For instance, a particular village may ‘ imitate Brahmins as their model of change but looking at the historicity and contextuality, another village may decide on Kshatriya or Vaishya as their model. Brahmins not in all cases are homogeneous. Nor are the Kshatriyas.

There are Brahmins, such as the Kashmiri, Bengali, and Saraswat who are non-vegetarians. Similarly, there is variation among the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas.

It is, therefore, the local history and the contexts which determine the Sanskritic model for the lower castes. However, the Shudras do not make any model for imitation.

3. Sanskritisation also applies to tribals or non-caste groups: In his refined definition, Srinivas has stated that Sanskritisation is not confined to Hindu castes only but it also occurs among tribal and semi-tribal groups, such as the Bhils of western India, the Gonds and Oraons of central India, and the Paradise of the Himalayas.

These tribal groups claim to attain the status of a caste, i.e., to become a Hindu.

4. Sanskritic values, ideology, and beliefs belong to Indian tradition: When Srinivas talks of Sanskritisation of the lower castes, he has in his view the caste-Hindu traditions. Hinduism draws heavily from its scriptures, such as Ramayana, Mahabharata, Upanishads, and Brahmanas.

The values and beliefs held in these scriptures become the content material for the imitation of the lower castes. The Brahmins, i.e., the priestly caste, naturally interpret the traditions and, therefore, become the model of imitation for the lower castes.

Surely, the acquisition of wealth and power makes a group or person belonging to a caste, important. But, only wealth and power do not enhance the status of a caste.

The improvement in the ritual status can only help the lower caste to improve their hierarchy in the caste system. The imitation of the customs and habits of the higher caste, therefore, goes a long way in imparting Sanskritic status to the lower caste, if the latter has wealth and power.

5. Sanskritisation, in other words, also means teetotalism: Srinivas, to be fair to him, has always refined and redefined his understanding of Sanskritisation.

At a later stage, he found that the lower castes in Sanskritisation have a tendency to move higher in the caste hierarchy, and in a generation or two they could improve their status in the caste hierarchy by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism.

Empirically no researcher has reported that a lower caste has improved its rank in the hierarchy despite having three generations.

Though there is no improvement in the rank it must be said that the lower castes have taken to the prohibition of alcoholism and many of the evils which traditionally characterized their caste.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 1 Early Societies Long Answer Questions

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Describe the classification of early humans.
Answer:
The remains of early humans have been classified into different species. These are often distinguished from one another on the basis of differences in bone structure. For instance, species of early humans are differentiated in terms of their skull size and distinctive jaws. These characteristics may have evolved due to what has been called the positive feedback mechanism.

For example, bipedaliSm enabled hands to be freed for carrying infants or objects. In turn, as hands were used more and more, upright walking gradually became more efficient. Apart from the advantage of freeing hands for various uses, far less energy is consumed while walking as compared to the movement of a quadruped.

However, the advantage in terms of saving energy is reversed while running. There is indirect evidence of bipedalism as early as 3.6 mya. This comes from the fossilised hominid footprints at Laetoli, Tanzania. Fossil limb bones recovered from Hadar, Ethiopia provides more direct evidence of bipedalism.

With the onset of a phase of glaciation (or an Ice Age), when large parts of the earth were covered with snow, there were major changes in climate and vegetation. Due to the reduction in temperatures as well as rainfall, grassland areas expanded at the expense of forests, leading to the gradual extinction of the early forms of Australopithecus (that were adapted to forests) and the replacement by species that were better adapted to the drier conditions.

Among these were the earliest representatives of the genus Homo. Homo is a Latin word, meaning ‘man’, although there were women as well. Scientists distinguish amongst several types of Homo. The names assigned to these species are derived from what is regarded as their typical characteristics.

So fossils are classified as Homo hails (the toolmaker), Homo erectus (the upright man), and Homo sapiens (the wise or thinking man). Fossils of Homo habilis have been discovered at Omo in Ethiopia and at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The earliest fossils of Homo erectus have been found both in Africa and Asia: Koobi Fora, west Turkana, Kenya, Modjokerto and Sangiran, Java.

As the finds in Asia belong to a later date than those in Africa, it is likely that hominids migrated from East Africa to southern aid northern Africa, to southern and north-eastern Asia, and perhaps to Europe, sometime between 2 and 1.5 mya. This species survived for nearly a million years.

In some instances, the names of fossils are derived from the places where the first fossils of a particular type were found. So fossils found in Heidelberg, a city in Germany, were called Homo heidelbergensis, while those found in the Neander valley were categorised as Homo neanderthalensis. The earliest fossils from Europe are of Homo heidelbergensis and Homo neanderthalensis.

Both belong to the species of archaic (that is, old) Homo sapiens. The fossils of Homo heidelbergensis (0.8-0.1 mya) have a wide distribution, having been found in Africa, Asia and Europe. The Neanderthals occupied Europe and western and Central Asia from roughly 130,000 to 35,000 years ago. They disappeared abruptly in Western Europe around 35,000 years ago.

In general, compared with Australopithecus, Homo have a larger brain, jaws with a reduced outward protrusion and smaller teeth. An increase in brain size is associated with more intelligence and better memory. The changes in the jaws and teeth were probably related to differences in dietary habits.

Question 2.
How early did humans obtain their food?
Answer:
Early humans would have obtained food in a number of ways, such as gathering, hunting, scavenging and fishing. The gathering would involve collecting plant foods such as seeds, nuts, berries, fruits and tubers. That gathering was practised is generally assumed rather than conclusively established, as there is very little direct evidence for it.

While we get a fair amount of fossil bones, fossilised plant remains are relatively rare. The only other way of getting information about plant intake would be if plant remains were accidentally burnt. This process results in carbonisation. In this form, organic matter is preserved for a long span of time. However, so far archaeologists have not found much evidence of carbonised seeds for this very early period.

In recent years, the term hunting has been under discussion by scholars. Increasingly, it is being suggested that the early hominids scavenged or foraged for meat and marrow from the carcasses of animals that had died naturally or had been killed by other predators. It is equally possible that small mammals such as rodents, birds (and their eggs), reptiles and even insects (such as termites) were eaten by early hominids.

Hunting probably began later – about 5000 years ago. The earliest clear evidence for the deliberate, planned hunting and butchery of large mammals comes from two sites: Boxgrove in southern England (500,000 years ago) and Schoningen in Germany (400,000 years ago) Fishing was also important, as is evident from the discovery of fish bones at different sites.

Fishing was also important, as is evident from the discovery of fish bones at different sites. From about 3 5,000 years ago, there is evidence of planned hunting from some European sites. Some sites, such as (Dolni Vestontee) in the Czech Republic, which was near a river, seem to have been deliberately chosen by early people.

Herds of migratory animals such as reindeer and horses probably crossed the river during their autumn and spring migrations and were killed on a large scale. The choice of such sites indicates that people knew about the movement of these animals and also about the means of killing large numbers of animals quickly.

Question 3.
How early did humans make their tools?
Answer:
Birds are known to make objects to assist them with feeding, hygiene and social encounters and while foraging for food some chimpanzees use tools that they have made. However, there are some features of human tool-making that are not known among apes. As we have seen certain anatomical and neurological (related to the nervous system) adaptations have led to the skilled use of hands, probably due to the important role of tools in human lives.

Moreover, the ways in which humans use and make tools often require greater memory and complex organisational skills, both of which are absent in apes. The earliest evidence for the making and use of stone tools comes from sites in Ethiopia and Kenya. It is likely that the earliest stone tool makers were the Australopithecus.

As in the case of other activities, we do not know whether tool-making was done by men or women or both. It is possible that stone toolmakers were both women and men. Women in particular may have made and used tools to obtain food for themselves as well as to sustain their children after weaning.

About 35,000 years ago, improvements in the techniques for killing animals are evident from the appearance of new kinds of tools such as spear-throwers and the bow and arrow. The meat thus obtained was probably by drying, smoking and storage. Thus, food processed by removing the bones followed and could be stored for later consumption.

There were other changes, such as the trapping of fur-bearing animals (to use the fur’ for clothing) and the invention of sewing needles. The earliest evidence of sewn clothing comes from about 21,000 years ago. Besides, with the introduction of the punch blade technique to make small chisel-like tools, it was now possible to make engravings on bone, antler, ivory or wood.

Question 4.
What was the way people communicates in early times?
Answer:
Among living beings, it is humans alone that have a language. There are several views on language development:

• that hominid language involved gestures or hand movements
• that spoken language was preceded, by vocal but non-verbal communication such as singing or humming
• that human speech probably began with calls like the ones that have been observed among primates.

Humans may have possessed a small number of speech sounds in the initial stage. Gradually, these may have developed into language. It has been suggested that the brain of Homo habilis had certain features which would have made it possible for them to speak. Thus, language may have developed as early as 2 mya.

The evolution of the vocal tract was equally important. This occurred around 2000 years ago. It is more specifically associated with modem humans. A third suggestion is that language developed around the same time as art, that is, around 40,000-35,000 years ago. The development of spoken language has been seen as closely connected with art since both are media for communication.

Hundreds of paintings of animals (done between 30,000 and 12,000 years ago) have been discovered in the caves of Lascaux and Chauvet, both in France and Altamira, in Spain. These include depictions of bison, horses, ibex, deer, mammoths, rhinos, lions, bears, panthers, hyenas and owls. More questions have been raised than answered regarding these paintings.

For example, why do some areas of caves have paintings and not others? Why were some animals painted and not others? Why were men painted both individually and in groups, whereas women were depicted only in groups? Why were men painted near animals but never women? Why were groups of animals painted in the sections of caves where sounds carried well? Several explanations have been offered.

One is that because of the importance of hunting, the paintings of animals were associated with ritual and magic. The act of painting could have been a ritual to ensure a successful hunt. Another explanation offered is that these caves were possibly meeting places for small groups of people or locations for group activities.

These groups could share hunting techniques and knowledge, while paintings and engravings served as the media for passing information from one generation to the next. The above account of early societies has been based on archaeological evidence. Clearly, there is much that we still do not know. As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, hunter-gatherer societies exist even today.

Question 5.
Who is known as the hunter-gather society in early times?
Answer:
African pastoral group about its initial contact in 1870 with the Kung an, a hunter-gatherer society living in the Kalahari desert:
When we first came into this area, all we saw were strange footprints in the sand. We wondered what kind of people these were. They were very afraid of us and would hide whenever we came around.

We found their villages, but they were always empty because as soon as they saw strangers coming, they would scatter and hide in the bush. We said: ‘Oh, this is good; these people are afraid of us, they are weak and we can easily rule over them.’ So we just ruled them. There was no killing or fighting. You will read more about encounters with hunter-gatherers in Themes 8 and 10.

Question 6.
Who are the Hadza?
Answer:
The Hadza are a small group of hunters and gatherers, living in the vicinity of Lake Eyasi, a salt, rift-valley lake. The country of the eastern Hadza, dry, rocky savanna, dominated by thorn scrub and acacia trees is rich in wild foods. Animals are exceptionally numerous and were certainly commoner at the beginning of the century.

Elephants, rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffes, zebra, waterbuck, gazelle, warthog, baboon, lion, leopards, and hyenas are all common, as are smaller animals such as porcupines, hares, jackals, tortoises and many others. All of these animals, apart from the elephant, are hunted and eaten by the Hadza.

The amount of meat that could be regularly eaten without endangering the future of the game is probably greater than anywhere else in the world were hunters and gatherers live or have lived in the recent past. Vegetable food – roots, berries, the fruit of the baobab tree, etc. – though not often obvious to the casual observer, is always abundant even at the height of the dry season in a year of drought.

The type of vegetable food available is different in the six-month wet season from the dry season but there is no period of shortage. The honey and grubs of seven species of wild bees are eaten supplies of these vary from season to season and from year to year. Sources of water are widely distributed over the country in the wet season but are very few in the dry season.

The Hadza consider that about 5-6 kilometres are the maximum distance over which water can reasonably be carried and camps are normally sited within a kilometre of a water course. Part of the country consists of open grass plains but the Hadza never build camps there. Camps are invariably sited among trees or rocks and, by preference, among both.

The eastern Hadza assert no rights over land and its resources. Any individual may live wherever he likes and may hunt animals, collect roots, berries, and honey and draw water anywhere in Hadza country without any sort of restriction. In spite of the exceptional numbers of game animals in their area, the Hadza rely mainly on the wild vegetable matter for their food.

Probably as much as 80 per cent of their food by weight is vegetable, while meat and honey together account for the remaining 20 per cent. Camps are commonly small and widely dispersed in the wet season, large and concentrated near the few available sources of water in the dry season. There is never any shortage of food even in times of drought.

Question 7.
Discuss the Hunter-Gatherer Societies from the present to the past.
Answer:
As our knowledge of present-day hunter-gatherers increased through studies by anthropologists, a question that began to be posed was whether the information about living hunters and gatherers could be used to understand past societies. Currently, there are two opposing views on this issue.

On one side are scholars who have directly applied specific data from present-day hunter-gatherer societies to interpret the archaeological remains of the past. For example, some archaeologists have suggested that the hominids, sites, dating to 2 mya, along the margins of Lake Turkana could have been dry season camps of early humans, because such a practice has been observed among the Hadza and the Kung San.

On the other side are scholars who feel that ethnographic data cannot be used for understanding past societies as the two are totally different. For instance, present-day hunter-gatherer societies pursue several other economic activities along with hunting and gathering. These include engaging in exchange and trade in minor forest produce or working as paid labourers in the fields of neighbouring farmers.

Moreover, these societies are totally marginalised in all senses -geographically, politically and socially. The conditions in which they live are very different from those of early humans. Another problem is that there is a tremendous variation amongst living hunter-gatherer societies. There are conflicting data on many issues such as the relative importance of hunting and gathering, group sizes, or the movement from place to place.

Also, there is little consensus regarding the division of labour in food procurement. Although today generally women gather and men hunt, there are societies where both women and men hunt and gather and make tools. In any case, the important role of women in contributing to the food supply in such societies cannot be denied.

It is perhaps this factor that ensures a relatively equal role for both women and men in present-day hunter-gatherer societies, although there are variations. While this may be the case today, it is difficult to make any such inference from the past.

Question 8.
How farming has started in early times?
Answer:
For several million years, humans lived by hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants. Then, between 10,000 and 4,500 years ago, people in different parts of the world learnt to domesticate certain plants and animals. This led to the development of farming and pastoralism as a way of life. The shift from foraging to fanning was a major turning point in human history.

Why did this change take place at this point in time? The last ice age came to an end about 130 years ago and with that warmer, wetter conditions prevailed. As a result, conditions were favourable for the growth of grasses such as wild barley and wheat. At the same time, as open forests and grasslands expanded, the population of certain animal species such as wild sheep, goats, cattle, pigs and donkeys increased.

What we find is that human societies began to gradually prefer areas that had an abundance of wild grasses and animals. Now relatively large, permanent communities occupied such areas for most parts of the year. With some areas being clearly preferred, pressure may have built up to increase the food supply. This may Have triggered the process of domestication of certain plants and animals.

It is likely that a combination of factors which included climatic change, population pressure, a greater reliance on and knowledge of a few species of plants (such as wheat, barley, rice and millet) and animals (such as sheep, goat, cattle, donkey and pig) played a role in this transformation.

One such area Where farming and pastoralism began around 10,00t) years ago was the Fertile Crescent, extending from the Mediterranean coast to the Zagros mountains in Iran. With the introduction of agriculture, more people began to stay in one place for even longer periods than they had done before. Thus permanent houses began to be built of mud, mud bricks and even stone. These are some of the earliest villages known to archaeologists.

Farming and pastoralism led to the introduction of many other changes such as the making of pots in which to store grain and other produce and to cook food. Besides, new kinds of stone tools came into use. Other new tools such as the plough were used in agriculture. Gradually, people became familiar with metals such as copper and tin. The wheel, important for both pot making and transportation, came into use.

Question 9.
Discuss Mesopotamia and its Geography.
Answer:
Iraq is left of diverse environments. In the northeast lie green, undulating plains, gradually rising to tree-covered mountain ranges with clear streams and wildflowers, with enough rainfall to grow crops. Here, agriculture began between 7000 and 6000 BCE. In the north, there is a stretch of upland called a steppe, where animal herding offers people a better livelihood than agriculture – after the winter rains, sheep and goats feed on the grasses and low shrubs that grow here.

To the east, tributaries of the Tigris provide routes of communication into the mountains of Iran. The south is a desert – and this is where the first cities and writing emerged (see below). This desert could support cities because the rivers Euphrates and Tigris, which rise in the northern mountains, carry loads of silt (fine mud).

When they flood or when their water is let out onto the fields, fertile silt is deposited. After the Euphrates has entered the desert, its water flows out into small channels. These channels flood their banks and, in the past, functioned as irrigation canals: water could be let into the fields of wheat, barley, peas or lentils when necessary.

Of all ancient systems, that of the Roman Empire (Theme 3) included, it was the agriculture of southern Mesopotamia that was the most productive, even though the region did not have sufficient rainfall to grow crops. Not only agriculture but Mesopotamian sheep and goats also grazed on the steppe, the northeastern plains and the mountain slopes (that is, on tracts too high for the rivers to flood and fertilise).

Produced meat, milk and wool in abundance, Further, fish was available in rivers and date palms gave fruit in summer. Let us not, however, make the mistake of thinking that cities grew simply because of rural prosperity. We shall discuss other factors by and by, but first, let us be clear about city life.

Question 10.
How the development of writing takes place in Mesopotamia civilizations?
Answer:
All societies have languages in which certain spoken sounds convey certain meanings. This is verbal communication. Writing too is verbal communication – but in a different way. When we talk about writing or a script, we mean that spoken sounds are represented in visible signs. The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like signs and numbers.

These were about 5,000 lists of oxen, fish, bread loaves, etc. lists of goods that were brought into or distributed from the temples of Uruk, a city in the south. Clearly, writing began when society needed to keep records of transactions because in city life transactions occurred at different times and involved many people and a variety of goods.

Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay. A scribe would wet clay and pat it into a size he could hold comfortably in one hand. He would carefully smoothen its surfaces. With the sharp end of the agreed cut obliquely, he would press wedge-shaped cuneiform signs onto the smoothened surface while it was still moist.

Once dried in the sun, the clay would harden and tablets would be almost as indestructible as pottery. When a written record of, say, the delivery of pieces of metal had ceased to be relevant, the tablet was thrown away. Once the surface dried, signs could not be pressed onto a tablet: so each transaction, however minor, required a separate written tablet.

This is why tablets occur by the hundreds at Mesopotamian sites. And it is because of this wealth of sources that we know so much more about Mesopotamia than we do about contemporary India. By 2600 BCE or so, the letters became cuneiform and the language was Sumerian.

The writing was now used not only for keeping records, but also for making dictionaries, giving legal validity to land transfers, narrating the deeds of kings, and announcing the changes a king had made in the customary laws of the land. Sumerian, the earliest known language of Mesopotamia, was gradually replaced after 2400 BCE by the Akkadian language. Cuneiform writing in the Akkadian language continued in use until the first century CE, that is, for more than 2,000 years.

Question 11.
Discuss the temples and kings in Mesopotamia as a civilization.
Answer:
Early settlers (their origins are unknown) began to build and rebuild temples at selected spots in their villages. The earliest known temple was a small shrine made of unbaked bricks. Temples were the residences of various gods of the Moon God of Ur, or of manna the Goddess of Love and War.

Constructed in brick, temples became larger over time, with Several rooms around open courtyards. Some of the early ones were possibly not unlike the ordinary house for the temple was the house of a god. But temples always had their outer walls going in and out at regular intervals, which no ordinary building ever did.

The god was the focus of worship to his or her people and brought grain, curd and fish (the floors of some early temples had thick layers of fish bones). The god was also the theoretical owner of the agricultural fields, the fisheries, and the herds of the local community. In time, the processing of produce (for example, oil pressing, grain grinding, spinning, and the weaving of woollen cloth) was also done in the temple.

The organiser of production at a level above the household, employer of merchants and keeper of written records of distributions and allotments of grain, plough animals, bread, beer, fish, etc., the temple gradually developed its activities and became the main urban institution.

Question 12.
What is a family system in Mesopotamia civilization?
Answer:
In Mesopotamian society, the nuclear family was the norm, although a married son and his family often resided with his parents. The father was the head ofthe family. We know a little about the procedures for marriage. A declaration was made about the willingness to marry, and the bride’s parents gave their consent to the marriage.

Then a gift was given by the groom’s people to the bride’s people. When the wedding took place, gifts were exchanged by both parties, who ate together and made offerings in a temple. When her mother-in-law came to fetch her, the bride was given her share of the inheritance by her father. The father’s house, herds, fields, etc., were inherited by the sons.

Abstract Archaeologists have made attempts to reconstruct the lives of early people to find out about the shelters in which they lived, the food they ate by gathering plant produce and hunting animals, and the ways in which they expressed themselves. Other important developments include the use of fire and of language.

And, finally, you will see whether the lives of people who live by hunting and gathering today can help us to understand the past. The second theme deals with some of the earliest cities of Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq. These cities developed around temples and were centres of long-distance trade.

Archaeological evidence remains of old settlements and an abundance of written material are used to reconstruct the lives of the different people who lived there craftspeople, scribes, labourers, priests, kings and queens. You will notice how pastoral people played an important role in some of these towns.

A question to think about is whether the many activities that went on in cities would have been possible if the writing had not developed. You may wonder how people who for millions of years had lived in forests, in caves or in temporary shelters began to eventually live in villages and cities.

Well, the story is a long one and is related to several developments that took place at least 5,000 years before the establishment ofthe first cities. One ofthe most far-reaching changes was the gradual shift from nomadic life to settled agriculture, which began around 10,000 years ago. As you will see in Theme 1, prior to the adoption of agriculture, people gathered plants to produce as a source of food.

Slowly, they learnt more about different kinds of plants – where they grew, the seasons when they bore fruit and so on. From this, they learnt to grow plants. In West Asia, wheat and barley, peas and various kinds of pulses were grown. In East and Southeast Asia, the crops that grew easily were millet and rice. Millet was also grown in Africa.

Around the same time, people learnt how to domesticate animals such as sheep, goats, cattle, pigs and donkeys. Plant fibres such as cotton and flax and animal fibres such as wool were now woven into cloth. Somewhat later, about 5,000 years ago, domesticated animals such as cattle and donkeys were harnessed to ploughs and carts.

These developments led to other changes as well. When people grew crops, they had to stay in the same place till the crops ripened. So, settled life became more common. And with that, people built more permanent structures in which to live. This was also the time when some communities learnt how to make earthen pots.

These were used to store grain and other produce, and to prepare and cook a variety of foods made from the new grains that were cultivated. In fact, a great deal of attention was given to processing foods to make them tasty and digestible. The way stone tools were made also changed.

While earlier methods of making tools continued, some tools and equipment were now smoothened and polished by an elaborate process of grinding. New equipment included mortars and pestles for preparing grain, as well as stone axes and hoes, which were used to clear land for cultivation, as well as for digging the earth to sow seeds.

In some areas, people learnt to tap the ores of metals such as copper and tin. Sometimes, copper ores were collected and used for their distinctive bluish-green colour. This prepared the way for the more extensive use of metal for jewellery and for tools subsequently. There was also a growing familiarity with other kinds of produce from distant lands (and seas).

This included wood, stones, including precious and semi-precious stones, metals and shells, and hardened volcanic lava. Clearly, people were going from place to place, carrying goods and ideas with them. With increasing trade, the growth of villages and towns, and the movements of people, in place of the small communities of early people there now grew small states.

While these changes took place slowly, over several thousand years, the pace quickened with the growth of the first cities. Also, the changes had far-reaching consequences. Some scholars have, described this as a revolution, as the lives of people were probably transformed beyond recognition.

Look out for continuities and changes as you explore these two contrasting themes in early history. Remember too, that we have selected only some examples of early societies for detailed study. There were other kinds of early societies, including farming communities and pastoral peoples. And there were other peoples who were hunter-gatherers as well as city dwellers, apart from the examples selected.

Writing and City Life:
City life began in Mesopotamia, the land between the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers that is now part of the Republic of Iraq Mesopotamian civilisation is “known for its prosperity, city life, its voluminous and rich literature and Us mathematics and astronomy. Mesopotamia’s writing system and literature spread to the eastern Mediterranean, northern Syria, and Turkey after 2000 BCE, so the kingdoms of that entire region were writing to one another, arid to the Pharaoh of Egypt, in the language and script of Mesopotamia.

Here we shall explore the connection between city life and writing, and then look at some outcomes of a sustained tradition of writing. At the beginning of recorded history, the land, mainly the urbanised south (see discussion below), was called Sumer and Akkad. After 2000 BCE, when Babylon became an important city, the term Babylonia was used for the southern region. From about 1100 BCE, when the Assyrians established their kingdom in the north, the, region became, known as Assyria.

The first known language of the land was Sumerian. It was gradually replaced by Akkadian around 2400 BCE when Akkadian speakers arrived. This language flourished till about Alexander’s-time (316 – 323 BCE)with some regional changes occurring. From 1400 BCE, Aromatic also trickled in. This language, similar to Hebrew, became widely spoken after 1000 BCE. It is still spoken in parts of Iraq.

Excavation Mesopotamian Towns:
Today, Mesopotamian excavators have much higher standards of accuracy and care in recording than in the old days, so few dig huge areas the way Ur was excavated. Moreover, few archaeologists have the funds to employ large teams of excavators. Thus, the mode of obtaining data has changed. Take the small at Abu Salabikh, about 10 hectares in area in 2500 BCE with a population of less than 10,000.

The outlines of walls were first traced by scraping surfaces. This involves scraping off the top few millimetres of the mound with the sharp and wide end of a shovel or other tool. While the soil underneath was still slightly moist, the archaeologist could make out different colours, textures and lines of brick walls or pits or other features. A few houses that were discovered were excavated.

The archaeologists also sieved through tons of earth to recover plant and animal remains and in the process identified many species of plants and animals and found large quantities of charred fish bones that had been swept out onto the streets. Plant seeds and fibre remained after during cakes had been burned as fuel and thus kitchens were identified. Living rooms were those with fewer traces.

Because they’d found the teeth of very young pigs on the streets, archaeologists concluded that pigs must have roamed freely here as in any other Mesopotamian town. In fact, one house burial contained some pig bones – the dead person must have been given some park for his nourishment in the afterlife! The archaeologists also made microscopic studies of room floors to decide which rooms in a house were roofed (with poplar logs, palm leaves, straw, etc.) and which were open to the sky.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 5 Sociology, Methods and Techniques Long Answer Questions

Long Type questions and answers

Question 1.
Discuss different Criticism on Srinivas?
Answer:
It must be admitted that Srinivas has made a serious attempt to analyse social change not only in villages but in the wider society at large. Concepts are not theories they are only formats of a theory.

There is a possibility of a format to suffer from several weaknesses. Response of Srinivas’ concept of Sanskritisation has been much encouraging, not with standing its drawbacks.

For instance, in 1965, the University of Chicago organised a seminar on ‘Social Change in India’. The seminar was important in the sense that it was attended by Srinivas himself and a number of social anthropologists, such as Bernard S. Cohen, David G. Mandelbaum, McKim Marriott, Owen M. Lynch, Milton Singer and a few others.

All these had rich experience of working in Indian villages. Sanskritisation was discussed thoroughly in this conference. Besides, some of the Indian sociologists also conducted intensive field studies to verify the concept. The critique which we give below is drawn from all these comments:

Religion is suigeneris for Srinivas:
Whether we consider dominant caste, Sanskritisation on westernisation, in all these concepts the major thrust of Srinivas is caste. Caste is related to religion and, therefore, when Srinivas talks about caste he means religion.

His fundamental assumption is that caste has originated from religion. It is the Brahma who created four varnas out of the different parts of his body.

Religion and caste, therefore, for Srinivas, are the two sides of the same coin. Viewed from this perspective, the concept of Sanskritisation is the concept of religion.

And when he focuses on caste, he is concerned with hierarchy. K.L. Sharma (1986) rightly observes: Srinivas’s study of the role of religion among the Coorgs is clearly an extension of Radcliffe Brown’s functionalism. Religion is sui generis for Srinivas.

Caste and religion are intertwined. Hence religion becomes the basis of caste hierarchy (emphasis ours). The weakness of the concept of Sanskritisation is that it is only concerned with the culture.

It would not be wrong to say that Srinivas is concerned only with the cultural and normative criteria which bring change in rural society. The economic and political parameters of change have largely been overlooked by him.

Hierarchy is supreme:
The concept of sanskritisation is based on hierarchy. The idea in the process of sanskritisation is that the lower castes might rise to higher caste by imitating the sanskritic rights of the twice-born.

Such a social change is hierarchical. When today, in contemporary India, democratisation has become a new value, hierarchical transformation is increasingly becoming weak.

Parvathamma brings out this weakness of sanskritisation when she observes: In all the writings of Srinivas, the Brahmin non-Brahmin values are juxtapose, hierarchy remains basic to Srinivas.

Social tensions and contradictions by-passed:
For Srinivas, the idea of Indian society is that of caste society. lie altogether forgets that Indian society is a plural society; it does not discriminate individuals on the basis of caste.

By giving the concept of sanskritisation he very rigidly adheres to caste model of Indian society. K.L. Sharma comments harshly on this weakness of Srinivas.

A scholar of the eminence Srinivas does not take cognizance, perhaps inadvertently, of the continuity of ‘social formation’ of Indian society, and prefers to adhere to caste model of Indian society. He refers to ‘rural caste’ and ‘urban caste’, like some American scholars, such as Rosen and Marriott.

Caste and class, theoretically speaking, are principles of social status determination, hence not concerned with ‘rural’ or ‘urban’ people as such. ‘Rural’ and ‘urban’ are patterns of living and not principles of ranking (emphasis ours).

Sanskritisation may lead to interclass hostility:
Yogendra Singh has yet another weakness in the concept of Sanskritisation given by Srinivas. His guess is that sometimes Sanskritisation may manifest suppressed inter-class hostility. In support of his guess Yogendra Singh refers to the observation made by Harold Gould.

One of the prime motives behind Sanskritisation is this factor of repressed hostility which manifests itself not in the form of rejecting the caste system but in the form its victims trying to seize control of it and, thereby, expiate their frustrations on the same battlefield where they acquired them.

Only then can there be a sense of satisfaction in something achieved, i.e., tangible, concrete, and relevant to past experience. Not only Yogendra Singh but Srinivas himself has admitted that Sanskritisation subsumes many meanings. Some of the meanings are mutually antagonistic.

Sanskritisation is a limited concept:
Surely, one of the weaknesses of Sanskritisation is its limited usefulness. It refers only to social change in the caste hierarchy: Caste hierarchy is basically ritual-cultural hierarchy. But beyond caste, i.e., in secular hierarchy Sanskritisation ceases of exist. In any case the concept is not comprehensive enough in explaining social change.

It is a process confined too little tradition only: Admittedly,” Sanskritisation is a process of social change. Theoretically, “Sanskritisation may represent changes in cultural structure, of the little as well as the great tradition: But most empirical observations of this process are confined to the little tradition”.

In other words, changes in the great tradition, i.e., in epics like Puranas can be made by a comprehensive cultural renaissance that can be effected at the local level.

And, therefore, Sanskritisation though wider in scope remains restricted to a few castes found in a specific region. For instance, if there is a movement of Sanskritisation among the potters, it does not necessarily mean that the movement would spread among the potters at national level. Obviously, a caste varies from place to place, region to region.

Sanskritisation sometimes is a protest against the normative structure:
There are empirical observations in some parts of rural India that the lower castes have rebelled against the Sanskritic values of the higher castes. Such protests have resulted out of the democratic values given by education, party ideology and idiom of equality.

Emphasising this point Yogendra Singh observes:
Looked at from an ideal-typical value frame, Sanskritisation is a form of protest against the normative structure and principles laid down by the great tradition.

It, amongst to a rejection of the Hindu theory of karma which integrates the various levels of role institutionalisation supposed to be ascribed by birth, is thus a process of usurpation of a position higher in hierarchy as defined by the great tradition, by rejection of fundamental principle of hierarchy (great tradition).

The protest against sanskritisation thus gets manifested in the denial of the karmakanda practised by Brahmins. The ritual status of Brahmin in this process gets eroded.

Similarly, the former ruling class of Rajputs is also looked down by the rebels. And, therefore, it would be erroneous to understand that on all occasion’s sanskritisation is looked with favour.

Weakening dominant caste also lowers Sanskritisation:
The concept of dominant caste is a supplement to the concept of Sanskritisation. In modern India, the construct of dominant caste is fast becoming irrelevant. No more are Brahmins a dominant caste in many of the villages.

Dominance carries power, professional status and party association. Quite like the construct of dominant caste sanskritisation also suffers certain weaknesses. The developed villages now hardly consider dominant caste as their reference models for sanskritisation.

Power acquisition and political participation are more important than cultural status:
Milton Singer has brought out new empirical evidence (1968) to suggest that the contemporary upward mobile group has rejected sanskritisation for political participation. Singer, in this regard, refers to the studies of Owen Mr Lynch and William Rowe. Lynch conducted a study among the Jatav of Agra.

What is the view of Luynch While rejecting Srinivas? The concept of sanskritisation describes the social changes occurring in modem India in tenns of sanskritisation and westernisation.

The description is primarily in cultural and not in structural terms. Lynch argues that in place of sanskritisation the process of‘elite emulation’ applies well so far the Jatavas, i.e., Chamars are concerned.

He says that the Jatavas have given up claims to a ‘dominant’ status of Kshatriya and sanskritic cultural behaviour, and have become antagonist of castes and caste system; in effect, they have reversed their old position against the Adi-IIindu movement. The reasons for rejection of sanskritisation, i.e., caste culturology, as given by Lynch, are:

The change is due to the fact that sanskritisation is no longer as functional as is political participation for achieving a change in style of life and a rise in the Indian social system, now composed of both caste and class elements. The object of sanskritisation was ultimately to open and legitimise a place in the opportunity and power structures of the caste society.

The same object can now be better achieved by active political participation. It is no longer ascription based on caste status, but rather achievement based on citizenship status that, manifestly at least, is the recruitment principle for entrance into the power and opportunity structures. For Lynch, Rowe, Singer and others sanskritisation is basically a concept of social mobility.

Quite like these American scholars Y.B. Damle has also applied Merton’s reference group reference group theory to analyse social change in rural India. It is argued that sanskritisation is very limited in its scope, whereas reference group theory is quite comprehensive. Concluding bur description on sanskritisation it could be said that the nature of sanskritisation is definitely empirical.

It focuses on localised culture. It is concerned with the culture of the twist-born. Its weaknesses are several. The difficulty with the concept is that rural India is changing fast and the concept has not received any corresponding change. It is well known in theory that concepts commit their own suicide when they do not interact with the reality.

This is exactly what has happened with the concept of Sanskritisation. Some of the youngsters even belonging to the dalit castes raise their heads and say: Who cares for the twice-born? We have our own dignity. We have our legitimate rights. Who can deny it?

Question 2.
What are the features of sanskritization?
Answer:
In the traditional society, the occupations practiced by castes, their diet, and the customs they observe determine their status in the hierarchy. Thus, practicing an occupation such as tanning, butchery puts a caste in a low position. Eating beef, fish and mutton is considered defiling. Offering animal sacrifices to deities is viewed as a low practice than offering fruit and flowers.

As such, castes following these customs, diet habits, etc. adopt the life of the Brahmins to achieve a higher status in the caste hierarchy. This is moving of a low caste upwards in the social structure.

Srinivas termed this process as “Sanskritisation”. M.N. Srinivas first introduced the notion of Sanskritisation to explain the process of cultural mobility in India, in his book ‘Religion and Society among the Coorgs’.

In his study of the Coorgs, he found that the lower castes adopted some customs of the Brahmins and gave up some of their own, which were considered to be impure by the higher castes in order to raise their position in the caste hierarchy. For example, they gave up meat-eating, consumption of liquor and animal sacrifice to their deities.

They imitated the Brahmins in matter of food, dress and rituals. To denote this process of mobility Srinivas first used the term ‘Brahmanisation’.

Subsequently he replaced it by Sanskritisation. Srinivas preferred the term ‘Sanskritisation’ to ‘Brahmanisation’. Sanskritisation is a broader term, while Brahmanisation is a narrower term.

In fact, Brahmanisation is subsumed in the wider process of Sanskritisation. For instance, the Brahmins of the Vedic period consumed alcohol (soma), ate beef, and offered animal sacrifices. But these practices were given up by them in the poscyedic times, perhaps under the influence of Jainism and Buddhism.

Today, by and large, Brahmins are vegetarians and teetotalers; only the Kashmiri, Bengali and Saraswati Brahmins eat non-vegetarian food. Had the term ‘Brahmanisation’ been used, it would have been necessary to specify which particular Brahmin group was meant. In fact Srinivas has been “broadening his definition of Sanskritisation from time to time”.

Initially he described it as “the process of mobility of lower castes by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism to move in the caste hierarchy in a generation or two”; Latter on, he redefined it as “a process by which a low caste or a tribe or other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and way of life in the direction of a high twice-born caste”.

The second connotation of Sanskritisation is thus much broader because first Srinivas talked of imitation of mere food habits, rituals, religious practices but later on he talked of imitation of ideologies too (which include ideas of Karma, Dharma, Papa, a Punya, Moksha, etc). By means of these changes in customs and rituals the low caste or tribal people claim a higher position in the caste hierarchy (Srinivas 1952).

Srinivas has admitted that he emphasised unduly on the Brahminical model of Sanskritisation and ignored other models – Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra in his book on Coorgs. According to him, the lower castes also imitated the cultural ways of other higher castes such as Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, and the Sudras in various regions of the country.

Further, he says, dominant castes set the model for the majority of people living in rural areas including, occasionally, Brahmins. If the local dominant caste is Brahmin it will tend to transmit a Brahminical model, whereas if it is Kshatriya or Vaishya it will transmit Kshatriya or Vaishya model. Srinivas also says that small number of Brahmins or other high castes (Kshatriyas, Vaishyas) may gradually assimilate from the culture of locally dominant caste.

It is important to mention that the dominance of a caste is characterised by secular values. Thus, it appears that Brahmin and other higher castes imitate the cultural values of locally dominant castes which are secular in nature. On the other hand lower castes follow cultural ways of both ritually higher castes and dominant castes which include both sacred and secular values.

Question 3.
What are the Features of Sanskritisation?
Answer:
The process of Sanskritisation is characterised by imitation, change of ideals, social mobility, social change etc. The concept ‘Sanskritisation’ has been integrated with economic and political domination, that is, the role of local dominant caste in the process of cultural transmission has been stressed.

Besides the castes, the process of Sanskritisation has been indicated in tribal communities like Bhils of Rajasthan, Gonds of Madhya Pradesh and other hilly tribes. By the process of Sanskritisation a tribal community tries to prove itself to be a part of Hindu society.

Sanskritisation occurred sooner or latter in those castes which enjoyed political and economic power but have not rated high in ritual ranking (that is, there was a gap between their ritual and politico-economic positions).

Economic betterment is not a necessary pre-condition to Sanskritisation, nor must economic development necessarily lead to Sanskritisation. However, sometimes a group may start by acquiring political power and this may lead to economic betterment and Sanskritisation.

Srinivas has given the example of untouchables of Rampura village in Mysore who have got increasingly sanskritised though their economic condition has remained almost unchanged.

The British rule provided impetus to the process of Sanskritisation but political independence has weakened the trend towards this change. The emphasis is now on the vertical mobility and not on the horizontal mobility. Describing social change in India in terms of Sanskritisation is to describe it primarily in cultural and not in structural terms.

Srinivas himself has conceded that Sanskritisation involves ‘positional change’ in the caste system without any structural change. Factors that have made Sanskritisation possible are industrialisation, occupational mobility, developed communication, spread of literacy, and western technology.

No wonder, the spread of Sanskrit theological ideas immersed under the British rule. The development of communications carried Sanskritisation to areas previously inaccessible and the spread of literacy carried it to groups very low in the caste hierarchy. M.N. Srinivas has specifically referred to one factor which has helped the spread of Sanskritisation among the low castes.

It is the separation of ritual acts from the accompanying mantras which facilitated the spread of Brahmanical rituals among all Hindu castes, including the untouchables. Furthermore, the political institution of parliamentary democracy has also contributed to the increased Sanskritisation, according to Srinivas.
Assessment:
The process of Sanskritisation indicates

• a process of change
• upward mobility or aspirations of lower castes to move upward in hierarchy and
• attack on hierarchy and leveling of culture.

As regards attack on hierarchy, it is not only the lower castes but even the tribes and castes in the middle regions of the hierarchy which try to take over the customs and way of life of the higher castes. As regards the upward mobility, Yogendra Singh calls it ‘contextual specific’ connotation of Sanskritisation.

This is because it explains the process of cultural imitation by lower castes of upper castes, which could be Rajputs, Jats, Brahmins, Baniyas etc. In some places, tribes are reported to imitate the customs of the caste Hindus. As regards merely ‘the process of change’, Yogendra Singh calls it the ‘historical specific’ connotation of Sanskritisation.

In this sense, it refers to the process in the Indian history which led to changes in the status of various castes or its cultural patterns in different periods of history.

It is also indicative of an endogenous source of social change. So far as the religious aspect is concerned, the Hinduisation of tribals is an example of religious Sanskritisation.

In the social field, the low caste individuals are elevating their social status within the caste hierarchy. Coming to the role of Sanskritisation in economic field we observe that the members of SC & ST are entering into higher posts and are obtaining reservation in services. Last but not the least, the life styles of the lower castes have considerably improved.

The usefulness of the concept of Sanskritisation as a tool in the analysis of Indian society has been described by Srinivas himself as ‘greatly limited because of the complexity of the concept as well as its looseness”.

Certain deficiencies in the concept may be noted. Since the reference group is not always a caste but in many cases it is the local ‘dominant caste (which could be a Rajput, Bania, Jat etc).

The context of Sanskritisation varies not only in each model but also within the same model from region to region. Power and dominance have been integrated by Srinivas with the process of Sanskritisation. This introduces the structural element in the Sanskritisation model of social change. Srinivas has not made this explicit.

Srinivas’s model explains the process of social change only in India which is based on the caste system. It is not useful for other societies. Yogendra Singh maintains that Sanskritisation fails forecourt for many aspects of cultural changes in the past and contemporary India as it neglects the non-Sanskritic, traditions, which often are a localized form of the Sanskrit’ tradition.

McKim Marnot also found such phenomenon in his study of a village community in India. Sanskritisation is not a universal process. Srinivas accepts that in Hinduism the lower castes are taking to the norms and values of the higher castes. This fact may be true with reference to a particular community or region but it is not universal.

D.N. Majumdar has shown in his study of Mahana village, in U.P., that there is no tendency among the lower castes to adopt the customs and manners of higher Caste nor does it help in elevating the status of any caste. Majumdar has also shown that in the social stratification the movement among the castes is not vertical but horizontal.

As Majumdar says, there are more signs of the reverse process namely de- Sanskritisation in evidence all over the country. In de-Sanskritisation the members of higher caste abandon their dress and rituals, for example Kashmir. Pandits. According to him, the shrinkage of distance between castes is not due to Sanskritisation but its-reverse.

Sanskritisation has been a major process of cultural change in Indian history and it has occurred in every part of the Indian sub-continent (Srinivas). It can be said that the process of Sanskritisation has occurred in specific historical context and led to changes in the status of different castes. As says Prof. Y. Singh, this is the historical specific connotation.

In contextual specific sense, however, Sanskritisation denotes contemporaneous process of cultural imitation of upper castes by lower castes or sub-castes in different parts of India. The nature of this type of Sanskritisation is by no means uniform as the context on cultural norms or customs being imitated may vary from Sanskrit or Hindu traditional forms to tribal and even the Islamic patterns.

He notes how the tribal groups such as the Bhils Gonds and Oraons claim to be a caste through, the process of Sanskritisation and claim a place in the caste hierarchy. Consequently, he has been changing his definition from time to time.

The definition of Sanskritisation does not mean change in customs, ritual, ideology and way of life of a Tow’ Hindu caste or tribal in the direction of a high, frequently twice born caste.

Rather it means cross imitation of customs and way of life among different social groups. In other words, Sanskritisation is only an illustration of the operation of the ‘reference group’ process. A reference group is a group which is used as a standard to evaluate one’s attitudes, customs, rituals etc.

The influence of the reference group on the behaviour of a person or group depends on the prestige of that group in the given society. So long as the caste has prestige in the social groups it serves as a model. In the same way a ruling caste or group will also serve as a model when it commands prestige in the society.

As Srinivas himself has observed, “The best way of staking a claim to a higher position is to adopt the customs and way of life of a higher caste. Though over a long period of time, Brahminical rites and customs spread among the lower castes, in short run the locally dominant caste was imitated by the rest” even if it was not Brahmin.

Merton (1957) has written about the influence of reference group with respect to the norms and standards and by providing a frame for comparison. Non-members try to adopt the norms of the reference group and also develop the characteristic attitude of that group.
They also aspire to be the members of those groups. Theoretically, Sanskritisation is an ideological borrowing process.

It as a process only refers to changes in cultural attributes of a caste and not a structural change. It might be used as the means available to lower castes for status mobility in a closed system of stratification. But this status mobility during post-colonial phase may be better explained in terms of modernisation as it already gathered momentum having the status mobility.

Sanskritisation, to quote Y. Singh, is psychologically or even structurally, & a kin to modernisation in so far as the motive forces to challenge the deprivations by Great Traditions are stronger.

As Srinivas himself points out, the Varna hierarchy is clear and immutable. It is evident that Sanskritisation reinforces and consolidates the immutable Varna hierarchy rather than dislodges it or modifies it.

Thus, Sanskritisation is not a process by which structural changes in Hindu Society can become possible. Sanskritisation as a concept is irrelevant to explain cultural and, status mobility in independent India. There is greater homogeneity in the cultural values of the members of all castes exposed to the process of modernisation.

Question 4.
What is research, purpose of research, scientific research, research and theory? What is research?
Answer:
The unique characteristic of human mind is the curiosity to know about the universe. Innumerable questions arise in our mind about our environment, planet and the universe.

Most of these questions starting with what, why, how and soon. For example, what are stars? why day and night alternate? How is rain formed and why the mode of life and activities of human beings vary from place to place?

Whenever such questions arise we seek answer to them or we try to find out solutions to them. Seeking answers to questions and finding solutions to the problems have been the basis of human progress. A systematic search for an answer to a question or a solution to a problem is called research.

Actually research is simply the process of arriving as dependable solution to a problem through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of a data. Research is the most important process for advancing knowledge for promoting progress and to enable man to relate more effectively to his environment to accomplish his purpose and to solve his conflicts.

Although it is not the only way, it is one of the most effective ways of solving problems. The term research consist of two words,’ Re’+’Search’. “Re” means again and again and “Search” means to find out something. The following is the process; Observes collection of data Person phenomena conclusions Again and again Analysis of data.

Therefore, the research is a process of which a person observes the phenomena again and again and collects the data and on the basis of data he draws some conclusions.

Research seeks to find out explanations to unexplained phenomena to clarify the doubtful propositions and to correct the misconceived facts. It simply means a search for facts, answer to questions and solutions to problems. The search for facts may be made through either

1. arbitrary (unscientific) method or
2. scientific method.

Characteristic of Research The above definitions reveal the following characteristics of research.

• Research is a systematic and critical investigation to a phenomenon.
• It aims at interpreting and explaining a phenomenon.
• It adopts scientific method.
• It is based on empirical evidences and observable experience.
• It develops generalizations, principles or theories.
• It directed towards finding answer to the questions and solutions to the problems.

Question 5.
What is the Purpose of Research?
Answer:
The purposes or objectives of research are varied. They are Research extends knowledge of human beings social life, environment. Research reveals the mysteries of nature. Research establishes generalizations and general laws and contributes to theory building in various fields of knowledge. Research verifies and tests existing facts and theory.

Research helps us to improve our knowledge and ability to handle situations. General laws developed through research may enable us to make reliable predictions of events. Research aims to analyze inter-relationship between variables and to derive causal explanations, which help us to better understanding of the world in which we live.

Research aims to finding solutions to the problem, e.g: socio-economic problems, health problems, organizational and human relational problems and so on.

Research also aims at developing new tools, concepts and theories for better understanding to unknown phenomena. Research helps national planning board to focus our national development. It enables the planners to evaluate alternative strategies, ongoing programs and evaluation, etc., Research provides functional data for rational decision making and formulation of strategies and policies.

Question 6.
Discuss different types and methods of social research?
Answer:
Types of Research:
The purpose of research is to discover answer to questions through application of scientific procedures. Research always starts from a question like why, what, how etc,. The nature of questions varies the type research procedure and methods and procedure also varies. Research may be classified crudely, according to its major intent or the method.

According to the intent, research may be classified as pure research (basic research), applied research, exploratory research, descriptive study, action research etc,. According to the method of study, research may be classified as experimental research, analytical study, historical research and survey.

The above classification is not a watertight demarcation. It is just a narration to understand the different approaches to research The different types of research are not sharply distinguishable from one another. There may be overlapping between one type and other.

Pure (Basic) Research and Applied Research:
The reason for asking research questions are of two general kinds; intellectual and practical. Intellectual questions are based on the desire to know or understand for the satisfaction of knowing or understanding. Practical questions based on the desire to do something better or more efficiently. The investigation to which these two types questions lead, sometimes labeled “pure” or basic and applied research.

Pure Research:
Pure research is focused to collect knowledge without any intention to apply it. It is purely intellectual in character. It is also known as basic or fundamental research.

Intellectual curiosity is the only motivational factor behind it. It is not necessarily problem oriented. It aims at extension of knowledge. It may lead to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory.

The development of various sciences owes much too pure research. The findings of pure research enrich the store house of knowledge. Pure research lays the foundation for applied research.

The findings of pure research formed the basis for innumerable scientific and technological inventions like steam engine, auto mobiles and telecommunication etc, which have revloutionalized and enriched our human life.

Basic research had many definitions, most of them unsatisfying in one way or another. It can even authoritatively been said that an adequate or operational definition of basic research is not possible (Kidd-1959). In many cases basic research is done to test theory to test relations among phenomena in order to understand the phenomena, with little or to thought of application of the results to practical problems (Kerlinger – 1972).

The best example is that to Michael Faraday. He said research in electricity, with out knowing that, it would be useful. He did continuous search to find out the truth or knowledge. Knowledge for knowledge sake only.

Contributions of Pure Research:
Pure research of solutions to many practical problems by developing principles. Pure research helps to find out the critical factors in practical problems. Pure research provides many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose best solutions.

Applied Research:
Applied research is focused up on a real life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It tries to find out practical and immediate result. It is thus problem oriented and action directed.

According to Kerlinger (1979) applied research is research directed towards the solution of specified practical problems. Julian Simon has pointed out that applied social sciences help in making policy decision.

Applied research methods are sometimes more sophisticated than any methods used in pure research (offers: 1950). There is vast scope for applied research in the fields of technology, management, commerce, economics and other social sciences. Innumerable problems are face in these areas.

They need empirical study for finding solutions. The immediate purpose of an applied research is to find solutions to practical problems. It may incidentally contribute to the development of theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovering of new facts or testing of a theory or to conceptual clarity.

Contributions of Applied Research:
Applied Research can contribute new facts. It uncovers new facts which enrich the concerned body of knowledge. Applied research can put theory to the test.

It offers an opportunity to test the validity of existing theory. Applied research may aid in conceptual clarification. Many concepts are vague. E.g. small farmer, social responsibility, social structure etc.

Applied research aid conceptual clarity. Applied research may integrate previously existing theories. A practical problem has many facts. It cannot be solved by the application of abstract principles from a single science. The solution of a practical problem may require some integration of the theories and principles of various disciplines.

Relation between Pure and Applied Research:
The distinction between pure and applied research is not absolute. Both are not contradictory but are complementary. Pure research may have significant potential for its application to the solution of a practical problem and applied research may end up with making a scientific contribution to the development of the theoretical knowledge.

The terms ‘pure’ and ‘applied just represent the polar of a continuum. Morry said “research studies have differing degree of purity and ‘applicability’, depending on whether their purpose is solely to advance knowledge in a field or to solve some financial problem.

Action Research:
Conventional social scientific research is concerned to analyse and explain phenomena. The role of research is detached, in order to minimize disturbance of the phenomena under investigation. In action research, research is jointed with action. Researcher became participants in planned policy initiatives. It is an action programme launched foe solving a problem or for improving an existing situation.

Government institutions and voluntary agencies undertake action programmes for achieving specific goals or objectives. Social welfare programmes human resource development programmes, research for improving the qualities of life in factories an offices etc, are some examples of action research programme.

Types of Action Research:
R covar categorize action research into five types.
Classical design:
Research and action are separated and independent. The connection between research and action is not purposely sought. It may occur by chance.

Interdependence of action and research:
Action is carried out by an agency not connected with a research institution. Research on action may be entrusted to an independent research body; For example government may launch a development programme and a university social scientist may be welcomed to study the on-going programme.

Evaluate research built into an action programme:
In this case, research is dependent upon action, and the action people define the scope of the research.

Action for research:
In this type research is joined with action. Researcher became participants in planned policy initiatives.

Question 7.
What is Observation method?
Answer:
Observation Method
Observation is one of the cheaper and more effective techniques of data collection. Observation, in simple terms, is defined as watching the things with some purpose in view.

However, in research activity the term has a wider meaning than simple watching. Observation, is a systematic and deliberate study through eye of spontaneous occurrence at the time, they occur.

Observation may serve a variety of research purposes, it may be used to explore the given area of subject matter or to gain insight into the research problem and provide a basis for development of hypotheses.

Observation may also be used as the primary technique of data collection in descriptive studies and also in the experimental studies designed for testing casual hypotheses.

Observation many times is a perception. Observation has mainly three components-Sensation, attention and perception. The accuracy of observation depends on knowledge and experience. Generally, the intellectual, physical and moral conditions are very important in observation.

General characteristics of observation method

• It is a physical and mental activity.
• It is selective and purposeful.
• It is ai scientific tool of research.
• It is a direct study of the situation or phenomenon.
• It tries to establish cause and effect relationship in the observed phenomenon.

Question 8.
Discuss the process and types of observation?
Answer:
Observation is one of the cheaper and more effective techniques of data collection. Observation, in simple terms, is defined as watching the things with some purpose in view. However, in research activity the term has a wider meaning than simple watching. Observation, is a systematic and deliberate study through eye of spontaneous occurrence at the time, they occur.

Observation may serve a variety of research purposes, it may be used to explore the given area of subject matter or to gain insight in to the research problem and provide a basis for development of hypotheses.

Observation may also be used as the primary technique of data collection in descriptive studies and also in the experimental studies designed for testing casual hypotheses.

Observation many times is a perception. Observation has mainly three components-Sensation, attention and perception. The accuracy of observation depends on knowledge and experience. Generally, the intellectual, physical and moral conditions are very important in observation.

PROCESS OF OBSERVATION
There are five sequential steps in the observation method:

• Preparation and training.
• 2. Entry into the study environment.
• 3. Initial interaction.
• 4. Observation and training.
• 5. Termination of fieldwork.

Aids in observation process:
In order to make the process of observation effective and reduce the faults, of the observer, a researcher may use a range of tools for systematising and recording data.

Diaries, field notes, maps, checklists, cameras, audio, video tape recorders, maps, analogy, checklist, sociometric scales, mechanical devices are the major tools adopted by the researcher to make the observation process as accurate as possible.

Types of Observation:
Observation, which is the most classical method of scientific enquiry, may take many forms. With reference to investigators role, it may be classified into:
Participant observation:
In this observation, the observer is a part of the phenomenon or group which is observed and he acts as both an observer and a participant. The persons who are observed group should not be aware of the researcher’s purpose.

Then only their behaviour will be natural. The observer can understand the emotional reactions of the observe group, and get a deeper insight of their experiences.

Non-Participant observation:
In this type of observation, the researcher does not actually participate in the activities of the group to be studied. There is no emotional involvement on the part of the observer. Observer would be simply present in the group to note down the behaviour of the respondents.

Controlled observation:
This type of observation is found quite useful in either in the laboratory or in the field. This involves standardization of the fields like psychology and sociology; Controlled observation is carried out observational techniques and exercise of maximum control over extrinsic and intrinsic variables

Uncontrolled observation:
If the observation takes place in the natural settings, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation. The main aim of this observation is get spontaneous picture of life. This does not involve control over any extrinsic or intrinsic variables.

Direct observation:
In this type of observation, the event or the behaviour of the person is observed as it occurs. This method is flexible and allows the observer to see and record subtle aspects of events and behaviour as they occur.

Indirect observation:
This does not involve the physical presence of the observer, and the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic devices. This method is less flexible than direct observation. In other words, the behaviour of the person is not observed, rather its effects are observed.

Question 9.
What are the Advantages of observation method?
Answer:
Observation is one of the cheaper and more effective techniques of data collection. Observation, in simple terms, is defined as watching the things with some purpose in view.

However, in research activity the term has a wider meaning than simple watching. Observation, is a systematic and deliberate study through eye of spontaneous occurrence at the time, they occur.

Observation may serve a variety of research purposes, it may be used to explore the given area of subject matter or to gain insight in to the research problem and provide a basis for development of hypotheses.

Observation may also be used as the primary technique of data collection in descriptive studies and also in the experimental studies designed for testing casual hypotheses. Observation many times is a perception.

Observation has mainly three components-Sensation, attention and perception. The accuracy of observation depends on knowledge and experience. Generally, the intellectual, physical and moral conditions are very important in observation.

• It is the most direct means of studying a wide variety of phenomena based on actual and first-hand experience.
• It enables the observer to code and record behaviour at the time of its occurrence.
• The behavior of human beings can be best studied. It is the basis for formulating hypothesis.
• Data collected under this method is more accurate and reliable, as it is based on the first hand perception of the eyes.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Define the meaning and definition of thinking.
Answer:
Thinking is a very often used psychological term in our daily life. The importance of thinking is evident not only for the wide use of the term but also because thinking helps in the solution of all our day-to-day problems. Thinking is the most complex of all psychological processes and it is thinking that normally differentiates man from lower animals.

The reasoning is different from mere thinking of something, as it involves a sequence of symbolic activities. Reasoning also differs from the free association of ideas as in reasoning recall and the sequence of associations is more or less controlled. Thinking helps in solving a problem, and in fulfilling a need or motivation.

Ruch (1970) observed that thinking is always directed toward preparation for action towards producing new meanings, towards producing beliefs, and towards attending enjoyment. The graphic and verbal symbols are mentally manipulated in order to solve a problem, plan a building a decorate a drawing room. Thinking is, therefore, called ‘mental trial and error’.

The motor activities are minimum in thinking. Thinking is also called a symbolic process. Earlier we have discussed how thinking has been described in different ways by different psychologists on the basis of its characteristics such as thinking as a mental exploration, symbolic process, cognitive activity, problem-solving, behavior, mental or implicit trial and error, subvocal talking, and so on.

However, Warren has attempted to give a more comprehensive definition of thinking which embraces most of its characteristics. According to him “thinking is an activity concerning in cell. It is symbolic in character initiated by a problem or task which the individual is facing involving some trial and error but under the directing influence of that problem and ultimately leading to a conclusion or solution of the problem.”

Thinking is possible without immediate stimulus, with the help of ideas. An idea or an image stands as a substitute for an object in its absence. This is called a symbol. A symbol is said to be anything that stands for something else. All thinking deals with substitutes for things. That is why thinking is called a symbolic behavior. Hence, symbolic representation, and manipulation are the most important characteristics of thinking.

Question 2.
Define the pre-operational period.
Answer:
The preoperational period extends from two to seven years. The first part of this stage is also known as the pre-conceptual period. It is characterized by the use of language and symbolic function. These two are built upon the systematic use of representation which begins in the last stage of sensory-motor operation.

Pre-conceptual refers to the beginning of symbolization in thinking. It is the period prior to the use of symbols in thinking or the preparatory stage for the same. Actually, the pre-operational stage extends from the end of the sixth stage of the sensory-motor period i.e., about 18 months to -1 year of age to 6 or 7 years.

The pre-operational period is sub-divided into

• Pre conceptual period roughly lasts for 2-4 years and
• Intuitive 4-7 years.

By the time the child reaches the pre-conceptual period he has mastered some language, constructs symbols, and is engaged in make-believe play like preparing food for mama in small covers of tins and bottles getting their dollars married, giving injections to their dollars, etc. It is the period when the child develops his symbolic function, imagery, and genuine representation.

He starts differentiating between words and images and perceptually absent events. The connection between these two is made by images that intervene in the development of imitation, play, and cognitive representation. Piaget thus states “Towards one half to two years, the symbolic function appears, language, symbolic play (the beginning of fictional invention) deferred imitation i.e., occurring sometime after the original event and that kind of internalized imitation which give rise to mental imagery occurs.

However the child cannot immediately construct such an operation, several years of preparation and organization are still required. In fact, it is much more difficult to reproduce and act correctly in thought than to carry it out on the behavioral level. The child of 2 years, for example, is able to coordinate his movements from place to place (when he walks about the room or in the garden) in a group, as well as his movements when he turns objects around.

But a lengthy period of time will elapse before he will be able to represent them precisely in thought in reproducing, for example, from memory with the help of objects, a plan of the room or garden, or in inverting the positions of objects in thought by turning the pan around.” Another important characteristic of the pre-operational stage is showing a response to a new stimulus considering it as if a previously known stimulus.

For instance, a two-year-old child may use a stick as a candle and try to light it putting it on the candle stand, or taking several matchboxes he may try to construct a two-story building. It is commonly seen that children consider their toys or dolls as brothers, sisters, and playmates and talk with the term, feed them, make them sleep on their laps sing a lorry, etc.

HoweverAnurag the two-year-old grandson of this author while playing with dolls “Anu and Sweta clearly express that they are not real Anu and Sweta. He says, “real Sweta is at Bangalore and real Anime. “These two are false ones.” However, pre-conceptual thinking at this stage is not of a high order compared to older children and adults. The child during the pre-operational stage only possesses preconceptions.

Question 3.
Define the sensory-motor period.
Answer:
Sensory-Motor Period:
The sensory-motor period is the period that starts before the language development of the child. Piaget distinguished between two major stages in cognitive development i.e., sensory-motor intelligence (0-2 years) and conceptual intelligence (0-to Maturity). During the sensory-motor period, the child’s adaptations and activities do not involve extensive use of symbols or language.

For example, the ability of a 9-month-old baby to search for a missing toy under the bed or to move a blanket towards him to get the toy that is kept on the other end of the blanket is an act of intelligence that does not require any language. In this manner through various sensory-motor acts, the baby solves and adapts to various demands of life.

These acts are considered pre-verbal. The sensory-motor period extends approximately from birth to -2 years of age approximately. It is divided into six phases. Through these six stages, a gradually complex pattern of intellectual behavior develops. The first four stages of the sensory-motor period are generally achieved during the first year.

Reflex – (0 – 1 month):
During this stage, innate and simple reflexes like sucking movements become more prominently seen, for the first month the infant only exercises the reflexes present at birth. This is the only mental organization at this age according to Piaget. Besides sucking (reflex) the nipple put inside the infant’s mouth, other reflexes are crying, grasping, movement of arms, trunks, and head, etc.

All stimuli the infant faces in the environment are reacted through these reflex activities present at birth. These unlearned inborn reflexes constitute the major adaptive behavior of the infant.

Primary Circular Reaction (1-4 months):
This stage extends roughly from the age of one month to 0-4 months after birth. During this period simple activities are characterized by repeated acts. The same activity or reaction like sucking, fingering the bed sheet, and opening and closing of the fists are done repeatedly. These activities the child does without any purpose or intention.

He also appears not to be interested in the effect that his behavior has on the environment around him. His activities lack purpose and he makes simple coordinated movements. Particularly thumb sucking becomes habitual. Thus the primary circular reaction stage involves the coordination of responses and reflexes. There is eye-hand coordination. When he hears something he looks in that direction which is called orienting reflex. He grasps objects and sucks them.

Secondary Circular Reaction (4 to 8 months):
This is the third stage of the sensory-motor period, which extends from four to eight months approximately. In contrast to the second stage in this phase, the child is able to anticipate the consequences of his actions. After about four months of postnatal age, the infant starts making purposeful movements and intentionally repeats responses to achieve some end.

For instance, grasping activities are extended to pulling and shaking, etc. He may kick his legs at a toy to make astringing movements hanging in front of him. The child repeats responses to get some meaningful and interesting results. Most of the movements of the hand-eye and mouth are coordinated. His interest and attention are now shifted to objects outside his body.

Intentionality is the main characteristic of this stage which differentiates it from the second stage of the sensory-motor period. He repeats various activities to produce changes in his environment. He looks for toys and Other objects in which he is interested in places where he has seen them being kept earlier.

For instance, if he is interested in a pen kept on the small table, he may try to reach for it there. In the second stage, the act was repeated for its own sake without any intent or purpose while here the aim is to produce an interesting stimulus effect. Piaget names this act as reproductive assimilation meaning the child tries to reproduce events with an intention.

Now he is more interested in the objective world around him of which he was not aware in the earlier stages. These are all signs of intellectual development. Actions of this stage are called secondary as they are an amalgamation of images previously developed. Reactions are called circular because they are repetitive and self-reinforcing (Philips -1969).

Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (7-10 months):
In this stage, there is further development in the child’s mental activity. He starts solving simple problems and shows capability for the same. He uses already-learned responses to achieve a goal. A cigarette packet kept in daddy’s shirt’s front pocket earlier was hidden behind a pillow. Now when he does not sec it in daddy’s, he will try to search for it behind the pillow.

Here he uses his earlier learning of moving the pillow to get an object. The child understands that means are separate from ends and also forms a means-end relationship which is a sign of developed intellectual behavior, in this stage, he uses his learned response as a means to attain the desired goal (getting the toy) and not as an end in itself.

In this stage, he will with all seriousness do the job to achieve something in mind. He will try to overcome all obstacles to get the desired object. Thus his behavior shows greater intentionality. he shows the ability to anticipate. New objects are incorporated into the already existing schemata of the child. He shows lots of interest in different objects and play materials, and examines those in which he is interested.

He learns the shape, and size of the objects thus acquiring constancy of the shape and size of objects. He leams that an object exists in space even if it cannot be seen directly. This is a very important sign of improvement in the cognitive ability of the baby. This type of reaction indicates the rudiments of reasoning and anticipatory behavior.

Tertiary Circular Reactions (11-18 months):
This stage is characterized by active trial and error, experimentation like exploration, variation, and change of behavior. By the age of one year, the child seems to be really interested in new things and demonstrates a great deal of curiosity which indicate his operations at a higher level. He starts forming new schemata to solve new problems.

He will not play with the same toys again and again. In the earlier stages, he was repeatedly playing with the same toys. Now he wants new toys every day to play with and explore. He breaks toys to see what is inside. He would try to open toy cars, telephones, piano, etc, and then again would try to put them in order.

The child tries to experiment through trial and error methods to develop new means of reaching the end. Develops curiosity about different objects around him, and tries to know about them by asking questions like “what is this”, in the case of every object. He tries to solve various simple problems like opening a small pencil box, opening.

Question 4.
What is the period of institutional thought and concrete operative stage?
Answer:
Period of Intuitive Thought:
This stage lasts for 4 to 7 or 8 years, concepts develop more at his stage. He elaborates his concepts, thoughts, images and more complex representations are constructed. Now he is capable of grouping objects together into classes as per his own perception of similarity. Now he gathers some ideas about class membership and objects included in that particular class.

The child uses quantifiers such as some, all, more little, less, etc when Anurag who is now 26 months old eats a mixture, we put them one by one in his mouth, but he wants to eat more, says give me more or when a full spoon of rice is put inside his mouth, he says “give me less otherwise it will be stuck in my throat and I will have vomiting.”

Here he draws logical conclusions like if you give me more, it will stick inside my throat and I will vomit “If you go away I will cry”. However, in most children, this ability to draw logical conclusions at this stage is very very limited. His understanding is still comprehended objects or situations, from one angle only as discussed earlier.

A child of two years of age very well knows the existence of an object even if it is hidden from him. Even if the moon is not found in the sky in the daytime or during certain periods of the month, he knows that the moon stays in the sky because he asks his mama or grandma to show him the moon in the sky.

Irreversibility is the most important characteristic of the pre-operational stage according to Piaget. Reversibility refers to the ability of the child to main fair equivalence to perceive the object in a stereo-typed manner in spite of the change in the perceptual field. If papa is taller than Mama, then mama is shorter than Papa, and he is unable to accept, understand or conceive.

Thus during the age of 4 to 7 years, he does not develop the concept of invariance. Gradually his language develops and his thought processes become less entered. Conservation refers to the conceptualization that the quantity remains the same in spite of any change in the shape or position of the object.

Conservation of number appears around the age of 6-7 years. The conservation ability of the child can be increased through instruction and using various reinforcement techniques. But Piaget said that conservation comes mainly through experience, manipulation, and exposure, not by teaching the child how to conserve.

No difference is observed in the conservation ability of children of the same age who go to school and who remain at home. This happens for all cultures in the world. Further pre operational children are qualitatively different from sensory-motor children in thought.

Language helps tremendously in mental development at this stage. Piaget is of opinion that language serves three major purposes in mental development.

• It helps in the socialization process.
• The child thinks by using words and signs.
• Action is more internalized and symbolized rather than perceptual motor because of language development. Language facilitates logical thought.

Between the age of 2 to 4 years, the child’s speech is mostly egocentric. He speaks to himself even when no one is present. In all his talk he says “It is mine I have done this, where is my toy, my mama, my papa, my pencil, my rocket, etc? He is not concerned about others. His speech does not mention others. But between 4 to 7 years of age language becomes more communicative.

He talks with others and exchanges ideas. Instead of ‘I’, I mine more and more your, you, he, she, mama, papa, etc. are used in language and speech. Thus their speech becomes more and more socialized between the age of 4-7 years. Socialization starts speedily after language is developed. Through language, the child begins better communication with family members peers, and outsiders.

He is now able to express his thought and images through language. Bernstein’s observations on class differences in children’s language ability indicate that lower-class children perform relatively more poorly than their middle-class counterparts on tasks involving cognitive functioning i.e., thinkings, reasoning, conceptualization, and on standard intelligent tests which depend upon language skills.

This gap between the middle and lower classes becomes more significant with an increase in age. Culture has also a pronounced effect on intellectual development. Culturally deprived and disadvantaged environments produce and maintain progressive retardation in the area of intelligence, cognitive development, and school achievement.

Hers and Shipman (1965) conducted some very important research in America the results of which confirmed Bernstein’s findings. But certain studies show that with concentrated individual training, the effects of early deprivation can be overcome and market gain can be observed in intellectual functioning. (Blank and Soloman, 1968).

Concrete Operation Stage:
The concrete operation stage starts from 7 years and continues up to 11-12 years. Real symbolic activity emerges during this period. Improvement in language ability helps in mediation, concept formation, abstraction, and problem-solving, children at this age instruct and direct themselves through silent talking and covert speech.

During the concrete operation stage when the child reaches 7 years of age, he begins to relate different aspects of a situation to one another and at last arrives at a “notion of conservation”. Piaget calls this principle of invariance. Suppose the child is making different shapes of animals from a particular amount of clay which remains constant, say an elephant or a dog or a horse.

The child now understands that whatever may be the figure or shape the amount of clay remains constant, the figure may vary, but the clay is the same. He could not have had this idea in the earlier period. A five-year-old child believes that.

Question 5.
What is creative thinking and describe the stage and characteristics of creative thinking?
Answer:
Creative Thinking:
Creative thinking refers to the ability to explore the situation in a novel way to contribute something new to society and mankind. It becomes explosive in the performance of a person. A creative person tries to achieve something new, to produce something original, something unique.

Creative thinkers are great boons to society. Creative thinking is a must for the progress and prosperity of any country. The advancement of science and technology in any country is the outcome of creative thinking. On the whole, creativity is a characteristic of thought and of problem-solving, generally considered to include originality, novelty, and appropriateness.

It is the process of developing original level and yet appropriate responses to a problem. However, unless an original and novel solution is appropriate, it can not be termed creative. An appropriate response is one that is deemed reasonable in terms of the situation.

Stages in Creativity:
Morris Stein (1974) has defined creativity as a process involving three stages:

• hypothesis formation
• hypothesis testing and
• communication of results.

In hypothesis formation, people try to formulate a new response to the problem. However, finding a new response to a problem is not an easy affair. Individuals have to confront situations and try to think in non-stereotyped ways. They have to explore paths that have not been explored before and think in new ways. Creative persons sometimes experience a sudden brilliant illumination.

The creative person may be a scientist, an artist, or an artisan. But new ideas (or hypotheses) have to be tested against reality. At this stage, applying the criterion of appropriateness is crucial. If the result is novel, original, and appropriate, the individual can move towards the third stage i.e., communication of results. Communicating the idea is sometimes straightforward.

Very often, the process requires extensive explanation. Characteristics vary with creative people. Understanding the thought processes of creative individuals may allow psychologists to help others to become creative. Further, identifying the characteristics of creative individuals may allow psychologists and educators to spot these gifted persons early in life and facilitate the development of their creative abilities.

Research works of psychologists reveal that creative people are flexible in their approach to a problem. They do not use preconceived solutions. These people always desire a complex array of thoughts, ideas, and data (Dallas & Gaier, 1970). Moreover, creative people approach problem-solving in unique ways.

Guilford (1967) has defined creative thinking as a form of thought that is divergent. Guilford reveals that divergent thinking is the production of new information from known information or the generation of logical possibilities which serve as the basis of creativity. Emphatically he told that divergent thinking occurs in response to a problem that as yet is not defined.

The divergent mode of thinking is the essence of creative performance. From different studies, it was found that there is no significant difference between normal and creative people so far as brain-wave patterns are concerned. There is no firm evidence that creative people are either more or less intelligent than other people.

The data relating to IQ scores and creativity are inconclusive. Some studies have found a distinction between creativity and intelligence test scores others have shown a positive correlation. Creative people tend to be independent non-conformists, experiencing great tension and strong opposite drives.

Henry Poincare, the great French Mathematician experienced the following stages of creative thinking. These stages have been obtained through questionnaires, interviews, and the introspection of creative thinkers. Though these stages of creative thinking vary from individual to individual and problem to problem, still there are some common stages of creative thinking.
These stages are:

• Preparation
• Incubation
• Inspiration or Illumination
• Evaluation
• Verification or Revision.

Preparation:
The first step of creative thinking is preparation. Education prepares an individual for creative work. The training that a doctor, an engineer, and a scientist gets through education, takes them in a new direction and opens new vistas for them. Moreover, formulation of a problem, collection of information, a survey of relevant work in the concerned field, preliminary knowledge of the subject, and trial and error method are all essential for creative thinking. According to Edison, preparation provides much inspiration for creative work. It is the foundation for creative thinking.

Incubation:
This is the second stage of creative thinking. In this stage, there is an almost complete absence of overt activity. Conscious thought about the problem is totally absent. This is said to be a period of no progress. But the thinker is not aware of the progress. Some experts opine that though the creative thinker does not think consciously about his creation, the problem is solved without his awareness. This is how many problems are solved while we are asleep. In this span of time, the ideas which were interfering with the solution to the problem tend to fade.

Inspiration or Illumination:
In a sudden flash, creative ideas come to mind after the period of incubation. If you were unable to solve a mathematical problem yesterday, now all of a sudden the solution comes to your mind abruptly. Very often, new ideas come in the dream, when the person is in the subconscious stage. For creative people, these sudden ideas are very crucial. The period of inspiration is often proceeded by a certain amount of trial and error. Some experts view that trial and error activity does not, anyway, supplement creative thinking. However, inspiration provides a specific direction toward the goal and it makes the person think in that direction.

Evaluation:
This is the fourth stage of thinking. Here the thinker tries to find out whether the solution which comes to his mind is correct or not. Very often, the apparent solution proves to be wrong. When the thinker feels that it is wrong, then he goes back to the first stage of creative thinking i.e., the preparatory stage.

Verification:
It is the individual finds that the solution is correct, then it is accepted. If it is proven wrong, then he thinks that it does not suit the assumption. As a result, he has to start again from the beginning. In certain cases, he may invite some modifications or revisions. Some observations indicate that ‘inspiration’ comes as the last stage of creative thinking instead of ‘verification’. But studies reveal that it becomes necessary to evaluate the process of creative thinking in most cases.

Characteristics of Creative Thinkers:
Generally, creative people are high in intellectual ability, but they are not necessarily in the highest brackets measured by these tests. Many creative people are talented in some special way – in music or in literature. In other words, they have certain specific abilities that they can use in their search for new ideas.

No doubt, many creative thoughts come as sudden insights. But such ‘ flashes’ are more likely after hard thinking about a problem. So in one way, diligence and strong motivation to work at solving problems are characteristics of creative thinkers. Further, creative thinkers have some personality features in common. Evidence from personality tests indicates that these people have the following traits:

• They prefer complexity.
• They are more complex psychodynamically and have greater personal scope.
• They are more independent in their judgments.
• They are more self-assertive and dominant.
• They reject suppression as a mechanism for the control of impulses. (Barron, 1963).

In 1975, Welsh revealed that a personality dimension “origins” is related to creativity. An individual high on this dimension resists conventional approaches which have been determined by others. Such a person is more interested in artistic, literary, and aesthetic matters.

Question 6.
Describe the stages of cognitive development by Piaget.
Answer:
Piaget is a development theorist who believes that cognitive development occurs gradually phase by phase.
Piaget has divided the entire period of cognitive development into four basic stages.

1. The sensory-motor period is 0-2 years approximately.
2. Preoperational period 2-7years approximately.
3. Concrete operational period 7-12 years approximately
4. The formal operational period is 12 years above approximately.

Sensory motor period:
The sensory-motor period is the period that starts before the language development of the child. Piaget distinguished between 2 major stages in cognitive development that is sensory-motor intelligence (0-2 years) and conceptual intelligence (0-10 maturity). During the sensory-motor period, the child’s adaptions and activities don’t involve extensive use of symbols or language.

It is divided into six phases:
Reflex (0-1) month:
During this stage, innate and simple reflexes of live sucking movements become more prominently seen.

Primary circulation reaction (1-4) months:
This stage extends roughly from the age of one month to 0-1 month after birth.

Secondary circular reaction (4 to 8 months):
This is the 3rd. stage of the sensory-motor period who extends from four to eight months approximately.

Coordination of secondary circular reactions (7-10 months):
In this stage, there is further development in the child’s mental activity.

Tertiary circular reactions (11-18 months):
This stage is characterized by active trial and error, experimentation like exploration, variation, and change of behavior.

Internal mental combination (18-24 months):
This is the final and most advanced stage.

Pre-operational period:
The preoperational period extends from two to seven years. The first part of this stage is also known as the pre-conceptual period. It is characterized by the use of language and symbolic function. These two are built upon the systematic use of representation which begins in the last stage of sensory-motor operation.

Pre-conceptual refers to the beginning of symbolization in thinking. It is the period of the use of symbols in thinking or the preparatory stage for the same. Actually, the pre-operational stage extends from the end of the sixth stage of the sensory-motor period which is about 18 months to 1 year of age to 6 or 7 years.

The pre-operational period is subdivided into

• The pre-conceptual period roughly lasts 2-4 years.
• Initiative 4-7 years.

By the time the child reaches the pre-conceptual period he has mastered some language that he uses in his thinking process as a symbolic unit.

Period of intuitive Thought:
This stage lasts for 4 to 7 or 8 years. Concepts develop more at this stage. He elaborates his concepts, thoughts images, and more complex representations are constructed. Now he is capable of grouping objects together into classes as per his own perception of similarity. Now he gathers some ideas about class membership and objects included in that particular class.

The chi Id uses quantifiers such as some, all, more little, less, etc. when Anurag who is now 26 months, old cats mixture we put one by one in his mouth, but he wants to eat more sayS, give me more or when a full spoon of rice is put inside his mouth, he says, “give me less. Otherwise, it will stuck in my throat and I will have to vomit.”

Concrete operation Stage:
The concrete operation stage starts from 7 years and continues up to 11-12 years. Real symbolic activity emerges during this period. Improvement in language ability helps in mediation, concept formation, abstraction, and problem-solving, children at this age instruct and direct them through silent talking and covert speech. During the concrete operation stage when the child reaches 7 years of age, he begins to relate different aspects of a situation to one another and at last arrives at a “notion of conservation” Piaget catches this principle in this stage.

Formal operation stage (11 years and above):
After the age of 11, the child is capable of abstract thinking and reasoning. In the concrete operations stage, he uses logic and reasoning in an elementary way, applying them in the manipulation of concrete objects.

Question 7:
Define thinking as a problem-solving behavior and its steps involved in problem-solving.
Answer:
The problem means any conflict or difference between one situation and the goal is a problem. T}ie thinking that we do in problem-solving is goal-directed. For solving problems, we use some rules. But two rules are important algorithms and heuristics. An algorithm is a set of rules which if followed correctly will guarantee a solution to a problem.

Thinking is initiated by a problem and ends with a solution. The individual while interacting with the environment needs to solve several problems and fulfill goals and motives. But the satisfaction of various needs and desires is not so easily done. Sometimes using a face barrier to the goal blocks the satisfaction of a motive.

There is no readymade or immediate means to cross the barrier and reach the goal. Thus, the individual is faced with a problem. The problem is how to cross the barrier. For the solution to this problem, the person has to take recourse to some psychological process which helps in removing the obstacle from the way to the goal. This very psychological process is called thinking or problem-solving behavior.

Steps involved in problem-solving
Problem:
To start thinking the basic requirement is the perception of a problem. The ‘ S ’ or the individual must be interested to solve the problem. He must understand the importance of the problem.

Formulation of a Hypothesis:
The ‘S’ must analyze and review the problem from various angles and standpoints. Certain assumptions are made regarding the final outcome. These assumptions are called hypotheses.

Preparation:
Preparation includes assembling the tools or materials required to solve the problem. New ideas crystalize at this stage.

Possible solutions:
In this stage, this subject is engaged in finding out the solution. A variety of solutions may come to his mind.

Evaluation:
This stage includes checking the hypothesis against the obtained solution.

Testing and Revision of the solution:
Tentative solutions are carefully tested before they are accepted for practical use. All these steps are blended and interwoven in most problem-solving behaviors.

Question 8.
Define strategies in problem-solving and describe the different factors in helping problem-solving.
Answer:
While trying to solve a problem, the person seeks a strategy or systematic mode of attacking the problem:
Problem-solving as Gap Filling:
Bart left on the basis of his research on the thinking process has concluded that all problem-solving appears to illustrate one or more of B kinds of gap-filling processes.

Structures in problem-solving:
Problem-solving has been regarded as essentially a process of thinking in Structure.

Problem-solving involves trial and error:
When a problem becomes quite difficult for the S to solve only by thinking, the S may be engaged in random. Trial and error, the case of Thorndike’s cat in the puzzle box serves as an example of physical trial and error.

Problem-solving and insight:
In many problem-solving experiments, it has been found the solution to the problem comes suddenly without any observable trial and error.

Problem-solving involves concepts:
By manipulating concepts, problems are solved easily. According to Crovitz, “practice with the method of manipulating, concepts increases the ability to solve problems easily.

Factors in helping problem-solving behavior:
Every person’s thinking takes place in his own unique, background and psychological setup like the attitude, belief, motive, past experience, and mental set of the thinker.

Motivation:
Like learning motivation is one of the most important factors which make problem-solving easy by giving it direction. It directs behavior toward the goal. Tinking is always motivated by some problems.

Past Experience:
The positive transfer effect facilitates problem-solving a great deal. Acquisitions of the past in similar situations are generalized in the present situation. This makes it easier to solve the problem.

Personal Context:
Milton (1959) conducted a study to compare the responses of men and women to problems appropriate to masculine and feminine roles. Results show the influence of an individual’s personal context on his problem-solving behavior.

Mental Set:
The importance of a set as a preparatory adjustment for performing a task has been shown in diverse fields of different psychological experiments. Set because of its facilitatory or inhibitory effect has occupied an outstanding position in the psychology of thinking.

Question 9.
Define psychological or personal motive.
Answer:
Curiosity:
Curiosity is a psychological motive. It is a motivational tendency to act which does not have specific and indefinable goals. Behind any act of exploration, investigation, and research, there is a desire to know any curiosity. Research findings of Dember (1956) and Fowler (1958) revealed that rats preferred novelty, change, and complexity in Y and T mazes. It is not an exclusively human trait.

Animal experiments proved that curiosity behavior is also found in many animals (Buttler, 1954). Curiosity motives for sensory stimulation are also conducive to the motive for exploration. Evidence indicated that the curiosity motive can be unlearned. The need for changing sensory stimulation is closely related to curiosity. It is the basic motive. Exploration and curiosity are just two expressions of it. Very often, we are motivated to master challenges in the environment. This is called “Competence Motivation”.

Achievement Motivation:
The need for achievement causes individuals to strive for bigger and better accomplishments. It is a personal need that directs a person to strive constantly for excellence and success. It is a personality variable that appears to differ from one individual to another. Some people are highly achievement-oriented and competence-oriented and others are not so.

Need for Achievement:
It is a personal need that directs a person to strive constantly for excellence and success. This motive has been subjected to intensive study by a group of Harvard psychologists like David Me Cleveland and John Atkinson. They used projective tests to asses achievement motivation. Many studies have been done to find out the relationship between achievement motivation and performance.

Generally, people with a need for achievement seek to accomplish things and improve performance. The results of these studies revealed that people who are high in achievement motivation generally do better on tasks than those who are low. Further studies also revealed that people high in need for achievement are motivated to succeed.

Research works also indicated that the need for achievement is increased by independence, training, and self-dependent attitudes. Me Cleveland has found that the need for achievement is also related positively to the higher economic status of the society. Experts also revealed that both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are closely related to achievement motivation.

Self-actualization:
A humanistic approach to motive was developed by Maslow (1954). It is very important for its practical value. His humanistic model is popularly known as the theory of ‘self-actualization’. Maslow’s approach was unique. He attempted to portray a total picture of human behavior.

Maslow tried to explain human motives or needs by arranging them in a hierarchy. His arrangement was made in the order of potency and priority of unsatisfied human needs. The most basic aspects of human motivation are physiological needs and at the highest level, the desire to utilize one’s personal capacities is found.

Here the individual develops his potentialities to the fullest and engages in activities for which he is well-studied.’ This level is called ‘self-actualization’. Maslow’s approach reveals that every category of need has a limited capacity to motivate behavior. Beyond this point of limitation, it is necessary to involve a higher category of need.