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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part 2.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Define meaning, the definition of motivation, and the goals of motivation.
Answer:
All these motivational terms regulate the behavior of a person. When we say one is motivated, we mean to say that he is driven or moved to an act by an inner control urge or force as in the case of the writer just discussed. In any action, except a simple reflex, the ‘O’ is guided by certain underlying internal conditions.

They direct the ‘O’ toward specific goals. In the opinion of Bunch (1958) a drive or a motive is a “persistent behavior which appears to be dominated by the time being by a relatively limited group of stimuli acting on the organism.” Motivation is derived from the Latin word “Movere” which means to move.

In the literal sense, it is a process that arouses the energy or drives in the individual to proceed in an activity. The activity aroused, fulfills the need, and reduces the drive or tension. Until it has not fulfilled the need, the drive is not reduced. P.T. Young has defined motivation as the process of arousing an action, sustaining the activity in progress, and regulating the pattern of activity.

Let us take the case of hunger which is a common biological motive. When one is hungry, the need is food. This need creates internal physiological changes in the ‘ O’ which induces a drive. This drive goal or directs the ‘O’ to search for food: When the food is available, the hunger needs is fulfilled and the drive is reduced and the activity ceases then and there.

A motivated act is completed When the goal is reached. Take the case of Thomdike’s eats. Only when the cat is hungry or has the need to escape out ofthe problem box, it tries to open the door. Otherwise, the cat may simply sleep inside the problem box very peacefully. Lashley (1938). He indicated that motivated behavior does not consist simply of chains of stimulus-response sequences.

Conditions within ‘O’ change his response to a particular stimulus at a particular moment. That is why the same person may show different types of responses to the same stimulus on different occasions. Motivation also varies from person to person. Freud, Young, Woodworth, and McDougall, all are of opinion that every action has an underlying cause behind it.

Every learning goal-oriented. Motivation is the superhighway to learning. So Thompson remarked, “All our behaviors are controlled from within the organism by primary motives and the secondary motives are determined by external stimuli.” McDougall and Freud both treated motivation in terms of energy, a conception That has persisted in the psychology of motivation down to the present time.

Freud stated that this energy is derived from a general reservoir of sexual motivation, the libido which is further supplied to all other behavior. McDougall said that all motives are purposive and directed towards a goal. “He led the foundation stone to the idea of motivational energy, the varieties of its expression, and the physiological mechanisms through which it operates.” (Kimbel and Germany 1980).

According to Atkinson (1958), the term motivation refers to the arousal ofthe tendency to act to produce one or more effects. Murphy considered motivation as the general name for the fact that an organism’s act is partly determined by its own nature and internal structure. N.R.F. Maier says that motivation is the process by which the expression of behavior is determined or future expression is influenced by consequences to which such behavior leads.

According to Guilford (1960), all the internal conditions that stir up activity and sustain activity come under motivation. Internal stimulation for motivation is essential while external stimulus may be of secondary importance. Like, if you are hungry, you will definitely search for food. Otherwise, food in the external environment will not motivate you.

Underwood (1968) gives the following operational definition of motivation. The classes of operations used to produce and measure changes in performance and changes in energy output. Maslow held that motivated behavior is need-related and need-based. I Ic also talked about the hierarchy of motives.

Maier defined motivation as a goal-directed activity. Young tried to define motive in a wider sense. He believed that “motivation is the process of arousing the action, sustaining the activity in progress, and regulating the pattern of activity”. New Comb has defined motive as “a state of the ‘O’ in which bodily energy is mobilized and selectively directed towards parts of the environment”.

According to Morgan and King (1975), “Motivation refers to states within a person or animal that drives behavior towards some goal”.
Thus, in the process of motivation, the following stages have involved

• a state that drives behavior or drives
• arousal of behavior by this physiological state, and
• the direction of the behavior toward a specific or selective goal is found. This definition more or less deals with the aspects of the motivational process.

Drive:
Drive is a psychological state, a tateWhjph leads one to activity. This State of the body leads the ‘O’ to a certain specific and selective activity that produces tension. When one is thirsty, if he is given food instead of water, it may not reduce his driving state. His activity is specifically directed towards getting a glass of water for the reduction of thirst drive. Drive is pure energy that is mobilized and made available for activity. Drive is further a consequence of unsatisfied needs. Only art unsatisfied need generates a drive.

Goal Or Incentive:
According to Ruch (1970), “A goal refers to some substance, objects or environmental initiated action. “Skinner and Bugelski have shown symbolic incentives in rats temporarily eliminating the complexity of internal conditions which initiated action, “Briefly, a goal is a reward, an incentive, or a motivation towards which behavior is directed.

The term incentive refers demotivational value of reinforcer. Without an incentive or reinforcer, motivation cannot be fulfilled, the incentive may be positive or negative, like food and electric shock or reward and punishment. It may be material, semi-material or non-material. It may also be verbal, non-verbal, biological, or social.

The incentive may be symbolic also when it does not have direct reinforcing power. Token experiments by Wulfe (1936) and Cowles (1937) have proved this, By achieving the goal through I the incentive satisfaction of the motive takes place. The goal or incentive varies with die nature of the drive. For hunger, food is the goal, for thirst water, sex mate and maternal-drive children, etc. are considered as goals.

A goal may be distant or near. It may be a long-range behavior sequence or a short-range behavior sequence or a short-range behavior sequence. Usually, near goals act as a better motivating factor than distant goals. In any process of motivation, we find this need, drive, and incentive (goal) sequence.

These three are indispensable for the process of motivation to operate and to be completed. Without a need, there cannot be a drive and without a drive, the behavior cannot be goal-oriented. Finally, without a goal or incentive, a motive cannot function successfully. Thus, it is aided by Hull that all learnings are purposive.

Question 2.
Define the meaning and definition of emotion and describe the nature or characteristics of emotion.
Answer:
Emotion:
Meaning, operational definition, and nature of emotion:
The only child of a woman dies in a road accident. She is so disturbed by this, pathetic incident that she sits like a statue for days together, completely motionless. Then one day her dead body is found inside a well. An old man, at last, is ruined by his long-lost son. He just cries and cries, not out of misery but in happiness.

The first incident indicates emotions of sorrow, distress, and unhappiness, and the second one of happiness, joy, and pleasure. Thus, emotions take life interesting as well as distressing pleasant as well as unpleasant, and happy as well as unhappy, sometimes emotions bring distress and disaster in human life, disorganize, and disturb the entire life pattern.

At other times, it rebuilds functions and organizes activities. The emotion of love, happiness, and joy help in uniting and reuniting many friends, relations, couples, and marriage patterns. Without emotions, life would have been dull and colorless, devoid of charm. Emotions are also responsible for the finest human characteristics as well as for the most horrible and mean things in life. Emotion makes life pleasurable as well as miserable.

According, to Ruch (1970), “Emotions play a vital part in our motivational patterns. Life without emotion would be virtually a life without motion. Emotion has also organized and motivational values. When strong emotions arise strong motives are satisfied.” Emotion, a very complex and intricate psychological process has been a matter of discussion by, physiologists and psychologists for the last 100 years or more.

Emotion Defined:
It is quite difficult to give a comprehensive definition of emotion, which is a very complex and intricate psychological process. Different psychologists have defined emotion in several different ways. But the most appropriate definition of emotion so far is given by P.T. Young. According to him, “Emotion is an acute disturbance ofthe organism, as a whole, psychological in origin involving behavior, conscious experience, and visceral functioning.

An analysis of this definition points out four important characteristics of emotion:
Emotion is acute or strong in the body, unlike feelings in which the disturbance is mild. The whole body is strongly disturbed and agitated.
The disturbance due to emotion has always had a psychological origin. That is, a stimulus either external or internal always produces an emotional reaction.

Suppose the person saw a tiger in the forest and became afraid. This very fear is psychological in nature, and it introduces a stirred-up state. Thirdly, the disturbed state produced by an emotional experience creates bodily l changes which are physiological in nature. Physiological changes take place in the entire body system.

Finally, emotion is a conscious experience. The person facing the emotion-provoking situation must perceive it as significant. Then only emotion can be produced. The individual must be aware that the situation is such and such, that it is dangerous for him and hence should be avoided, and so on.

Nature And Characteristics of emotion:
The term emotion has been derived from the Latin word E-mover, which means to move to stir up, to agitate, to excite, and to arouse oneself. This arousal of self creates an art urge towards action. It is a very complex, disturbed state of the organism. That is why emotion has been defined as a stirred-up state of the organism.

The entire organism is disturbed both physiologically and psychologically, activated, and excited. Titchener defined emotion as an affected state of the organism. By affective state, he meant to say joy, sorrow, love, hatred, etc. Emotion has got both integrating and disintegrating roles in life.

According to Carr (1925) emotion is a form of energy mobilization. On a Scale of one end, there is a strong emotion and at the other end, no emotion or sleep will be there. This mobilization of energy helps the individual overcome an obstacle at the time of emergency situation like fear or anger.

The person sees a shake, immediately he is activated by tonnes of energy to run away from that place. Emotion is very brief. It starts very abruptly and ends soon after the incident is over Since emotion involves physiological changes, it disappears after the emotional outburst is over. Emotion deals with both physiological and psychological changes, both Objective and subjective aspects.

It has got feeling or covert aspects as well as overt or behavioral aspects. Some psychologists like McDougall have considered emotions as instincts. But this is only a historical and Controversial issue. Emotions occur as a reaction to some basic biological drives. When the basic needs are not satisfied, the person is frustrated.

For example, fear is associated with danger. Similarly, joy is felt when a long-cherished need is satisfied. Certain emotional experiences also help in the satisfaction of some biological needs. During anger, we are able to make use Of more energy in fighting the obstructing situation. Thus, emotions have biological values. Strong emotions help the individual tO be less sensitive to pain.

Question 3.
Discuss the common emotional patterns and describe the cause of fear. Prevention and Elimination.
Answer:
Common Emotional Patterns:
Fear:
As Bridges (1932) says, at first fear is generated more like a state of panic, and excitement than of any specific form. Gradually with the development of language, fear increases and is expressed in many other linguistic expressions than by crying alone. Fear appears clearly at the age of six months.

It is supposed to be a very early emotion and in most cases very dangerous for normal personality development. The arousal of fear depends upon different situations. Loss of support, the sudden approach of anything, or loud noise lead to inherent fears. A five-year-old child has a fear of dogs, doctors, machines, etc. death, fainting persons, dead bodies, being left alone, deep water, etc.

All these are not natural but acquired fears. Fear for animals and fire etc. occurs because of conditioning and habit, says Watson, children also may develop certain imaginative fears or symbolic fears like fear for rats, and spiders. Fear for the parents may be expressed in fear for the teacher who resembles a parent.

However, before the age of 5, symbolic fear does not arise. Fear for animals is more found in childhood, but for non-animals, it increases with age such as fear of disease, illness, dentists, and doctors. Boys usually show more fear towards school work and girls towards illness, disease, darkness, and night. The stimulus itself does not create fear, the way it is presented determines a fear, response.

Causes Of Fear:
Suggestion and imitation:
Dreadful stories narrated by the parents or grandparents, particularly at night cause dangerous fear in them. Mother suggests the baby certain feared objects like Ghost, Tiger, and Demon, and sleeps peacefully, while the baby spends the night with horrible experiences and nightmares without being able to sleep.

In a particular case, whenever the mother sees a rat she screams in fear as if she is facing a lion. The child at the early stage had no such fear of rats. But when he saw several times his mother screaming, at the sight of a rat, he also gradually developed this fear of rats. Most of our childhood fears are partly due to imitation and partly due to suggestion.

For Getting Attention:
One shows fear of getting attention also. In order to escape an unpleasant task or experience one develops a fear response.

Poor Training:
Overprotected and sheltered home life prevents emotional maturity. Wien the mother or other family members make it a point to accompany the child whenever he goes, wherever he goes, to protect him, in future he cannot go anywhere alone, let it be the latrine or bathroom. If we say, don’t go in the dark, you will fall down, don’t go alone, somebody will kidnap you. Don’t touch the switch, you will get shocked, don’t go to high places, you will fall down, and the child will be afraid of everything and every place.

Symbolic and Imaginary fears:
Phobias are of this type. To repress fear for one tiling, they show fear for other things, such fear for spiders, a bunch of hair, and small rats, which are mostly symbolic fears. Since these are harmless stimuli, one should not normally show fear of these stimuli. But when these objects stand for some other feared objects because of repression, such fears become unhealthy for normal personality development.

Unpleasant Dreams:
Dreams about ghosts, demons; dangerous animals give rise to various fears.

Prevention and Elimination of Fear:
Jones found two broad techniques for preventing fear.

• social Imitation
• Direct Conditioning

Social Imitation:
Just as fear develops by imitation, it can also be eliminated by imitation. Suppose the child is afraid of a cat. The mother or somebody whom the child loves, respects, and obeys, should bring the cat, hold it, and show the child in a gradual process that the cat is not harmful. Similarly, fear of different domestic animals, dark places, open places, high places, rivers, water, and crowdy places can be removed by imitation. Thus far can be removed by allowing the child to learn from others.

Direct Conditioning:
By associating the feared object with a stimulus that the child wants or desires to get, fear can be eliminated. By associating with a stimulus that the child likes or wants to get, say with a chocolate or ice cream or with the mother or some near and dear one the child’s fear can be eliminated. However, the prevention of fear by the conditioning method cannot be done in a day or two. It is a gradual and slow process, which requires patience, time, and understanding of the child, his current needs, and desires.

Fear can also be prevented by other techniques :
Prevention of useless and needless fear like goats or big fish. Many persons develop an aversion to fish or meat by visualizing the killing of these stimuli. This should be discouraged. The child must not be told or allowed to hear horrible and dreadful stories as they imagine these stories in reality and develop tremendous fears. Stories of ghosts and witches should be avoided completely.

Reconditioning of fear by gradually familiarising the child with the fearful object, say water or any animal. This has been discussed earlier. By having someone with whom he has got confidence. Fear of a dog increases when the child is taken to the dog by a stranger. But when he approaches the dog with his mother or father, the fear gradually subsides.

By introducing counter motives by presenting the feared stimulus with attraction and pleasant ones. Curiosity and heroism should be developed to avoid fear. A sense of curiosity is required to avoid symbolic fear. Security in the family decreases fear response (Jersild and Homes).

Verbal appeal and reassurance combined with practical demonstration reduce fear. By developing good health. Self-expression and self-criticism also reduce fear (Conn). Acquaintance with the environment. According to Slater, Beekwitn, and Behnke fear of the unfamiliar disappears as the child becomes acquainted with his environment.

Question 4.
Define Anger and discuss the causes of treatment and jealousy.
Answer:
Anger:
Anger is said to be a negative emotion like fear. In the beginning, generalized undifferentiated and mass anger response is found. But gradually it is distinguished and differentiated. Anger is a more frequent emotional response in children than fear, as anger-provoking stimuli are more than fear-provoking stimuli in the child’s environment. When the natural desires and motives are not freely satisfied, but obstructed, anger is shown.

Causes of Anger:
The cause of anger is interference or restriction of any type or it may be due to frustration. This frustration may be due to personal, physical, or social causes. Ricketts has pointed out certain other causes of anger like conflict over playthings, conflict over toilet and dressing, interruption of interesting activities like pressurizing the child to leave play and study, etc.

Jones has found that in 3-5 years children’s anger is created over their daily toilet, habits, dressing, going to school, etc. But by and large, the main cause of anger both in children and adults is interference in the fulfillment of wishes and desires.

Treatment or Anger:
Checking or repression of anger is undesirable. Anger should be channelized in socially acceptable Ways rather than being suppressed, repressed, or restricted. In general, anger can be treated by obtaining a clear picture of all factors, removing the irritating factors which annoy the child, substituting a different goal, and redirecting its motives.

Jealousy:
Jealousy is an outgrowth of anger. It is an attitude of resentment directed towards other people only while anger can be directed towards people, self, and others. It is a negative emotion. The arousal of jealousy depends upon training and the treatment that one gets from others. Child-rearing practices have got a lot to do with the development of jealousy.

Clinical studies of jealousy in young children show that it is a common emotional experience, originating with the birth of younger siblings. Children also show jealousy towards parents, especially towards the father when they see him showing affection towards their mother. The characteristic expression of jealousy includes hurting others, reverting to infantile behavior like bed wetting, thumb sucking, and attention-catching.

In older people jealousy is directly expressed in verbal quarrels, gossiping, name-calling, and making sarcastic and taunting jokes. Jealousy is indirectly expressed in daydreams. Girls are found to be more jealous than boys as found by Foster. More Jealousy is found in children of higher intellectual levels.

Question 5.
Define the bodily changes and eternal expressions of emotion.
Answer:
Bodily changes from individual to individual. In spite of these variations, there are some common bodily changes, which can be divided into overt and covert, as external and internal bodily changes.

External Expressions of :
Facial Expression:
The face is the most expressive organ of the human body. It is thus said to be the barometer of emotion. The muscles in the forehead, head, around the eyes, nose, and mouth are used differently with each emotion. Facial expressions vary from emotion to In anger the facial expression is different than when one is happy or afraid or sony. But it is not always easy to judge accurately one’s emotions from these facial expressions, particularly of adults.

Besides, some do not show any definite pattern of facial expression for a particular emotion. Munn states that it is much easier to differentiate facial expressions of pleasant and unpleasant emotions than it is to differentiate expressions of specific emotions, say joy versus love or sorrow versus fear. In a study to relate the different facial expressions of emotion. Schlosberg (1952) obtained certain pictures of the same face posed to express different emotions.

These pictures were given to observe to sort out into one of the following six categories:

• Love, happiness, mirth
• Surprise
• Fear, suffering
• Anger, determination
• Disgust
• Contempt

Schlosberg found a high correlation in the judgments of different observers but found that in several cases pictures posed to express love were confused with those posed to express contempt. Nevertheless, looking at someone’s face we can say whether he is happy, angry, or afraid. The many parts of the face like eyes, nose, lips, cheeks, forehead, etc. reflect the emotional pattern of anger.

In joy, the eyes may shine. In grief, they get dimmed. In anger the face becomes red, and the nostrils may expand or contract, in happiness the bps may smile. The cheeks may be red in anger or when one blushes because of shyness. In fear, the mouth gets dry, the face is full of sweets, the body shakes and the hair stands.

Postural Reaction:
Different emotions arouse different postures. Fear involves flight violent anger involves not flight but aggressive movements, which may either be abusive or involve an actual attack. In grief we bow, we stiffen in anger, and we lean forward when we are anxious and expect something.

In the emotion of love, there is movement in the direction of the beloved. In sorrow, there is a general slumping posture while in joy the opposite is involved, i.e. the head is he Id high and chest out, and there is the movement of hands. Gestures as expressions of bodily changes are to what extent influenced by culture is not known.

The importance of postural reaction in emotional experience has been emphasized by James Lange’s theory. It holds that stimulations produced by assuming different postures contribute to the feeling aspect of emotion. For instance, it holds that if we put our hands on our cheeks and sit lowering our faces, we will feel sorry.

Vocal Expression:
Voice is a powerful organ for indicating different types of emotional experiences. The modulation of voice, change in loudness, and pitch may represent different types of emotion. A loud sound with enough variation in pitch indicates excitement, a rising inflection usually indicates a feeling of surprised doubt, and loud laughter indicates joy and happiness. A slow monotonous voice expresses defeat and dejection.

A higher pitch indicates anger. In anger the increase in body tension leads to more tension in the vocal cords which leads to a rise in voice, similarly, in fear there is suffering. Though the high pitch associated with anger is inborn these vocal expressions in most cases are also colored by cultural training. The word can be uttered differently to express different emotions. Say “COME” C…O…M…E‘come’.

Therefore from the verbal expression of a person, his emotional state can be easily detected in addition to his facial expression, postural and other reactions. Merry by recording the speaking and singing voices of actors and singers has shown how different emotions are expressed through them. In addition to these bodily expressions of emotion Ruch(1970) has stated four other emotional behavior patterns.

Destruction:
Destruction is found mostly in anger reactions. In anger, the most typical physical reaction is overt aggression or attack. The type of attack varies from culture to culture. In the case of uncivilized people, the attack is more of biting, hitting, shooting, and piercing with a knife. In the case of civilized people, the attack is more symbolic. This implies that in place of physical injury attack is made through language, i.e., sarcastic remarks, taunting words, abuses, etc.

Approach:
In happiness, joy, delight, pleasure, and love, the response made by the experiencing person can be said to be one of the approaches. The approach leads to further stimulation. Success in life produces elation. This is also an approach reaction. Even anticipation of success brings some pleasant emotion and ultimately an approach response.

Retreat or Flight:
The emotion erf fear, the typical bodily response observed universally is the flight from the emotion-provoking stimulus or retreat. By withdrawing from the fearful or dangerous situation the person saves himself. Flight is said to be the best medium of adjustment in dangerous situations.

In civilized people, the retreat may also be through symbols and withdrawal reactions like daydreaming. Ruch remarks “In civilized life, however, we often retreat symbolically through words, apologies, compromises, discussions, and various psychological mechanisms of withdrawal”.

Stopping of Response:
In sorrow, gloom, and depression, there is no destruction, no approach, no flight, but by and large a stop of unusual response. The person in such emotional experiences never shows any behavior. Even a strong stimulus does not bring any response in him.

Question 6.
Discuss bodily or organic Or physiological changes in emotion.
Answer:
Bodily changes mean physiological changes. Because of the excessive activation of different organs during emotional states, physiological changes occur.
They are discussed below:

• External expressions of emotion.
• Physiological changes.
• Glandular responses
• The Galvanic skin responses
• Pupillometrics
• Gastro-Intestinal functions

External Expressions of Emotion:
Facial expression:
The face is the most expressive organ of the human body.

Postural Reaction:
Different emotions arouse different postures, fear involves a flight. Violent anger involves not flight but aggressive movements.

Vocal Expression:
Voice is a powerful organ for indicating different types of emotional experiences.

Physiological Changes:
In our day-to-day experience of emotion, we find the body undergoing various physiological changes like the rate of breathing increases, the rise of heart palpitation, sinking feeling in the stomach, general feeling of weakness, sweating, trembling, rise in blood pressure, and similar physiological changes.

The symptoms of fear reported by thousands of soldiers during the second world war are given below:

A large number of researches have been undertaken to objectively measure the physiological concomitants of emotion to discover how the different physiological processes change during emotion and whether there are different patterns of physiological change underlying specific emotions like fear, rage, and disgust.

In such studies changes in blood pressure, heart-best, and respiration are recorded during emotional states by different instruments. The activity of the heart during an emotional state is studied by examining the shape of the curve recorded by an electrocardiograph.

Glandular Responses:
Glands play an important role during different emotional states. In anger, the module of the adrenal gland secrets excessive amount of adrenaline and non-adrenaline and pours them into the bloodstream. Adrenaline is responsible for many characteristics of strong emotional experiences. The level of sugar in the blood rises because of excessive secretion of this hormone.

This increases heartbeat, and blood pressure increases due to the release of glycogen from the lever. The pulse rate also rises. Blood clots more quickly, more air enters the lungs, pupils enlarge and the body sweats profusely. The skin temperature also rises. Non-adrenaline constricts the blood vessels at the surface of the body as a result of which more blood is sent to other parts of the body.

Evidence also indicates the role of the thyroid and pituitary gland in emotional response. Research shows that adrenaline by itself may not necessarily arouse emotional experience or behavior. In a study done jointly by Cantril and Hunt (1932), 22 normal subjects were injected with adrenaline, 3 out of 22 reported unpleasant experiences, one pleasant experience, and ten no emotional experience, and the rest had different kinds of emotions.

Though subjects injected with adrenaline report that they feel as if they are going to have an emotional experience, they do not experience it. This suggests that in addition to adrenaline, probably emotion-provoking situations arid-related postural activities are necessary to produce emotional states.

The Galvanic Skin Response:
The galvanic skin response is measured with an apparatus called a psycho-galvanometer. It measures the electrical resistance in the skin; technically called electrodermal changes. These changes result from the activity of the sweat glands. The galvanic skin response associated with blood pressure and respiration is a highly sensitive objective indication that an emotional experience is taking place.

In addition to its presence in manual and mental work, its presence is evident in upsetting emotional conditions. According to Munn (1953), changes in the galvanometer following emotional stimulations are due to the lowering of electrical resistance between the two electrodes on the skin. Munn further adds that the GSR may be studied in terms of its latency, its amplitude, its duration, and some derivative of such indices.

Pupillometrics:
Pupillometry is a novel technique for measuring physiological changes during emotional studies. The pupil of the eye during emotional states dilates in response to stimuli that arouse a favorable reaction and contracts in response to unpalatable and disliked stimuli. Thus pupillometry is based on Darwin’s view of the eyes widening and narrowing during emotion.

In 1960, Eckhard Hess rediscovered this fact in an incidental observation. Hess made further laboratory study on this and found the size of the pupil changes with die favorable or unfavorable nature of the stimulus, which may be taste, sound, or sight. It is assumed that pupillometrices are of immense value in psychotherapy as a diagnostic tool, in particular.

By looking at pictures loaded with emotional complexes the patient can without his knowledge hint at the stresses in his personality. Precisely, the reactions of his eyes will reveal this. Pupillometrics can also be used in lie detection, as pupil contracts only to unpleasant stimuli.

Gastro-Intestinal Functions:
There is also a change in gastrointestinal functions during emotional behavior. Gastro¬intestinal functions are usually measured with the help of balloons inserted into the stomach or intestines. By observing the stomach directly gastric functions can also be measured. Munn (1953) has given an example of this connection.

The patient suddenly experienced fear one morning amid a phase of accelerated gastric function. An errata doctor entered the room muttering imprecations about an important protocol that had been lost. The patient had misled it and feared that he had lost the record and his job. He lay motionless on the table and his face became pale.

Prompt and decided pallor occurred also in his gastric mucosa, and associated with it there occurred a fall in the rate of acid production. A minute later the doctor found his paper and left the room. Forthwith the face and the gastric mucosa of the patient regained their former color”.

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Question 7.
What is the motive? Describe biological motive.
Answer:
Motivational terms like line desire, wish aim, drive, purpose, goal-oriented activity, urge, incentive and so on which go to mean motive. All these motivational terms regulate the behavior of a person. Motivation is derived from the Latin word “movere” which means to move.

Types of motive:
Motivation has been classified by psychologists into some categories. These are:

• Biological motives
• Social motives
• Psychological motives

We discussed the
Biological Motives:
The biological motives are rooted in the physiological state of the body, hunger, thirst, sex is the most obvious biological or physiological motives. They are physiological because they are associated directly with physiological systems. Other physiological motives include temperature regulation, sleep, pain avoidance, and a need for oxygen.

Hunger:
Earlier Experimental literature on hunger reveals that the source of hunger drive is stomach contractions. The experiments were simple. The observers used subjects who were trained to swallow small balloons with rubber tubes attached. The balloons were inflated in the stomach and the rubber tubes were connected to kymographs recording mechanisms.

Here each spasm of the stomach muscles could cause a mark on the smoked drum. On different occasions, the subjects were also asked to press the key when they felt hunger pangs. As a result, a mark was made on the drum just below the record of stomach activities. Further, the abnormal breathing of subjects was also recorded.

The investigator, here, could decide very well whether the spasms represented in the record were due to the stomach or abdominal movements. It was observed that the hunger pangs coincided with stomach contractions, but these pangs were not related to movements of the abdominal muscles. But the recent works on hunger reveal a different story.

The conclusions depict that the relationship between stomach contractions and hunger is weak. A joint venture of both psychologists and physiologists tried to find out some other conditions of the body which trigger hunger. Recent research also has shown that people report normal feelings of hunger even when the nerves from the stomach have been cut or the stomach has been entirely removed.

Physiologists believe that changes in the metabolic functions of the liver when fuel supplies are low provide the body’s stimulus for hunger. The liver can give a signal to the hypothalamus that more fuel is needed which triggers the hunger drive. Further experiments on the functions of the hypothalamus revealed that two regions of the hypothalamus are involved in the hunger drive-lateral hypothalamus and ventromedial area.

The lateral hypothalamus is the excitatory area. Animals eat when this area is stimulated. When this area is damaged, animals stop eating and die of starvation. On the other hand, the ventromedial area is located in the middle of the hypothalamus, which is otherwise known as the ‘ hunger-controlling area’. Experts consider this area as the inhibited region of the hunger drive.

Studies revealed that when this ventromedial area is dangered, animals develop voracious appetites. They went to take a huge amount of food and they also overeat. Experimental literature also reveals that cessation of eating or satiety is controlled by a hormone called Cholecystokinin (cck), which is released into the bloodstream when food reaches the intestine (Gibbs Smith, 1973).

Injections of cck into food-deprived rats who are eating causes them to stop eating and start grooming and other behaviors which are part of satiety in animals (Smith & Gibbs, 1976). But the role of ‘cck’ as a satiety hormone has been questioned. Both the hypothalamus and blood chemistry are, no doubt, responsible for hunger.

Thirst:
Thirst serves as a strong drive mechanism in both animals and humans. Humans can live for weeks without eating, but they can not live only for a few days without replenishing their supply of fluid. When human beings experience fluid deprivation, their mouths and throats become dry, cooling them to drink.

Previously it was believed that drinking is triggered by a dry mouth. But physiologists revealed that dry mouth does not result in enough drinking to regulate the water balance of the body. Thirst and drinking are controlled by processes within the body itself. Since maintaining the water level is essential for life itself.

The body has a set of complicated internal homeostatic processes to regulate its fluid level and drinking behavior. Our body’s water level is maintained by physiological events in which several hormones play a vital role. One of these hormones is the antidiuretic hormone (ADII). It regulates the loss of water through the kidneys.

Experts feel that thirst drive and drinking of water are mainly triggered by two mechanisms. The first one is that when the water level of the body goes down, certain neurons located within the hypothalamus begin to give out water. The thirst which results from this mechanism is known as “cellular dehydration thirst.”

Some experimental results also revealed that the loss of water from the cells in a particular region of the hypothalamus might initiate the drinking behavior. The experiments view that the neurons in the preoptic regions of the hypothalamus (Known as osmoreceptors) are responsible for controlling the drinking behavior of the organism.

Thirst triggered by the loss of water from the osmoreceptors is called “cellular-dehydration thirst”. The second mechanism which is responsible for triggering drinking behavior is known as t ‘hypovolemia’ or the condition of low blood plasma volume. Loss of water in the body results in hypovolemia or a decrease in the volume of the blood.

When blood volume goes down, so does blood pressure. The drop in blood pressure stimulates the kidney to release an enzyme called ‘renin’. This enzyme is involved in the formation of a substance known as ‘angiotensin’ which circulates the blood and may trigger drinking.

Sex Drive:
Partially sexual behavior depends on physiological conditions. So it may be considered a biological motive. But sexual motivation is far more than a biological drive. Sexual motivation is social because it involves other people and provides the basis for social grouping in higher animals.

Sexual behavior is powerfully regulated by social pressures and religious beliefs. Sex is psychological because it is an important part of our emotional lives. It can provide intense pleasure, but it can also give us agony and involve us in many difficult decisions. Till now, physiologists are trying to find out the exact location of the internal control of the sexual drive.

No doubt, the intensity of sexual urges is dependent upon chemical substances circulating in the blood known as sex hormones. Studies confirmed that this urge is profoundly influenced by the presence of hormones produced by tests in males and ovary cases of human beings, socio-cultural and emotional factors seem to play pivotal roles.

Sleep:
Sleep is a basic necessity of life. About one-third of our life is spent sleeping. It is a dramatic alteration of consciousness and it also happens spontaneously. The ordinary fluctuations in consciousness are part of the rhythmic. All creatures in this world are influenced by nature’s rhythms.

Human beings are at least a time cycle known as circadian rhythms. These rhythms are bodily patterns that repeat approximately every 24 hours. About one-third of the circadian rhythm is devoted to the period of energy-restoring rest called sleep. The most significant discovery after EEG technology in sleep research was that of rapid eye movement (REM).

These are the bursts of quick eye movements under closed eyelids, occurring at periodic intervals during sleep. The time when a sleeper is not showing REM is known as non-REM or NREM sleep (NREM). Dreams are possible during REM sleep. But NREM reports were filled with brief descriptions of ordinary daily activities, similar to waking thoughts.

Research evidence indicated that over the course of the night, our sleep cycle crosses several stages, each of which shows a distinct EEG pattern. It takes about 90 minutes to progress through the first four stages of sleep (NREM sleep). The first period of REM sleep last for about 10 minutes. In a night’s sleep, an individual passes through this 100-minute cycle four.

Question 8.
What are social motives?
Answer:
Social motives are otherwise known as secondary motives. These are also known as acquired learned motives. These motives are complex in nature. Social motives are called secondary because they involve interaction with others and are learned due to social conditioning in a social context.

Need for affiliation:
Seeking other human beings and waiting to be close to them both physically and psychologically is called affiliation. It refers to keeping contact with other people, in other words, affiliation refers to the need that people have to be with others. This motive is aroused when individuals feel helpless or threatened and also when they are happy.

Research findings indicate that fear and anxiety are closely related to affiliation motives. Where the degree of anxiety and threat is very high, such affiliation behavior is often absent. Studies also revealed that early learning experiences influence this motive. The first-born or the only child in the family had stronger affiliation motives than those bom later.

Studies have also shown that children who are brought up to be dependent or raised with closed family ties show a stronger affiliation motive than those coming from more closely-knit families which encourages early independence. Cultural differences were also found. Affiliation needs are stronger in some cultures than in others.

Need for Power:
The need for power is an independent motive. It expresses itself in behaviors, which tend to control and influence the course of events including the behaviors of others. History reveals that mankind has always struggled for power. Power was desired by the individuals as an instrument to satisfy other motives like aggression, greed, affiliation, etc. But in recent years, emphasis has been placed on the power motive as independent in itself. This view was emphasized by McClelland.

In his theory, David Me Clelland (1975) has expressed that power motivation can be revealed in four general ways:

People do things to gain feelings of power and strength from sources outside themselves. For example, children express power motivation by reading stories. Individuals gain strength fry reading the activities of past leaders. People do things to gain feelings of power and strength from sources within themselves.

For example, a college student may express power motivation by building up the body and by mastering urges and impulses. People do things to have an impact on others. For example, an individual may argue with another individual or may have a competitive attitude in order to influence that person. People do things as members of organizations to have an impact on others.

For example, the leader of a political party may use the principles of his party or an army officer may express the need for power through the chain of command to influence others. Studies reveal that for any individual, one of these ways of expressing power motivation may dominate. But a combination of power motives can not be ruled out.

With age and life experiences, the dominant mode of expression often changes. Studies have also shown that women seem to have less strong needs for power than men. They choose indirect ways to impact and influence. For example, women prefer to express their power motivation by being counselors, advisors, and resource persons for other people.

Depending on motive:
Shortly speaking dependency refers to interpersonal relationships where an individual behaves in a way in order to gain attention, assistance, comfort, and support from fellow men. For example, children use to spend more time with parents or intimate friends in difficult situations. People appear to be more dependent on social interactions and approval. Studies reveal that girls and women tend to be more dependent and affiliative than boys. In stress, people want to resort to dependency.

Co-operation motive:
Co-operation is an acquired motive. Moreover, it is a condition manifested when two or more individuals or groups work together to achieve a common goal. It signifies a lack of mutual disagreement and opposition among fellow group members and the absence of rivalry. Research evidence indicates that the citizens of Zuni of New Mexico are found to be extremely cooperative.

Being wealthy in Zuni brings no status. Status is derived not from power, but from friendship. A happy and successful Zuni has many friends. Different studies on altruism among children provide evidence that helping behavior can be fostered through the use of models (Paulson, 1974).

Conformity motive:
Conformity refers to the tendency to allow one’s opinions, attitudes, actions, and even perceptions to be affected by prevailing opinions, attitudes, actions, and perceptions. Very often people act in ways consistent with the majority. This tendency to ‘go along with the group is popularly known as behavioral conformity.

Changes in attitude and belief also take place due to pressures from others. It is known as ‘ attitudinal conformity’. There is also conformity of personality traits i.e. underlying characteristics of a person changes according to the norms of society. With the help of a conformity curve, F.H. Allport (1935) described the conformity motive phenomena.

He related that most people exhibit complete conformity to social norms with fewer and fewer people having deviations. Our submissiveness to social influences is due to conformity motives to the norms of the society in which we live. Norms refer to behavior that is usual or expected, acceptable, and socially prescribed.

Points to remember:

Question 1.
Define the meaning and definition of thinking.
Answer:
Thinking is a very often used psychological term in our daily life. The importance of thinking is evident not only for the wide use of the term but also because thinking helps in the solution of all our day-to-day problems. Thinking is the most complex of all psychological processes and it is thinking that normally differentiates man from lower animals.

Question 2.
Define the sensory-motor period.
Answer:
Sensory-Motor Period.
The sensory-motor period is the period that starts before the language development of the child. Piaget distinguished between two major stages in cognitive development i.e. sensory-motor intelligence (0-2 years) and conceptual intelligence (0-to Maturity). During the sensory-motor period, the child’s adaptations and activities do not involve extensive use of symbols or language.

Question 3.
Describe the stages of cognitive development by Piaget.
Answer:
Piaget is a development theorist who believes that cognitive development occurs gradually phase by phase.
Piaget has divided the entire period of cognitive development into four basic stages.

• A sensorimotor period is 0-2 years approximately.
• Preoperalionalperiod 2-7years approximately.
• The concrete operational period is 7-12 years approximately.
• The formal operational period is 12 years above approximately.

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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 2 Basic Concepts Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 2 Basic Concepts Short Answer Questions

Answer In One Sentence

Question 1.
What are the main elements of society?
Answer:
(1) Likeness
(2) A system of social relationship
(3) Difference
(4) Interdependence
(5) Co-operation and conflict
(6) Society is abstract and intangible
(7) Comprehensive culture.

Question 2.
What is society?
Answer:
Society is the main basic concept of sociology. The word society is usually to designate the members of specific in groups persons rather than the social relationship. Society means collection of individuals who are bought into social relationship with one another. The sum total of human relation can called society.

Question 3.
Mention the Latin word from which the term society is derived.
Answer:
Society has come from the Latin word Socius which means a companion. The companionship is derived from it by adding the nounsuffin-ship.

Question 4.
Write M. Ginsberg’s definition of society.
Answer:
According to M. Ginsberg, A society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or modes of behaviour which work them off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from them in behaviour.

Question 5.
Define society.
Answer:
According to Maclver and Page, society is a system of usages and procedures authority and mutual and of many groupings and divisions of controls of human behaviour and of liberties.

Question 6.
Write Cole’s definition of society.
Answer:
According to G.D.H. Cole “Society is the complex of organised associations.”

Question 7.
Write short note on society is a web or network of social relationship.
Answer:
In the words of Maclver society is a web or network of social relationships in the basis of society social relationship implies mutual awareness and reciprocity or mutual interaction and is based on understanding and fellow feelings.

Question 8.
Write Prof. Gidding’s definition of society.
Answer:
According to Prof. Gidding “Society is the union itself the organisation the sum of formal relations in which associating individuals are bound together.

Question 9.
Write short note as functional prerequisites of society.
Answer:
Society is a functioning organisation. It is socious functioning different prerequisites are necessary. Likeness is one of the important functional prerequisites of society because it consists of like minded people.

Question 10.
Write any two functional prerequisities of society.
Answer:
(1) Obdience to social norms.
(2) Re-production.

Question 11.
What is community?
Answer:
Community means a group of people living in a geographical area and having a degree of we feeling.

Question 12.
Write short note on society is co-operation crossed by conflict.
Answer:
Maclver opinions society is a cooperation crossed by conflict. Co-operation is essential to co-operate and associate for the achievement of common interest.

Question 13.
What are the characteristics of community.
Answer:
The characteristics of community are:

• Locality
• community Sentiment
• Stability
• Naturalness
• Size of the community
• Regulations of relations

Question 14.
Write two examples of community.
Answer:
(1) Urban Community
(2) Wage Community

Question 15.
What is community sentiment?
Answer:
Community sentiment means a feeling of belonging together. The members must be aware of their staying together and sharing common interests. The members develop a sense of we feeling.

Question 16.
Explain the importance of locality in community.
Answer:
Locality continues to be a basic factor or community life. However in modem times the local bond of community is weakened by the development of the means of transport and communication. In fact, the extension of communication is itself the condition of a large but still territorial community.

Question 17.
What is Association?
Answer:
A group of people organised for a particular purpose or limited member of purposes on the basis of common interests they may be said to constitute an association. An army, a political party, a music club, a trade unions, a college can be called as association.

Question 18.
Write any two association.
Answer:
(1) A group of people
(2) Voluntary and organised group.

Question 19.
What is social group?
Answer:
Social group is an organised group.

Question 20.
Define social group?
Answer:
According to Maclver and Page, a group is any collection of human beings who are brought into social relationships with one another.

Question 21.
Mention any two characteristics of social group.
Answer:
Social group means a collection of individuals without this social group cannot be formed. Thus social group means a collection of human being who are brought into social contact for a common benefit.

Question 22.
What is culture?
Answer:
Culture has two meaning one for common man and another for the social scientists. It is one of the important concepts in social science. It is commonly used in political science and economic. It is the main concepts in Anthropology. The study of human society immediately and necessary leads us to the study of its culture.

Question 23.
Define various types and culture?
Answer:
A number of sociologists classified culture into two large components.
(1) Material Culture
(2) Non-material culture.

Question 24.
What is material culture?
Answer:
Material culture consists of the products of human activitiy. Material culture have been discovered to solve the problems of human living. Books, chair and tables, pens, lamps and bubble gums are some of the items of material culture.

Question 25.
What is non-material culture?
Answer:
Non-material culture consists of intangible and abstract things, customs, beliefs, attitude, values and religion and included in non-material culture.

Question 26.
What is primary group?
Answer:
Primary group is a small group in which a small number of persons come into direct contact with one another.

Question 27.
Mention any two characteristics of primary group?
Answer:
The two characteristics of primary group are:
(1) The size of primary group is very small.
(2) The relation of the members primary group are direct, close, intimate face and personal.

Question 28.
What is secondary group?
Answer:
Secondary group is just opposite side of the primary group. It is a large group where a large number of persons come into indirect contract with one another. There is no need of face to face, intimate and personal relations in secondary group.

Question 29.
Mention any two characteristics of secondary group.
Answer:
The characteristics of secondary group are:
(1) The size of secondary group is very large.
(2) Secondary the relations of the members of secondary group are indirect, less in time, touch and go type and in personal.

Question 30.
Define reference group.
Answer:
According to Sheriff reference group as those groups to which individual relations himself as a part or to which he relates himself psychologically.

Question 31.
What is in-group?
Answer:
There are number of group to which individual belongs are called in-group.

Question 32.
What is out-group?
Answer:
Out-group is opposite of in-group. According to summer out-group is that group to which individual does not belong. The individuals does not belongs to a number of groups which are his out-group.

Question 33.
Give any two examples of social group.
Answer:
(1) A nation.
(2) Labour union.

Question 34.
Give any two examples of primary group.
Answer:
(1) Family.
(2) Children’s playground.

Question 35.
Give any two examples of secondary group.
Answer:
(1) A city.
(2) A trade union.

Question 36.
Give any two examples of in-group.
Answer:
(1) A persons own family.
(2) A persons own religion.

Question 37.
Give any two examples of out-group.
Answer:
(1) For a student other college, than his own college, are out-group.
(2) A person friends, family is out-group for that person.

Question 38.
Mention any two difference between primary and secondary group.
Answer:
(1) Primary group and secondary group differ from each other regarding the nature of relationships.
(2) Primary group is small but secondary group is large size.

Question 39.
What is reference group?
Answer:
The individual initiates other individuals and groups. He compare himself with others and begins behaving like them in order to reach their status and position. The individuals or groups whose behaviour is limited by him are known as reference group.

Question 40.
Mention any two difference between in-group and out-group.
Answer:
(1) The groups to which individual belongs are known as his in-group, but all other groups are regarded as out-groups of that individual.
(2) Both in-group and out-group differ from each other on the basis of ‘we’ and ‘they’ or other feeling.

Short Type Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Write short notes on the term Society.
Answer:
The word society has been derived from the Latin word Socius which means a Companion. The term society used to refer to the members of a specific in-group. As Gidding says that its is a number of like minded individuals, who know and enjoy their like mindedness and are therefore able to work together for common ends.

Question 2.
Explain the term Community.
Answer:
The word Community has come from the Latin root Comments means Common. A Community refers to a group of people living within a definite area with common interests and carrying on interdependent life.

Question 3.
Explain the term Community Sentiment
Answer:
Community sentiment is one of file important characteristic of community. It refer to a sense of we-feeling or a feeling of being together. It implies a kind of sentiment or emotional identification with the group.

Question 4.
Write short notes on important characteristic of Society.
Answer:
MacIver says society means likeness. In consists of like minded people who are similar in many respects society also involves differences. Interplay of likeness and differences forms society. Members of society are inter¬dependent on each other and they co-operate among themselves.

Question 5.
Distinguish between Society and Community.
Answer:
The term society has been derived from the Latin word Socius means Companion whereas the term community has been derived from the Latin word Comments means Common.

A society do not have definite locality but community has definite locality. Society rests on cooperation. But community rests on community sentiment.

Question 6.
Explain any three characteristics of Community.
Answer:

• A group of people is the primary condition for the formation of society.
• A community always exists within a definite locality. When a group of people living in a definite area they form a community.
• Community sentiment is the most important characteristic of community. It means a feeling of being together or sense of we feeling.

Question 7.
Explain any three functional pre-requisites of Society.
Answer:
As a functioning organisation society requires some functional pre-requisites. Which are as described below :

• Food, clothing and shelter is one of the most important functional pre-requisite of society which are as described below.
• Sonic provision of security for its member is another functional pre-requisite of society.
• Inter-dependence among members is another functional pre-requisite of society.

Question 8.
Explain the term Association.
Answer:
An association is a group of people organised for a particular purpose or a. limited number of purposes. According to Maclver “Association is an organisation deliberately formed for the collectives persuit of some interest or set of interests which its members share. An association is organised and guided by some rules and regulations.

Question 9.
Write in brief how man is a social animal.
Answer:
In the words of famous Greek Philosopher, man is a social animal. He who lives without society either is a God or a beast. He can’t live in isolation. He always lives in groups or society. Man is social by nature and necessity.

His needs and necessities compel him to live in society. Man’s human nature only develops in society. The different experiment of feral cases of Kasper Hauser, Amala and Kamala and the cases of Anna proves this social nature of man.

Question 10.
Explain any three characteristic of Association.
Answer:
(1) A group of people is necessary to form an association and the people who form an association must be organised.
(2) Common purpose or interest is the next important characteristic of an association. The people who form an association must have a common purpose. For the achievement of this they organise themselves.
(3) There must be co-operation among members without which association can’t be formed.

Question 11.
Explain Institution.
Answer:
Institution ordinarily refers to the rules governing the complex social relationships among people. Institutions are forms of procedures. In the words of A.W. Green An institution is the organisation of several folkways and mores into a unit which serves a number of social functions.

Question 12.
Explain any three characteristic of an Institution.
Answer:
(1) Institutions are formed to satisfy the primary needs of individuals.
(2) Institutions prescribe certain rules and regulations which are to be followed by all the members.
(3) Institutions are abstract in nature and are embodiment of values.

Question 13.
Distinguish between Association and Institution.
Answer:
Association is concrete in nature whereas institutions are abstract. Association is a group of people who organise themselves for the purpose of attaining common interest. But institutions are forms of procedures and characteristics of group activity. Association refers to a group of people whereas institution refers to some rules and regulations.

Question 14.
Explain Social Group.
Answer:
Ordinarily group refers to a number of units of anything in close proximity with one another: But social group refers to any collection of human being who are brought into social relationship, with one another. Ogburn and Nimkoff says whenever two or more individuals come together and influence one another, they may be said to constitute a social group.

Question 15.
Explain any three characteristics of Social Group.
Answer:
(1) Social group is a collection of human beings who are united by a sense of unity.
(2) Some sort of reciprocal relations exist among the members of a social group.
(3) Member of a social group show similarity of behaviour and have common interest.

Question 16.
Explain Primary Group.
Answer:
American Sociologist C.H. Cooley developed the concept of primary group and opine primary group is characterised by intimate and face-to-face association and cooperation. They are primary in several senses. Primary group is small in size and is called is ‘we group’. They are nursery of human virtues; example -family.

Question 17.
Explain Secondary Group.
Answer:
Secondary groups are almost the opposite of the primary groups. Secondary groups are large in size and are of short duration. Interaction among the members of secondary group is formal, utility oriented specialised and temporary. Political party is an example of secondary group, these groups provide experience lacking in intimacy.

Question 18.
Explain the term Culture.
Answer:
The term culture is first used by the famous English anthropologist E.B. Tylor culture is the sum total of human activities which are learnt and shared by the majority in a group and passed on from one generation to another. It is the handiwork of men and the medium through which we achieve our ends.

Question 19.
Explain any three characteristics of Culture.
Answer:
(1) Culture is learned by living in group. It is not informal.
(2) Culture is accumulative in nature. It is a product of centuries.
(3) Culture is transmissive in nature. It is transmitted from one generation to another.

Question 20.
Explain Material Culture.
Answer:
W.F. Ogbum has divided culture into material and non-material type. Material culture refers to those things to which we can •touch or can see. They are tangible and concrete in nature. Books, chairs, tables, utensils etc. are examples of material culture.

Question 21.
Explain Non-material Culture.
Answer:
W.F. Ogbum has divided culture into material and non-material type. Non-material culture refers to those things to which we can touch or see. They are intangible and abstract things. Beliefs, value, customs, ideology etc. are examples of non-material culture.

Question 22.
Distinguish between Material and Non-material Culture.
Answer:
Material culture refers to the things to which we can tough or can see whereas non-material culture refers to those things which we can’t see or touch.

Books, chairs, tables etc. are examples of material culture whereas values, ideology, customs etc. are examples of non-material culture. Material culture is also called as artifacts where of non-material culture is known, asmenti-facts.,

Question 23.
Explain Cultural Lag.
Answer:
Ogburn has divided culture into material and non-material types. He opines that these two parts of culture do not more it uniform speed. Material culture moves faster than non-material culture.

As a result a gap is seen between these two interrelated parts of culture. To this gap or generation. Ogburn called as cultural lag. Hence, culture lag refers to the gap between two-inter-related parts of culture i.e. material and non-material.

Question 24.
Distinguish between Culture and Society.
Answer:
Culture is the way of life whereas society is an interaction of group of people sharing a culture. Society is a process of living and it consists of a group of people whereas culture refers to the belief customs, traditions etc.

Culture is the handiwork of men and a medium through which he achieves his ends. But society refers to a web of network of relationship that exists between men.

Question 25.
What is in-group?
Answer:
There are number of group to which individual belongs are called in-group. The examples of if-groups are his family, caste, sex, occupation, village etc. The individual develop a sense of attachment affection and sympathy towards the numbers of his in-group all the time. There is we feeling among the members in in-groups.

Question 26.
What is out-group?
Answer:
Out group is opposite of in group. According to summer out-group is that group to which individual does not belong. The individuals does not belongs to a number of groups which are his out-group. The individuals belongs to those groups which are known as his in-groups but all other groups are called his out-groups.

Question 27.
Define Reference Group.
Answer:
According to Sheriff “Reference group as those groups to which individual relates himself as a part or to which he relates himself psychologically’’.

Question 28.
What is Reference group?
Answer:
The individual initiates other individuals and groups. He compares himself with others and begins behaving like them in order to reach their status and position. The individuals or groups whose behaviour is limited by him are known as Reference groups.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 History Solutions Unit 1 Early Societies Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 1 Early Societies Long Answer Questions

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Describe the classification of early humans.
Answer:
The remains of early humans have been classified into different species. These are often distinguished from one another on the basis of differences in bone structure. For instance, species of early humans are differentiated in terms of their skull size and distinctive jaws. These characteristics may have evolved due to what has been called the positive feedback mechanism.

For example, bipedaliSm enabled hands to be freed for carrying infants or objects. In turn, as hands were used more and more, upright walking gradually became more efficient. Apart from the advantage of freeing hands for various uses, far less energy is consumed while walking as compared to the movement of a quadruped.

However, the advantage in terms of saving energy is reversed while running. There is indirect evidence of bipedalism as early as 3.6 mya. This comes from the fossilised hominid footprints at Laetoli, Tanzania. Fossil limb bones recovered from Hadar, Ethiopia provides more direct evidence of bipedalism.

With the onset of a phase of glaciation (or an Ice Age), when large parts of the earth were covered with snow, there were major changes in climate and vegetation. Due to the reduction in temperatures as well as rainfall, grassland areas expanded at the expense of forests, leading to the gradual extinction of the early forms of Australopithecus (that were adapted to forests) and the replacement by species that were better adapted to the drier conditions.

Among these were the earliest representatives of the genus Homo. Homo is a Latin word, meaning ‘man’, although there were women as well. Scientists distinguish amongst several types of Homo. The names assigned to these species are derived from what is regarded as their typical characteristics.

So fossils are classified as Homo hails (the toolmaker), Homo erectus (the upright man), and Homo sapiens (the wise or thinking man). Fossils of Homo habilis have been discovered at Omo in Ethiopia and at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The earliest fossils of Homo erectus have been found both in Africa and Asia: Koobi Fora, west Turkana, Kenya, Modjokerto and Sangiran, Java.

As the finds in Asia belong to a later date than those in Africa, it is likely that hominids migrated from East Africa to southern aid northern Africa, to southern and north-eastern Asia, and perhaps to Europe, sometime between 2 and 1.5 mya. This species survived for nearly a million years.

In some instances, the names of fossils are derived from the places where the first fossils of a particular type were found. So fossils found in Heidelberg, a city in Germany, were called Homo heidelbergensis, while those found in the Neander valley were categorised as Homo neanderthalensis. The earliest fossils from Europe are of Homo heidelbergensis and Homo neanderthalensis.

Both belong to the species of archaic (that is, old) Homo sapiens. The fossils of Homo heidelbergensis (0.8-0.1 mya) have a wide distribution, having been found in Africa, Asia and Europe. The Neanderthals occupied Europe and western and Central Asia from roughly 130,000 to 35,000 years ago. They disappeared abruptly in Western Europe around 35,000 years ago.

In general, compared with Australopithecus, Homo have a larger brain, jaws with a reduced outward protrusion and smaller teeth. An increase in brain size is associated with more intelligence and better memory. The changes in the jaws and teeth were probably related to differences in dietary habits.

Question 2.
How early did humans obtain their food?
Answer:
Early humans would have obtained food in a number of ways, such as gathering, hunting, scavenging and fishing. The gathering would involve collecting plant foods such as seeds, nuts, berries, fruits and tubers. That gathering was practised is generally assumed rather than conclusively established, as there is very little direct evidence for it.

While we get a fair amount of fossil bones, fossilised plant remains are relatively rare. The only other way of getting information about plant intake would be if plant remains were accidentally burnt. This process results in carbonisation. In this form, organic matter is preserved for a long span of time. However, so far archaeologists have not found much evidence of carbonised seeds for this very early period.

In recent years, the term hunting has been under discussion by scholars. Increasingly, it is being suggested that the early hominids scavenged or foraged for meat and marrow from the carcasses of animals that had died naturally or had been killed by other predators. It is equally possible that small mammals such as rodents, birds (and their eggs), reptiles and even insects (such as termites) were eaten by early hominids.

Hunting probably began later – about 5000 years ago. The earliest clear evidence for the deliberate, planned hunting and butchery of large mammals comes from two sites: Boxgrove in southern England (500,000 years ago) and Schoningen in Germany (400,000 years ago) Fishing was also important, as is evident from the discovery of fish bones at different sites.

Fishing was also important, as is evident from the discovery of fish bones at different sites. From about 3 5,000 years ago, there is evidence of planned hunting from some European sites. Some sites, such as (Dolni Vestontee) in the Czech Republic, which was near a river, seem to have been deliberately chosen by early people.

Herds of migratory animals such as reindeer and horses probably crossed the river during their autumn and spring migrations and were killed on a large scale. The choice of such sites indicates that people knew about the movement of these animals and also about the means of killing large numbers of animals quickly.

Question 3.
How early did humans make their tools?
Answer:
Birds are known to make objects to assist them with feeding, hygiene and social encounters and while foraging for food some chimpanzees use tools that they have made. However, there are some features of human tool-making that are not known among apes. As we have seen certain anatomical and neurological (related to the nervous system) adaptations have led to the skilled use of hands, probably due to the important role of tools in human lives.

Moreover, the ways in which humans use and make tools often require greater memory and complex organisational skills, both of which are absent in apes. The earliest evidence for the making and use of stone tools comes from sites in Ethiopia and Kenya. It is likely that the earliest stone tool makers were the Australopithecus.

As in the case of other activities, we do not know whether tool-making was done by men or women or both. It is possible that stone toolmakers were both women and men. Women in particular may have made and used tools to obtain food for themselves as well as to sustain their children after weaning.

About 35,000 years ago, improvements in the techniques for killing animals are evident from the appearance of new kinds of tools such as spear-throwers and the bow and arrow. The meat thus obtained was probably by drying, smoking and storage. Thus, food processed by removing the bones followed and could be stored for later consumption.

There were other changes, such as the trapping of fur-bearing animals (to use the fur’ for clothing) and the invention of sewing needles. The earliest evidence of sewn clothing comes from about 21,000 years ago. Besides, with the introduction of the punch blade technique to make small chisel-like tools, it was now possible to make engravings on bone, antler, ivory or wood.

Question 4.
What was the way people communicates in early times?
Answer:
Among living beings, it is humans alone that have a language. There are several views on language development:

• that hominid language involved gestures or hand movements
• that spoken language was preceded, by vocal but non-verbal communication such as singing or humming
• that human speech probably began with calls like the ones that have been observed among primates.

Humans may have possessed a small number of speech sounds in the initial stage. Gradually, these may have developed into language. It has been suggested that the brain of Homo habilis had certain features which would have made it possible for them to speak. Thus, language may have developed as early as 2 mya.

The evolution of the vocal tract was equally important. This occurred around 2000 years ago. It is more specifically associated with modem humans. A third suggestion is that language developed around the same time as art, that is, around 40,000-35,000 years ago. The development of spoken language has been seen as closely connected with art since both are media for communication.

Hundreds of paintings of animals (done between 30,000 and 12,000 years ago) have been discovered in the caves of Lascaux and Chauvet, both in France and Altamira, in Spain. These include depictions of bison, horses, ibex, deer, mammoths, rhinos, lions, bears, panthers, hyenas and owls. More questions have been raised than answered regarding these paintings.

For example, why do some areas of caves have paintings and not others? Why were some animals painted and not others? Why were men painted both individually and in groups, whereas women were depicted only in groups? Why were men painted near animals but never women? Why were groups of animals painted in the sections of caves where sounds carried well? Several explanations have been offered.

One is that because of the importance of hunting, the paintings of animals were associated with ritual and magic. The act of painting could have been a ritual to ensure a successful hunt. Another explanation offered is that these caves were possibly meeting places for small groups of people or locations for group activities.

These groups could share hunting techniques and knowledge, while paintings and engravings served as the media for passing information from one generation to the next. The above account of early societies has been based on archaeological evidence. Clearly, there is much that we still do not know. As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, hunter-gatherer societies exist even today.

Question 5.
Who is known as the hunter-gather society in early times?
Answer:
African pastoral group about its initial contact in 1870 with the Kung an, a hunter-gatherer society living in the Kalahari desert:
When we first came into this area, all we saw were strange footprints in the sand. We wondered what kind of people these were. They were very afraid of us and would hide whenever we came around.

We found their villages, but they were always empty because as soon as they saw strangers coming, they would scatter and hide in the bush. We said: ‘Oh, this is good; these people are afraid of us, they are weak and we can easily rule over them.’ So we just ruled them. There was no killing or fighting. You will read more about encounters with hunter-gatherers in Themes 8 and 10.

Question 6.
Who are the Hadza?
Answer:
The Hadza are a small group of hunters and gatherers, living in the vicinity of Lake Eyasi, a salt, rift-valley lake. The country of the eastern Hadza, dry, rocky savanna, dominated by thorn scrub and acacia trees is rich in wild foods. Animals are exceptionally numerous and were certainly commoner at the beginning of the century.

Elephants, rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffes, zebra, waterbuck, gazelle, warthog, baboon, lion, leopards, and hyenas are all common, as are smaller animals such as porcupines, hares, jackals, tortoises and many others. All of these animals, apart from the elephant, are hunted and eaten by the Hadza.

The amount of meat that could be regularly eaten without endangering the future of the game is probably greater than anywhere else in the world were hunters and gatherers live or have lived in the recent past. Vegetable food – roots, berries, the fruit of the baobab tree, etc. – though not often obvious to the casual observer, is always abundant even at the height of the dry season in a year of drought.

The type of vegetable food available is different in the six-month wet season from the dry season but there is no period of shortage. The honey and grubs of seven species of wild bees are eaten supplies of these vary from season to season and from year to year. Sources of water are widely distributed over the country in the wet season but are very few in the dry season.

The Hadza consider that about 5-6 kilometres are the maximum distance over which water can reasonably be carried and camps are normally sited within a kilometre of a water course. Part of the country consists of open grass plains but the Hadza never build camps there. Camps are invariably sited among trees or rocks and, by preference, among both.

The eastern Hadza assert no rights over land and its resources. Any individual may live wherever he likes and may hunt animals, collect roots, berries, and honey and draw water anywhere in Hadza country without any sort of restriction. In spite of the exceptional numbers of game animals in their area, the Hadza rely mainly on the wild vegetable matter for their food.

Probably as much as 80 per cent of their food by weight is vegetable, while meat and honey together account for the remaining 20 per cent. Camps are commonly small and widely dispersed in the wet season, large and concentrated near the few available sources of water in the dry season. There is never any shortage of food even in times of drought.

Question 7.
Discuss the Hunter-Gatherer Societies from the present to the past.
Answer:
As our knowledge of present-day hunter-gatherers increased through studies by anthropologists, a question that began to be posed was whether the information about living hunters and gatherers could be used to understand past societies. Currently, there are two opposing views on this issue.

On one side are scholars who have directly applied specific data from present-day hunter-gatherer societies to interpret the archaeological remains of the past. For example, some archaeologists have suggested that the hominids, sites, dating to 2 mya, along the margins of Lake Turkana could have been dry season camps of early humans, because such a practice has been observed among the Hadza and the Kung San.

On the other side are scholars who feel that ethnographic data cannot be used for understanding past societies as the two are totally different. For instance, present-day hunter-gatherer societies pursue several other economic activities along with hunting and gathering. These include engaging in exchange and trade in minor forest produce or working as paid labourers in the fields of neighbouring farmers.

Moreover, these societies are totally marginalised in all senses -geographically, politically and socially. The conditions in which they live are very different from those of early humans. Another problem is that there is a tremendous variation amongst living hunter-gatherer societies. There are conflicting data on many issues such as the relative importance of hunting and gathering, group sizes, or the movement from place to place.

Also, there is little consensus regarding the division of labour in food procurement. Although today generally women gather and men hunt, there are societies where both women and men hunt and gather and make tools. In any case, the important role of women in contributing to the food supply in such societies cannot be denied.

It is perhaps this factor that ensures a relatively equal role for both women and men in present-day hunter-gatherer societies, although there are variations. While this may be the case today, it is difficult to make any such inference from the past.

Question 8.
How farming has started in early times?
Answer:
For several million years, humans lived by hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants. Then, between 10,000 and 4,500 years ago, people in different parts of the world learnt to domesticate certain plants and animals. This led to the development of farming and pastoralism as a way of life. The shift from foraging to fanning was a major turning point in human history.

Why did this change take place at this point in time? The last ice age came to an end about 130 years ago and with that warmer, wetter conditions prevailed. As a result, conditions were favourable for the growth of grasses such as wild barley and wheat. At the same time, as open forests and grasslands expanded, the population of certain animal species such as wild sheep, goats, cattle, pigs and donkeys increased.

What we find is that human societies began to gradually prefer areas that had an abundance of wild grasses and animals. Now relatively large, permanent communities occupied such areas for most parts of the year. With some areas being clearly preferred, pressure may have built up to increase the food supply. This may Have triggered the process of domestication of certain plants and animals.

It is likely that a combination of factors which included climatic change, population pressure, a greater reliance on and knowledge of a few species of plants (such as wheat, barley, rice and millet) and animals (such as sheep, goat, cattle, donkey and pig) played a role in this transformation.

One such area Where farming and pastoralism began around 10,00t) years ago was the Fertile Crescent, extending from the Mediterranean coast to the Zagros mountains in Iran. With the introduction of agriculture, more people began to stay in one place for even longer periods than they had done before. Thus permanent houses began to be built of mud, mud bricks and even stone. These are some of the earliest villages known to archaeologists.

Farming and pastoralism led to the introduction of many other changes such as the making of pots in which to store grain and other produce and to cook food. Besides, new kinds of stone tools came into use. Other new tools such as the plough were used in agriculture. Gradually, people became familiar with metals such as copper and tin. The wheel, important for both pot making and transportation, came into use.

Question 9.
Discuss Mesopotamia and its Geography.
Answer:
Iraq is left of diverse environments. In the northeast lie green, undulating plains, gradually rising to tree-covered mountain ranges with clear streams and wildflowers, with enough rainfall to grow crops. Here, agriculture began between 7000 and 6000 BCE. In the north, there is a stretch of upland called a steppe, where animal herding offers people a better livelihood than agriculture – after the winter rains, sheep and goats feed on the grasses and low shrubs that grow here.

To the east, tributaries of the Tigris provide routes of communication into the mountains of Iran. The south is a desert – and this is where the first cities and writing emerged (see below). This desert could support cities because the rivers Euphrates and Tigris, which rise in the northern mountains, carry loads of silt (fine mud).

When they flood or when their water is let out onto the fields, fertile silt is deposited. After the Euphrates has entered the desert, its water flows out into small channels. These channels flood their banks and, in the past, functioned as irrigation canals: water could be let into the fields of wheat, barley, peas or lentils when necessary.

Of all ancient systems, that of the Roman Empire (Theme 3) included, it was the agriculture of southern Mesopotamia that was the most productive, even though the region did not have sufficient rainfall to grow crops. Not only agriculture but Mesopotamian sheep and goats also grazed on the steppe, the northeastern plains and the mountain slopes (that is, on tracts too high for the rivers to flood and fertilise).

Produced meat, milk and wool in abundance, Further, fish was available in rivers and date palms gave fruit in summer. Let us not, however, make the mistake of thinking that cities grew simply because of rural prosperity. We shall discuss other factors by and by, but first, let us be clear about city life.

Question 10.
How the development of writing takes place in Mesopotamia civilizations?
Answer:
All societies have languages in which certain spoken sounds convey certain meanings. This is verbal communication. Writing too is verbal communication – but in a different way. When we talk about writing or a script, we mean that spoken sounds are represented in visible signs. The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like signs and numbers.

These were about 5,000 lists of oxen, fish, bread loaves, etc. lists of goods that were brought into or distributed from the temples of Uruk, a city in the south. Clearly, writing began when society needed to keep records of transactions because in city life transactions occurred at different times and involved many people and a variety of goods.

Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay. A scribe would wet clay and pat it into a size he could hold comfortably in one hand. He would carefully smoothen its surfaces. With the sharp end of the agreed cut obliquely, he would press wedge-shaped cuneiform signs onto the smoothened surface while it was still moist.

Once dried in the sun, the clay would harden and tablets would be almost as indestructible as pottery. When a written record of, say, the delivery of pieces of metal had ceased to be relevant, the tablet was thrown away. Once the surface dried, signs could not be pressed onto a tablet: so each transaction, however minor, required a separate written tablet.

This is why tablets occur by the hundreds at Mesopotamian sites. And it is because of this wealth of sources that we know so much more about Mesopotamia than we do about contemporary India. By 2600 BCE or so, the letters became cuneiform and the language was Sumerian.

The writing was now used not only for keeping records, but also for making dictionaries, giving legal validity to land transfers, narrating the deeds of kings, and announcing the changes a king had made in the customary laws of the land. Sumerian, the earliest known language of Mesopotamia, was gradually replaced after 2400 BCE by the Akkadian language. Cuneiform writing in the Akkadian language continued in use until the first century CE, that is, for more than 2,000 years.

Question 11.
Discuss the temples and kings in Mesopotamia as a civilization.
Answer:
Early settlers (their origins are unknown) began to build and rebuild temples at selected spots in their villages. The earliest known temple was a small shrine made of unbaked bricks. Temples were the residences of various gods of the Moon God of Ur, or of manna the Goddess of Love and War.

Constructed in brick, temples became larger over time, with Several rooms around open courtyards. Some of the early ones were possibly not unlike the ordinary house for the temple was the house of a god. But temples always had their outer walls going in and out at regular intervals, which no ordinary building ever did.

The god was the focus of worship to his or her people and brought grain, curd and fish (the floors of some early temples had thick layers of fish bones). The god was also the theoretical owner of the agricultural fields, the fisheries, and the herds of the local community. In time, the processing of produce (for example, oil pressing, grain grinding, spinning, and the weaving of woollen cloth) was also done in the temple.

The organiser of production at a level above the household, employer of merchants and keeper of written records of distributions and allotments of grain, plough animals, bread, beer, fish, etc., the temple gradually developed its activities and became the main urban institution.

Question 12.
What is a family system in Mesopotamia civilization?
Answer:
In Mesopotamian society, the nuclear family was the norm, although a married son and his family often resided with his parents. The father was the head ofthe family. We know a little about the procedures for marriage. A declaration was made about the willingness to marry, and the bride’s parents gave their consent to the marriage.

Then a gift was given by the groom’s people to the bride’s people. When the wedding took place, gifts were exchanged by both parties, who ate together and made offerings in a temple. When her mother-in-law came to fetch her, the bride was given her share of the inheritance by her father. The father’s house, herds, fields, etc., were inherited by the sons.

Abstract Archaeologists have made attempts to reconstruct the lives of early people to find out about the shelters in which they lived, the food they ate by gathering plant produce and hunting animals, and the ways in which they expressed themselves. Other important developments include the use of fire and of language.

And, finally, you will see whether the lives of people who live by hunting and gathering today can help us to understand the past. The second theme deals with some of the earliest cities of Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq. These cities developed around temples and were centres of long-distance trade.

Archaeological evidence remains of old settlements and an abundance of written material are used to reconstruct the lives of the different people who lived there craftspeople, scribes, labourers, priests, kings and queens. You will notice how pastoral people played an important role in some of these towns.

A question to think about is whether the many activities that went on in cities would have been possible if the writing had not developed. You may wonder how people who for millions of years had lived in forests, in caves or in temporary shelters began to eventually live in villages and cities.

Well, the story is a long one and is related to several developments that took place at least 5,000 years before the establishment ofthe first cities. One ofthe most far-reaching changes was the gradual shift from nomadic life to settled agriculture, which began around 10,000 years ago. As you will see in Theme 1, prior to the adoption of agriculture, people gathered plants to produce as a source of food.

Slowly, they learnt more about different kinds of plants – where they grew, the seasons when they bore fruit and so on. From this, they learnt to grow plants. In West Asia, wheat and barley, peas and various kinds of pulses were grown. In East and Southeast Asia, the crops that grew easily were millet and rice. Millet was also grown in Africa.

Around the same time, people learnt how to domesticate animals such as sheep, goats, cattle, pigs and donkeys. Plant fibres such as cotton and flax and animal fibres such as wool were now woven into cloth. Somewhat later, about 5,000 years ago, domesticated animals such as cattle and donkeys were harnessed to ploughs and carts.

These developments led to other changes as well. When people grew crops, they had to stay in the same place till the crops ripened. So, settled life became more common. And with that, people built more permanent structures in which to live. This was also the time when some communities learnt how to make earthen pots.

These were used to store grain and other produce, and to prepare and cook a variety of foods made from the new grains that were cultivated. In fact, a great deal of attention was given to processing foods to make them tasty and digestible. The way stone tools were made also changed.

While earlier methods of making tools continued, some tools and equipment were now smoothened and polished by an elaborate process of grinding. New equipment included mortars and pestles for preparing grain, as well as stone axes and hoes, which were used to clear land for cultivation, as well as for digging the earth to sow seeds.

In some areas, people learnt to tap the ores of metals such as copper and tin. Sometimes, copper ores were collected and used for their distinctive bluish-green colour. This prepared the way for the more extensive use of metal for jewellery and for tools subsequently. There was also a growing familiarity with other kinds of produce from distant lands (and seas).

This included wood, stones, including precious and semi-precious stones, metals and shells, and hardened volcanic lava. Clearly, people were going from place to place, carrying goods and ideas with them. With increasing trade, the growth of villages and towns, and the movements of people, in place of the small communities of early people there now grew small states.

While these changes took place slowly, over several thousand years, the pace quickened with the growth of the first cities. Also, the changes had far-reaching consequences. Some scholars have, described this as a revolution, as the lives of people were probably transformed beyond recognition.

Look out for continuities and changes as you explore these two contrasting themes in early history. Remember too, that we have selected only some examples of early societies for detailed study. There were other kinds of early societies, including farming communities and pastoral peoples. And there were other peoples who were hunter-gatherers as well as city dwellers, apart from the examples selected.

Writing and City Life:
City life began in Mesopotamia, the land between the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers that is now part of the Republic of Iraq Mesopotamian civilisation is “known for its prosperity, city life, its voluminous and rich literature and Us mathematics and astronomy. Mesopotamia’s writing system and literature spread to the eastern Mediterranean, northern Syria, and Turkey after 2000 BCE, so the kingdoms of that entire region were writing to one another, arid to the Pharaoh of Egypt, in the language and script of Mesopotamia.

Here we shall explore the connection between city life and writing, and then look at some outcomes of a sustained tradition of writing. At the beginning of recorded history, the land, mainly the urbanised south (see discussion below), was called Sumer and Akkad. After 2000 BCE, when Babylon became an important city, the term Babylonia was used for the southern region. From about 1100 BCE, when the Assyrians established their kingdom in the north, the, region became, known as Assyria.

The first known language of the land was Sumerian. It was gradually replaced by Akkadian around 2400 BCE when Akkadian speakers arrived. This language flourished till about Alexander’s-time (316 – 323 BCE)with some regional changes occurring. From 1400 BCE, Aromatic also trickled in. This language, similar to Hebrew, became widely spoken after 1000 BCE. It is still spoken in parts of Iraq.

Excavation Mesopotamian Towns:
Today, Mesopotamian excavators have much higher standards of accuracy and care in recording than in the old days, so few dig huge areas the way Ur was excavated. Moreover, few archaeologists have the funds to employ large teams of excavators. Thus, the mode of obtaining data has changed. Take the small at Abu Salabikh, about 10 hectares in area in 2500 BCE with a population of less than 10,000.

The outlines of walls were first traced by scraping surfaces. This involves scraping off the top few millimetres of the mound with the sharp and wide end of a shovel or other tool. While the soil underneath was still slightly moist, the archaeologist could make out different colours, textures and lines of brick walls or pits or other features. A few houses that were discovered were excavated.

The archaeologists also sieved through tons of earth to recover plant and animal remains and in the process identified many species of plants and animals and found large quantities of charred fish bones that had been swept out onto the streets. Plant seeds and fibre remained after during cakes had been burned as fuel and thus kitchens were identified. Living rooms were those with fewer traces.

Because they’d found the teeth of very young pigs on the streets, archaeologists concluded that pigs must have roamed freely here as in any other Mesopotamian town. In fact, one house burial contained some pig bones – the dead person must have been given some park for his nourishment in the afterlife! The archaeologists also made microscopic studies of room floors to decide which rooms in a house were roofed (with poplar logs, palm leaves, straw, etc.) and which were open to the sky.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 5 Sociology, Methods and Techniques Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 5 Sociology, Methods and Techniques Short Answer Questions

Answer In One Sentence

Question 1.
What are three stages of August Comte?
Answer:
Three stages of August Comte are:
1. Theological or fictious.
2. The metaphysical or abstract.
3. The scientific or positive.

Question 2.
When the law of three stages appeared and where?
Answer:
This law appeared in the year 1822 in his book positive philosophy.

Question 3.
What is theological or fictious stage?
Answer:
The theological stage is the first and it characterised this would prior to 1300. Hence all theoretical conceptions whether general or special bear a supernatural impress.

At this level of thinking there is a marked lack of logical and orderly thinking. Overall theological thinking implies belief in supernatural power.

Question 4.
What is Fetishism?
Answer:
This is one of three stages of August ‘fetish’ means inanimate and ‘ism’ means philosophy. This is a philosophy which believes that super natural power dwells in inanimate object.

Question 5.
What is polytheism?
Answer:
This is the second stage of three stages of August Comte ‘Poly’ means many. So the belief in many Gods is called polytheism. Human beings received variety or diversity of natural phenomenon.

Each phenomenon was kept under the disposal of one God. One God was believed to be-in charge of one particular natural phenomenon.

Question 6.
What is Monolthcism?
Answer:
It means we belief in one single God. He is all in all. He controls everything in their world. He is the maker of human destiny. Monotheism is the climax of the theological stage of thinking. The monoltheistic thinking symmblics the victory of human intellect.

Question 7.
What is metaphysical?
Answer:
‘Meta’ means beyond and physical, means material world. So metaphysical means beyond physical word.

Question 8.
What are two main societies?
Answer:
Comte identified by his three stages. Comte identified two major types of societies they are, theological-mility society and scientific-industrial society.

Question 9.
Who has written the book suicide?
Answer:
French Sociologist Emile Durkheim in 1897 was written suicide.

Question 10.
Name the three types of suicide of Durkheim?
Answer:
Three types of suicide are anomic suicide, Altruistic suicide and Egoistic suicide.

Question 11.
What is Anomic suicide?
Answer:
Anomic suicide happens when the deint engrating forces in the society make individuals feel lost or alone. Teenage suicide is usually cited as an example of this type of suicide, as is suicide committed by those who have been sexually abused as children or whose parents are alcoholic.

Question 12.
What is Altruistic suicide?
Answer:
Altruistic suicide happens when there is excessive regulation of individuals by social forces. An example is someone who commits suicide for the sake of religious or political cause.

Question 13.
What is Egoistic suicide?
Answer:
Egoistic suicide happens when people feel totally detached from society. Ordinarily people are entegrated into society by work roles, ties to tamely and community, and other social bonds.

When these bonds are weakened through retirement or loss of family and friends, the livelihood of egoistic suicide increases.

Question 14.
What is Sanskritization?
Answer:
Sanskritization is the process by which a low Hindu caste or tribal or other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and way office in the direction of a ‘high’ and frequently a twice-born caste.

Question 15.
What is Applied Research?
Answer:
Applied research is focussed up on areal life problem requiring an action or policy decision.

Question 16.
Write the types of Action Research?
Answer:
Types of action Research are:

• Classical design
• Interdependence of action and research.
• Evaluate research built into action programme.
• Action for research.

Question 17.
Write four characteristics of observation research?
Answer:
It is physical and mental activity. It is selective and purposeful. It is a scientific tool of research. It is a direct study of situation or phenomenon.

Question 18.
What are the five sequential steps of observation method?
Answer:
They are:

• Preparation and tracing.
• Entry into the study of environment.
• Initial interaction.
• Observation and training.
• Termination of fieldwork.

Question 19.
Write types of observation?
Answer:

• Participant observation.
• Nonparticipant observation.
• Controlled observation.
• Uncontrolled observation.
• Direct observation.
• Indirect observation.

Short Type Questions And Answers

Question 1.
What is August Comte’s law of three stages? Discuss?
Answer:
The Law of three stages is the comer stone of Auguste Comte’s approach. Comte’s ideas relating to the law of three stages reveal that man is becoming more and more rational and scientific in his approach by gradually giving up speculations, imagination etc.

He has shown that there is a close association between intellectual evolution and social progress.

The law of three stages is the three stages of mental and social development. It is the coordination of feeling, thought and action in individuals and society. There are three important aspects of our nature. Such as our feelings, our thought and our actions.

Our feelings:
The emotions and impulses which prompt us.

Our thought:
Which are undertaken in the service of our feelings but also helps to govern them.

Our actions:
Which are undertaken in the service of our feelings and thought. For the continuity and existence of society there must be some order of institutions, valiles, beliefs and knowledge which can successfully correlate the feelings, thought and activity of its members.

In the history of mankind during which the social order bringing these elements into relation with each other has been worked out three types,of solution, three, stages of development can be distinguished.

According to Comte, each of our leading conceptions-each branch of our knowledge passes successively through different theoretical conditions’.
1. The Theological or fictitious,
2. The Metaphysical or abstract,
3. The Scientific or positive.

Question 2.
Discuss the Comte’s three stages of observation?
Answer:
Comte considered his law of Three stages based upon belief in social evolution to be the most important. There has been an evolution in the human thinking, so that each succeeding stage is superior to and more evolved than the preceding stage.

It can hardly be questioned that Comte’s law of three stages has a strong mentalist or idealistic bias. He co-related each mental age of mankind with its characteristic accompanying social organisation and type of political dominance. This law appeared in the year 1822 in his book Positive Philosophy.

The Theological or Fictitious stage:
The theological stage is the first and it characterised the world prior to 1300. Here all theoretical conceptions, whether general or special bear a supernatural impress. At this level of thinking there is a marked lack of logical and orderly thinking. Overall the theological thinking implies belief in super natural power.

Metaphysical or Abstract Stage: The metaphysical stage started about 1300 A.D. and was short lived roughly till 1800. It forms a link and is mongrel and transitional. It is almost an extension of theological thinking. It corresponds very roughly to the middle Ages and Renaissance.

It was under the sway of churchmen and lawyers. This stage was characterised by Defence. Here mind pre-supposes abstract forces. ‘Meta’ means beyond and physical means material world.

Supernatural being is replaced by supernatural force. This is in form of essences, ideas and forms. Rationalism started growing instead of imagination.

The Positive or Scientific stage: Finally in 1800 the world entered the positivistic stage. The positive stage represents the scientific way of thinking. Positive thought ushers in an industrial age.

The positive or scientific knowledge is based upon facts and these facts are gathered by observation and experience. All phenomena are seen as subject to natural laws that can be investigated by observations and experimentation.

Question 3.
What is The Theological or Fictitious stage?
Answer:
The theological stage is the first and it characterised the world prior to 1300. Here all theoretical conceptions, whether General or special bear a supernatural impress.

At this level of thinking there is a marked lack of logical and orderly thinking. Overall the theological thinking implies belief in super natural power.

This type of thinking is found among the primitive races. In theological stage, all natural phenomena and social events were explained in terms of super natural forces and deities, which ultimately explaining everything as the product of God’s will. This stage is dominated by priests and ruled by military men.

Human mind is dominated by sentiments, feelings and emotions. Every phenomenon was believed to be the result of immediate actions of super-natural beings. Explanations take the form of myths concerning spirits and super natural beings.

Man seeks the essential nature of all beings, first and final causes, origins and purposes of all effects and the overriding belief that all things are caused by super natural beings. Theology means discourse in religion. Religion dominates in this state of development.

This state is characterised by conquest. The theological—military society was basically dying. Priests were endowed with intellectual and spiritual power, while military exercised temporal authority.

It has three sub-stages:
Fetishism:
‘Fetish’ means inanimate and ‘is’m’ means philosophy. This is a philosophy which believes that super natural power dwells in inanimate object. Fetishism as a form of religion started which admitted of no priesthood.

When everything in nature is thought to be imbued with life analogous to our own, pieces of wood, stone, skull etc. are believed to be the dwelling place of super natural powers, as these objects are believed to possess divine power.

But too many fetishes created confusion for people. Hence they started believing in several gods. Thus arose polytheism.

Polytheism:
‘Poly’ means many. So the belief in many Gods is called polytheism. Human being received variety or diversity of natural phenomena. Each phenomenon was kept under the disposal of one God.

One God was believed to be in charge of one particular natural phenomenon. In polytheism, there is an unrestrained imagination person the world with innumerable Gods and spirits.

People created the class of priests to get the goodwill and the blessings of these gods. The presence of too many gods also created for them mental contradictions. Finally they developed the idea of one God, i.e. monotheism.

Monotheism:
It means belief in one single God. He is all in all. He controls everything in this world. He is the maker of human destiny. Monotheism is the climax of the theological stage of thinking.

The monotheistic thinking symbolizes the victory of human intellect and reason over non-intellectual and irrational thinking. Slowly feelings and imaginations started giving place to thinking and rationality.

In monotheism a simplification of many gods into one God takes place, largely in the service of awakening reason, which qualifies and exercises constraint upon the imagination.

In theological stage, soldiers, kings, priests etc. were given respect in the society. Everything was considered in terms of family welfare. Love and affection bonded the members of a family together.

In this stage social organisation is predominantly of a military nature. It is the military power which provides the basis of social stability and conquest which enlarges the bounds of social life.

(a) Progress is observable in all aspects of society: physical, moral, intellectual and political.
(b) The intellectual is the most important. History is dominated by the development of ideas leading to changes in other areas.
(c) Auguste Comte says on the “Co-relations” between basic intellectual stages and stages of material development, types of social units, types of social order and sentiments.

Question 4.
What is Metaphysical or Abstract Stage?
Answer:
The metaphysical stage started about 1300 A.D. and was short lived roughly till 1800. It forms a link and is mongrel and transitional. It is almost an extension of theological thinking. It corresponds very roughly to the middle Ages and Renaissance.

It was under the sway of churchmen and lawyers. This stage was characterised by Defence. Here mind pre-supposes abstract forces. ‘Meta’ means beyond and physical means material world.

Supernatural being is replaced by supernatural force. This is in form of essences, ideas and forms. Rationalism started growing instead of imagination.

Rationalism states that God does not stand directly behind every phenomenon. Pure reasoning insists that God is an Abstract being. Under metaphysical thinking it is believed that an abstract power or force guides and determines the events in the world.

Metaphysical thinking discards belief in concrete God. It is characterised by the dominance of “ratiocination.”

In metaphysical stage speculative thought is unchecked by any other principle. Human body was considered to be the spark of divinity. This kind of thinking corresponded with the legal type of society; and law, lawyers and churchmen dominated the society; Law remained under the control of the state.

Question 5.
What is The Positive or Scientific stage?
Answer:
Finally in 1800 the world entered the positivistic stage. The positive stage represents the scientific way of thinking. Positive thought ushers in an industrial age.

The positive or scientific knowledge is based upon facts and these facts are gathered by observation and experience. All phenomena are seen as subject to natural laws that can be investigated by observations and experimentation.

The drawn of the 19th Century marked the beginning of the positive stage in which observation predominates over imagination. All theoretical concepts have become positive.

The concept of God is totally vanished from human mind. Human mind tries to establish cause and affect relationship. Mind is actually in search of final and ultimate cause.

The scientific thinking is thoroughly rational and there is no place for any belief or superstition in it. This stage is governed by industrial administrators and scientific moral guides. At this stage of thought, men reject all supposed explanations in terms either of Gods or essences as useless.

They cease to seek ‘original causes’ or ‘final ends’. This stage is dominated by the entrepreneurs, technologists etc. Unit of society was confined to the mankind as a whole, vision of mind was broad and there is no parochial feeling. Kindness, sympathy etc to the cause of the humanity prevailed.

This is the ultimate stage in a series of successive transformations. The new system is built upon the destruction of the old; with evolution, come progress and emancipation of human mind.

Human history is the history of a single man, Comte, because the progress of the man mind gives unity to the entire history of society. For Comte, all knowledge is inescapably human knowledge; a systematic ordering of propositions concerning our human experience of the world.

Corresponding to the three stages of mental progress; Comte identified two major types of societies. The theological-military society which was dying, the scientific-industrial society which was being born during his life time.

Flere the main stress is on the transformation of the material resources of the earth for human benefit and the production of material inventions. In this positive or scientific stage the great thought blends itself with great power.

Question 6.
Comte’s law of three stages have been criticized by different philosophers and sociologists. Discuss?
Answer:
According to Bogardus, Comte failed to postulate a fourth mode of thinking, i.e. socialized thinking, a system of thought which would emphasize the purpose of building the constructive, just and harmonious societies.

Bogardus also says, Comte however, should be credited with opening the way for rise of socialized thinking.

According to Prof. N.S. Timasheff, Comte’s law of three stages could not stand the test of facts. He opines, “Neither the later approaches (metaphysical and scientific) wholly supersedes the religious approach; rather there has been accumulation and often admixture of the three”.

C.E. Vaughan has said, “But its foundation is purely negative and destructive. It is powerless to construct and when credited with the ability to do so, it brings forth nothing but anarchy and bloodshed.”

Question 7.
Discuss the Emile Durkheim Suicide and its stages?
Answer:
Suicide, written by French sociologist Emile Durkheim in 1897, was a groundbreaking book in the field of sociology. It was a case study of suicide, a publication unique for its time that provided an example of what the sociological monograph should look like.

In it, Durkheim explored the differing suicide rates among Protestants and Catholics, arguing that stronger social control among Catholics results in lower suicide rates.

He also found that suicide rates were higher among men than women, higher for those who are single than those who are married, higher for people without children than people with children, higher among soldiers than civilians, and higher at times of peace than in times of war.

Durkheim was the first to argue that the causes of suicide were to be found in social factors and not individual personalities. Observing that the rate of suicide varied with time and place, Durkheim looked for causes linked to these factors other than emotional stress.

He looked at the degree to which people feel integrated into the structure of society and their social surroundings as social factors producing suicide and argued that suicide rates are affected by the different social contexts in which they emerge. Durkheim also distinguished between three types of suicide:

Anomic Suicide: Anomic suicide happens when the disintegrating forces in the society make individuals feel lost or alone. Teenage suicide is usually cited as an example of this type of suicide, as is suicide committed by those who have been sexually abused as children or whose parents are alcoholics.

Altruistic Suicide: Altruistic suicide happens when there is excessive regulation of individuals by social forces. An example is someone who commits suicide for the sake of a religious or political cause, such as the hijackers of the airplanes that crashed into the World Trade Centre, the Pentagon, and a field in Pennsylvania on 9/11/01.

People who commit altruistic suicide subordinate themselves to collective expectations, even when death is the result.

Egoistic Suicide: Egoistic suicide happens when people feel totally detached from society. Ordinarily, people are integrated into society by work roles, ties to family and community, and other social bonds.

When these bonds are weakened through retirement or loss of family and friends, the likelihood of egoistic suicide increases. Elderly people who lose these ties are the most susceptible to egoistic suicide.

Question 8.
What is the Concept of Sanskritisation?
Answer:
The term ‘sanskritisation ’ was conceived by M.N. Srinivas. It helps to describe the process of cultural mobility in the traditional social structure of India. Srinivas found empirical evidence for constructing sanskritisation in his study of religion and society among Coorgs in Mysore.

Caste system in theory is a closed system. Movement upwards or downwards within it is inadmissible, although there is some movement in practice. Despite this limitation of caste system, the concept of ‘sanskritisation’ helps to explain social change within the caste system.
The term ‘sanskritisation’ was conceived by M.N. Srinivas.

It helps to describe the process of cultural mobility in the traditional social structure of India. Srinivas found empirical evidence for constructing sanskritisation in his study of religion and society among Coorgs in Mysore.

He found that “lower castes, in order to raise their position in the caste hierarchy, adopted some customs of the Brahmins and gave up some of their own, considered to be impure by the higher castes.

For instance, they gave up meat-eating, consumption of liquor and animal sacrifice to their deities; they imitated the Brahmins in matters of dress, food and rituals. By doing this, within a generation or so, they could claim higher positions in the hierarchy of caste”. M.N. Srinivas, initially defined sanskritisation to denote Brahminisation.

Later on, he replaced it by sanskritisation. Brahminisation was limited in its scope and did not include other models, of caste mobility. His findings of Coorgs, thus, were of a specific kind and did not include the other non-Brahmin castes, which were twice-born. The concept of sanskritisation redefined by M.N. Srinivas runs as below:

Sanskritisation is the process by which a Tow’ Hindu caste or tribal or other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and way of life in the direction of a ‘high’ and, frequently, ‘twice-born’ caste.

Generally, such changes are followed by a claim to a higher position in the caste hierarchy than that traditionally conceded to the claimant caste by the local community. The claim is usually made over a period of time, in fact, a generation or two, before the ‘arrival’ is conceded.

Sanskritisation, in fact, is the process of cultural and social mobility within the framework of caste. In this case, the source of social change lies within the caste system. In other words, the source of social change is indigenous.

In terms of general sociology it is a process of socialisation wherein the lower castes socialise themselves with the customs, rituals and ideology of the higher castes, i.e., the twice-born castes of Brahmins, Rajputs and Banias.

The scope of sanskritisation also extends beyond the cast system. It includes non-caste groups also, such as tribals. For social change, the caste of a local place makes its model of imitation. This imitation model could be any twice-born caste. Yogendra Singh applies the redefined concept of sanskritisation to the ‘varna’ system.

He says that the central idea of Sanskritisation is that of hierarchy in caste system, theoretically represented by varna. There are four names, viz., the Brahmin, the Kshatriya, the Vaishya and the Shudra in the same hierarchical order, and all individual castes or sub-castes, with the exception of the untouchables, can be classified on the basis of varna into a hierarchical order.

The untouchables have traditionally been outside the varna hierarchy and form the lowest rung of the caste stratification.

Question 9.
Discuss the Characteristics of Sanskritisation.
Answer:
When the concept of Sanskritisation emerged in sociological literature in 1952, it created much academic uproar among social anthropologists and sociologists.

It was agreed that the concept is useful to analyse social change among villagers, especially in terms of cultural change.

Both Indian and foreign social anthropologists reacted to the usefulness of the concept on the basis of whatever is available in sociological research material, we give below a few of the basic characteristics of Sanskritisation:

1. It is a cultural paradigm: Ideas, beliefs, traditions, rituals, and things of this kind constitute the culture of a caste. When there is a change in these aspects of social life, it is a change in cultural life. Thus, Sanskritisation is a cultural change among the lower castes and non-caste groups.

2. Sanskritisation is a change directed to twice-born castes: Though, initially, Sanskritisation meant Brahmiriisation, later on, Srinivas included other models of higher castes for imitation.

It was Milton Singer (1964) who had drawn the attention of Srinivas by saying that there existed not one or two models of Sanskritisation but three if not four.

He said that the local version of Sanskritic Hinduism may use the four labels Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra but the defining content of these labels varies with locality and needs to be empirically determined for any particular locality.

For instance, a particular village may ‘ imitate Brahmins as their model of change but looking at the historicity and contextuality, another village may decide on Kshatriya or Vaishya as their model. Brahmins not in all cases are homogeneous. Nor are the Kshatriyas.

There are Brahmins, such as the Kashmiri, Bengali, and Saraswat who are non-vegetarians. Similarly, there is variation among the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas.

It is, therefore, the local history and the contexts which determine the Sanskritic model for the lower castes. However, the Shudras do not make any model for imitation.

3. Sanskritisation also applies to tribals or non-caste groups: In his refined definition, Srinivas has stated that Sanskritisation is not confined to Hindu castes only but it also occurs among tribal and semi-tribal groups, such as the Bhils of western India, the Gonds and Oraons of central India, and the Paradise of the Himalayas.

These tribal groups claim to attain the status of a caste, i.e., to become a Hindu.

4. Sanskritic values, ideology, and beliefs belong to Indian tradition: When Srinivas talks of Sanskritisation of the lower castes, he has in his view the caste-Hindu traditions. Hinduism draws heavily from its scriptures, such as Ramayana, Mahabharata, Upanishads, and Brahmanas.

The values and beliefs held in these scriptures become the content material for the imitation of the lower castes. The Brahmins, i.e., the priestly caste, naturally interpret the traditions and, therefore, become the model of imitation for the lower castes.

Surely, the acquisition of wealth and power makes a group or person belonging to a caste, important. But, only wealth and power do not enhance the status of a caste.

The improvement in the ritual status can only help the lower caste to improve their hierarchy in the caste system. The imitation of the customs and habits of the higher caste, therefore, goes a long way in imparting Sanskritic status to the lower caste, if the latter has wealth and power.

5. Sanskritisation, in other words, also means teetotalism: Srinivas, to be fair to him, has always refined and redefined his understanding of Sanskritisation.

At a later stage, he found that the lower castes in Sanskritisation have a tendency to move higher in the caste hierarchy, and in a generation or two they could improve their status in the caste hierarchy by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism.

Empirically no researcher has reported that a lower caste has improved its rank in the hierarchy despite having three generations.

Though there is no improvement in the rank it must be said that the lower castes have taken to the prohibition of alcoholism and many of the evils which traditionally characterized their caste.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 3 Social Institutions Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 3 Social Institutions Long Answer Questions

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Describe the general characteristics of a family.
Answer:
A mating relationship :
A family comes into existence when a man and woman establish mating relations between them. This relation may be of a shorter duration of life long.

A form of marriage :
The mating relationship is established through the institution of marriage. Marriage may be solemnized in a simple way or in a grand manner as in India.

A system of nomenclature :
Every family is known by a name and has its own system of reckoning descent through the male line or female line. Usually, the wife goes and joins her husband’s relatives.

An economic provision:
Every family needs an economic provision to satisfy their economic needs. The head of the family carries on certain profession and earn money to maintain the family.

A common habitation :
A family respires a home or household for its living. Without a dwelling place, the task of childbearing and child-rearing cannot be adequately performed.

Distinctive characteristics of the family:
Universality :
Family is the most universal group. It is the first institution in the history of men. It has existed in every society and is found in all parts of the world. No culture or society has ever existed without some form of family organization. No other group is so universal as the family is.

Emotional basis :
A family is a fundamental unit of human society. It is based on our impulses of mating, procreation, and parental care. It is a close-knit group that fortifies these emotions.

Limited size:
The size of the family is of necessity limited for it is defined by biological conditions that it cannot transcend. Other groups may be smaller than a family but they are not so because of biological conditions.

Formative influence :
The family exercises the most profound influence over its members. It molds the character of the individuals. Its influence in infancy determines the personality structure of the individual. Psychologists have proved that a child exhibits the same character and mental tendencies in adult age that he acquires in the family.

Nuclear Position:
The family is the nucleus of all other social groups. The distinctive characteristics of marriage, parental obligations, and sibling relations make the family the primary institutional cell of society. The whole social structure is built of family units.

Responsibility of the members :
In the family, the child learns the meaning of social responsibility and the necessity for cooperation. As Maclver aptly describes. “In times of crisis, men may work and fight and die for their country but they toil for their families all their lives.” In it the child develops his basic attitudes and ideals. It is a great agency for the socialization of file children.

Social Regulations :
The family is peculiarly guarded by social customs and legal regulations. It isn’t easy to violate them. Family is the group in which the consenting parties may freely enter but which they can not easily leave or dissolve. Marriage is not trivially taken.

Permanent:
Family as an institution is permanent and universal. While as an association it is temporary and transitional. When the son marries he goes out of the family and starts another family which again may give rise to more families.

Question 2.
Define family. Discuss its various types.
Answer:

• M.F. Nimkoff says that “Family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife with or without a child, or of a man or woman alone, with children”.
• Maclver: “Family is a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children”.

Different types of families are found in different societies. Family is a universal institution but all families are not one type. The family has been classified on the basis of authority, structure, residence, marriage, and descent.

The various types of families are discussed below.
Single or Nuclear Family :
The nuclear family tot type of family which consists of a husband and wife and their unmarried children. The size of the nuclear family is very small. Because it includes only a few members. It is autonomous until and free from the control of elders. It is regarded as the ideal form of family in the modem civilized society.

Joint Family:
The size of the joint family is very large. It is formed by a large number of members. A joint family is composed of rather, a mother, their sons, the son’s wife, and children,’ uncles, aunts, grandfather, grandmother, and so on. The members of a joint family belong to several generations. In a joint family eldest male member is the head of the family and has supreme authority.

Patrilocal Family:
A patrilocal family is a type of family in which after marriage the wife goes and lives in the family, and the husband occupies a central position and plays a dominant role. Hence, the patrilocal family is regarded as an ideal family in modern society.

Matri-local Family:
Matri-local family is that type of family in which after marriage. The husband goes and lives in the family of his wife. Therefore it is generally known are a wife-dominated family. In this family, the husband occupies a secondary position. The matrilocal family as only found among the Khasi tribes of Assam.

Monogamous Family :
A monogamous family is composed of one man and one woman. In this family, one man marries a woman only one. Under the monogamous family system, a man can not have more than one wife.

Polygynous Family:
Polygynous family one man marries more than one woman at a time and lives with more than three children in the same house. This type of family is found among the Eskimo tribes, African Nigros and Muslims. The short polygynous family is constituted by one man and several women.

Polyandrous Family:
A polyandrous family is composed of one woman and many men. In this type of family one woman marries many men and lives with of them or reaches them alternatively. The Pandava family is a bright example of a polyandrous family.

Patriarchal Family :
A patriarchal family is a joint family is directly led by the eldest married male member on the father. In this family the father head authority and possesses all intensive powers. All the family members are under the direct control of the father. The children are known by the name of the family of their father. The property is transferred patriarchal family is a joint family that is composed of a father, mother, younger brother, married sons, their wives, children, unmarried sons, and daughters. This type of family was found among the Romans and Aryans of India.

Matriarchal Family:
In the matriarchal family, the mother is the head of authority and possesses all powers. Mother is the owner of the property and rules over the family. In this family, the name, status, and experience of property are transferred through the name of the mother. The female members alone have the right to succeed property in a matriarchal family. In this family, the position of the husband is secondary. This family is found among the Nayar and Tiya caste of Kerala. This type of family is a mother or wife-dominated family.

Patrilineal Family:
In the patrilineal family, the descent is traced through the father. In this family, ancestry continues through the male members or father. In other words, a family where the father is the center of authority is considered as a patrilineal family. This is regarded as the best type of family in the modem times.

Matrilineal Family:
In a matrilineal family, the descent is traced through the mother. Mother is the center of power is called a matrilineal family. In this family female members enjoy all the rights and privileges including the rights of property and inheritance. The rights and privileges are handed down by the mother to her daughter.

Question 3.
Define family and discuss its functions.
Answer:

• According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife with or without children or a man or woman alone with children”.
• According to Maclver, “Family is a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children”.

The function of the family – Different sociologists have classified the functions of the family differently. But Maclver and Page made only two divisions of family functions namely Essential and Non-essential.

Essential Functions:
Satisfaction of Sex needs:
This is an essential function which the family functions which the family performs. The satisfaction of sex instinct brings the desire for lifelong partnership among males and females. The modem family satisfies the instinct to a greater, degree than the Traditional Family. It is generally found that many problems arise in the family owing to be non-fulfillment of the sex needs of the husband and wife.

Reproduction:
The inevitable result of sexual satisfaction is procreation Every married couple desires to have their own children to continue the ‘Kula’, some Hindu thinkers say that reproduction or, procreation or a child, preferably a son is the sole aim of marriage procreation perpetuates the family and helps increase the Population of the country and ultimately perpetuates the human nature as a whole.

Protection and care of young :
The family acts as a protective should for an individual. It safeguards him against the odds at different stages of life. When a child is in the mother’s womb, the family serves him by taking proper care of the expectant mother. Soon after the child is bom family brings him up with utmost care and love.

Provision as homes:
The home in which both husband and wife live together after the marriage is regarded as an important institution for procreation, protection, and care of the children. Man after the hard toil of the day returns home and forgets his worries. Home is like a heaven and sanctuary where its members find comfort and affection.

Non-essential Education:
Economic function:
Family services as an economic unit. It fulfills the economic needs of its members such as food, clothing housing, etc. It is regarded as a production as well as a consumption unit. The women engage themselves in all domestic work and the men generally work outside for the economic welfare of the family. Besides these, the family also looks after the family properties social housing farm money, etc.

Education functions:
The family is an important educational agency. The child leams first letters under the guidance of parents. The child receives the qualities of love, affection, and sympathy from the family. For the child, the mother happens to be the best teacher. She would the character and career of the child. The three ‘RS’ Reading writing and arithmetic were taught to children by holder family members. It also provides vocational training to children.

Religion function:
Family is a center for the religious training of the children. It lays the foundation for the moral standards ofthe child. The family observes different religious ceremonies, out of which children develop good qualities and learn various religious virtues.

Recreational functions :
The family serve as a center of recreational activity, on festive occasions all the member sing, dance, and play together. They play visits to their near and dear ones for the sake of change. Usually, a man returns home for relaxation after his day’s work. The family thus provides recreation to all of the members.

The function relating to health :
The family looks after the health condition of its member. It takes care of sick old and expectant mothers.

Socialization of the young:
Family is the primary socializer of the child. It molds the original nature of man into social nature. The habits and attitudes of the parents are transmitted to the children through the process of socialization the virtues of love, cooperation, tolerance, sacrifice, obedience, and discipline are fixed and learned by the child in the family. These qualities enable him to grow into a good citizen.

Question 4.
Explain the changing functions of the family in India.
Answer:
The family as a basic social institution has been undergoing change. The modem family radically differs from that of the traditional one. The family has never been at rest. Both in its structure and functions changes take place. Some of these changes may be examined here. The first and foremost changing function is that the modern family has lost its educational functions.

It does not import education to children. Nowadays children do not receive vocational training from families. They get education from different educational institutions. Schools, colleges, and various technical institutes provide educational and vocational training to the children which the family could not furnish adequately in the past.

In the education of children, teachers play a more vital role than parents in the present time. In the past, the family was taking care of the health of its members and was providing all medical facilities. But nowadays health is no longer a worry of the family. The family does not perform the functions relating to health. Hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, etc. are taking care of the health of an individual.

Diseases persons are admitted to hospitals and are treated by medical practitioners such as doctors, nurses, midwives, etc. Similarly, in the past. The child was bom in the family and was nurtured under the care of kinsmen. But now children get birth in various delivery centers like women’s hospitals. Clinics and soon. Pregnant women are properly treated by gynecologists.

All kinds of diseases are treated by medical experts in the hospitals scientifically, and various medical centers such, as maternity hospitals, women’s hospitals, baby clinics, etc. provide adequate medical treatment to different categories of patients Thus all the functions of families related to health has undergone considerable changes in modem times.

The ancient family was regarded as the center of production, consumption, and distribution of goods. All types of economic goods required by the members for the purpose of consumption were produced by the family. But now family only acts as a consumption unit. The members of the family consume goods that are produced in mills and factories and sold in the marketplace.

In the past, agriculture was the main economic basis of the family. All economic needs of the members were fulfilled only by agricultural profession and they followed their family occupation compulsorily. But today the members of families avoid their hereditary agricultural occupation and engage in various offices, industries, factories, public sectors, and so on.

There are many families that today avoid the task of preparing food for their family members and depend upon hotels and restaurants. As a result of which the responsibilities of the members of the family decrease considerably in the present time. They do not work at home collectively and are scattered over a wide area where each of them works independently.

Thus external agencies such as mills. Factories, officers, hotels, and restaurants are performing the economic functions that families had to perform in the past. In the past socialization was one of the main functions of family Children were living under the care of their parents in the family. The socialization process of a child begins in the family.

But the socialization function of the family in respect of child care seems to have declined to a considerable extent in modem progressive countries. Due to the tire impact of rapid industrialization and urbanization, a number of working places come into existence and the social status of women has undergone considerable change.

Women are self-dependent due to their engagement in various servicing centers. In the modem civilized countries, women usually go to work leaving their small children under the care and guidance of educated women. Various outside institutions such as nursery schools, Kindergarten schools, and Montessori schools provide care and education to the children.

Thus in modem times, various outside agencies play more important roles than family in the socialization process of the child. Now the family is not following the religious practices which it was performing in the past. Religious dogmas or rituals were the fundamental basis of home organization in the ancient family system.

The ancient families had been performing certain religious practices like idol worship, prayer, idolatry, religious discourses, etc. But now modem family unlike the old or traditional family has become secular in its outlook. Religious practices have lost their significance and become outdated in modem times.

Thus, the importance of religion in the twentieth century has considerably decreased, modem people do not believe in religious practices due to the impact of industrialization, urbanization, modernization, sanslcritization, westernization, democratization, and so on. Traditionally, the family provided all kinds of recreation and entertainment to its members, But in modern, times family does not provide the kind of recreation that its members want.

They seek entertainment outside their families. Various outside recreational centers such as clubs, cinema halls, hotels, parks, gymnasiums, and so on provide recreational functions for the traditional family but have declined in modem times. In the past one of the fundamental functions of the family was caring for and assistance to old, invalid, and unemployed members.

But nowadays the government and a number of specialized agencies have come forward to perform this particular function of old and traditional families. The government provides houses, pensions, and other allowances to these helpless people.

Question 5.
Mention the types of kinship with suitable examples.
Answer:
Man is a social animal. He does not live alone in society. From birth to death, he is surrounded by a number of persons. They are his relatives, friends, neighbors, and strangers. Some are known while others are unknown persons. He is bound to all those persons who are related to him in one way or the other. These relations are based on blood and marriage.

The bond of blood or marriage which binds people together in a group is called kinship means society recognized relationships based on supposed as well as actual genealogical ties. These relationships are the result of social interaction and are recognized by society types of kinship. Kinship is of two types:

• Affinal kinship, and
• Consanguineous kinship

Affinal Kinship :
The bond of marriage is called affinal kinship when a person marries, he establishes a relationship not only with the girl whom he marries but also with a number of persons in the girl’s family. It is not only the person marrying, who gets bound to the family members of the girl but his family members also get bound to the family members of the girl. Thus a host of relations are created as soon as a marriage takes place. After marriage, a person becomes not only a husband but also becomes brother-in-law and son-in-law.

Here it may be noted that in the English language a number of relations created by marriage are referred to by some terms. Thus the same term brother-in-law is used for bahnoi, sale jija, and Saddhu.” On marriage, a person also becomes Foofa, nandoi, and mausa. Likewise a girl marriage becomes ‘Chachi, bhabhi, during, jethani, mausi” etc. Thus marriage creates a host of relationships which are called affinal.

Consanguineous Kinship :
The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The Consanguineous kin is related through blood whereas the affinal kin are related through marriage. The bond between parents and children and that between siblings is consanguineous kinship. Siblings are the children of the same parents.

Thus son, brother, sister, uncle (chacha), elder uncle (tau) nephew, and cousin are consanguineous kin i.e., related through blood. In this connection, it may be pointed out that blood relationships may be actual as well as supposed. Among polyandrous tribes the actual father of a child is unknown. An adopted child is treated as if it were one own biologically produced child. Thus blood relationships may be established not only on a biological basis but also on the basis of social recognition.

Degree of Kinship:-
On the basis of the nearness of distance, relatives can be classified into several categories. Some relatives are very close, direct, and near, for example, father, son, sister, brother, husband, and wife. They are called primary kin. According to Dr. Dubey, there is eight such primary kin. They are husband, wife, father, son, mother, daughter, father, daughter, mother, son, younger elder brothers, younger elder sisters, and sister brothers.

Secondly, there are secondary kins. They are primary kin of primary kin. In other words, they are related through primary kin. They are not our primary kin but are the primary kin of our primary kin hence, our secondary kin. For example, the father’s brother (chacha) and sister’s husband (bahnoi) are secondary kin.

The father is my primary kin and his brother is the primary kin of my father. Therefore father’s brother is my secondary kin, the primary kin of primary kin. Similarly, my sister is my primary kin but her husband is my secondary kin. Thirdly, there are tertiary kins. They are the secondary kin of the primary kin of our secondary kin.

Thus the wife of the brother-in-law (sala) called (sarhaj) in Hindi is tertiary kin because the brother-in-law is secondary kin and his wife is the primary kin brother-in-law. Similarly, the brother-in-law of my brother is my tertiary kin because the brother is my primary kin and his brother-in-law is the secondary kin of my brother According to Mindock, “there are 33 secondary and 151 tertiary kinds of a person”.

Kinship is a universal institution. There is no society in the world that does not recognize kinship. Though the nomenclature might be different yet the relationship does exist and is deep-rooted. All kinship can be traced from some sort of sexual relationship or descent near or remote.

Question 6.
What is the broader meaning of education? Give at least three definitions and explain them.
Answer:
The meaning of education is complex in nature. It may refer to formal schooling or to life-long education. Each person who reads or hears the word interprets it is terms of his personal interest in and expectations of it. For example, a parent considers education as a positive force to enable the child to prosper in life or to earn a name and fame in society.

A teacher may interpret education as a means for the creation of a new man as well as a new society and a new nation. To a student education is nothing but the acquisition of knowledge, attitudes, and skills passing examinations and receiving degrees and diplomas. An educational administrator believes that education is a source of assistance and support to pass examinations.

An artist looks upon education as a way to love and enjoy the beauty. An artisan may think of it is a means to master a skill. To a religious preacher, education is a device to abolish material barbarism and to impart spiritual values in the minds of the people. A statesman may claim that it is a means to train ideal citizens. Thus, there is an almost universal interest in education.

Since it does not have a simply unitary meaning, the parents, teachers, housewives, administrators, farmers, religious, preachers, military men, politicians, artists, and artisans interpret the term ‘education’ in their own ways. Education may include all learning processes. Since we learn many tilings in many ways and on manifold occasions this definition is too broad to be distinctive and useful.

Another definition would describe education only as the learning of socially approved behavior. Finally, the narrowest definition which we shall adopt for our present purposes identifies education with schooling, the transmission of culture. Particularly knowledge from generation to generation with a specialized organization in the school.

Since education is a dynamic concept its meaning differs from place to place, from time to time, and from person to person. It has passed through many ages and stages in the process of evolution and at every stage, it has/had a different meaning according to the then-existing social conditions.

Education is a complex idea. It is not at all possible to express the scope of education through a single term. Though a biologist, a priest, a psychologist, a philosopher, a teacher, a statesman, a merchant, or a shopkeeper gives different definitions of education according to their own outlook, it is very difficult to explain in definite terms.

Hence, there are variations in the meaning of education. Definition of Education Gandhi says that “By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in the child and man body, mind, and spirit”. John Dewey says that “Education is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences.

It is the development of all these capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities”. Rigveda says, “Education is something which makes man self-reliant and selfless”.Education may be considered a life-long process. It begins at birth and continues throughout life till death.

The child learns through its experience. He gains experience when he comes in contact with different social institutions, persons, places, and things. There is no end to this experience. It goes on forever without any breaks or barriers. Thus, education becomes an active and dynamic process.

Question 7.
Discuss critical functions towards society.
Answer:
Education can be has been and is used for many different purposes. We call these purposes the function of education. In other words, functions refer to what education actually does. Thus, the function of education is multi-dimensional within the school system and outside it. Therefore, scholars thinkers and educationists differ about the nature of these functions. Thus, education performs various functions towards the society given below.

• Society and Education.
• Education is a social process.
• School as a society – in miniature.
• Social Conservation.
• Education as continuous Reconstruction and Integration of Activities and experiences.

Society and Education:
Education is an integral part of the total social pattern. It takes place in the interaction of individual groups and the entire cultures. It is the process of interaction resulting in charges in the behavior of both the individual and the society. Education through its various processes of instruction tied to modifying society and the behavior of the individual. Thus education and society are closely related. Education functions as the chief agency for the society of socializing the human beings living in it.

Education is a social process :
Man is essentially a social being a citizen growing and thinking in a vast complex of interactions and relations. The term complex interaction refers to the democratic scientific and industrial movement of society. Right education helps the child to adjust himself to the social environment.

He can also change them according to his own needs. Education thus is the fundamental method of social progress and individual upliftment. Social reconstruction takes place in the adjustment through education of individual action on the basis of social consciousness.

School as a society-in- miniature :
The school is to be considered a society in miniature. The school must be vitally interlinked with the society outside. Varied experiences are to be provided to the child so that in his own way he is prepared to shoulder the responsibilities of after-school life. Let the school engage the child as a whole enabling him to participate in as many activities as he likes.

Social Conservation:
Life without society is uncertain, incomplete, and meaningless. Social education is necessary for a man so that he can mix with other members of society and get the inspiration to move at the same pace as them. Society guarantees the safety of man’s life and prosperity. Man leams the value of cooperation in social life by means of education. The social experience of one generation is preserved for generations to come through the medium of education and in this way, the process of social preservation remains dynamic.

Education as continuous, Reconstruction and Integration of Activities and experiences :
Education is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It is the development of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities. We help him to grow and while growing he comes across various experiences and each experience leaves a mark on him.

Education is a reconstruction of experience: “Experience is off as well as in nature. It is not experience which is experienced, but nature stones, plants, animals diseases, health temperature, electricity and soon. Things interacting in certain other ways with another natural object – the human organism are how things are experienced as well.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 5 Sociology, Methods and Techniques Objective Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 5 Sociology, Methods and Techniques Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Type Questions

Question 1
Who coined the law of three stages?
(a) Caul Jung
(b) Freud
(c) August Comte
(d) Marx
Answer:
(c) August Comte

Question 2.
Auguste Comte’s law of three stages appeared in the book___________.
(a) Positive Philosophy
(b) Positive metaphysics
(c) Positive activism
(d) Positive thoughts
Answer:
(a) Positive Philosophy

Question 3.
Every phenomenon was believed to be the result of immediate actions of__________.
(a) Supernatural natural being
(b) Natural thought
(c) Superhuman nature
(d) Heroic thought
Answer:
(a) Supernatural natural being

Question 4.
Believe in many Gods it known as:
(a) Atheist
(b) Palylheism
(c) Fetishims
(d) Monothism
Answer:
(b) Palylheism

Question 5.
Metaphysical or Abstract stage started about______________AD.
(a) 1300 AD
(b) 1350 AD
(c) 1400 AD
(d) 1500 AD
Answer:
(a) 1300 AD

Question 6.
Positive of scientific stage also known as_____________.
(a) Positive state
(b) Observation state
(c) Industrial age
(d) Experience stage
Answer:
(c) Industrial age

Question 7.
Durkheim was written the book________.
(a) Protestants
(b) Cathalics
(c) Belief
(d) Suicide
Answer:
(d) Suicide

Question 8.
Among whom suicide rate is high between Protestants and Cathalics.
(a) Protestant
(b) Cathalic
(c) both
(d) None
Answer:
(a) Protestant

Question 9.
How many types of suicide Durkheim discusses about?
(a) Four
(b) Three
(c) Two
(d) Five
Answer:
(b) Three

Question 10.
When people feel totally detached from society. They suffer_________ type of suicide.
(a) Egoistic
(b) Altruistic
(c) Anomic
(d) All three
Answer:
(a) Egoistic

Question 11.
When individual feel lost then he go for __________.
(a) Egoistic
(b) Altruistic
(c) Anomic
(d) All
Answer:
(c) Anomic

Question 12.
Who conceived the term ‘Sanskritization’.
(a) Gandhi
(b) Radhakrishnan
(c) Aurobindo
(d) M.N. Srinivas
Answer:
(d) M. N. Srinivas

Question 13.
He found the impirical evidence of Sanskritization in his study in___________.
(a) Bombay
(b) Madras
(c) Mysore
(d) Kolkata
Answer:
(c) Mysore

Question 14.
Initially Sanskritization means____________.
(a) Sanskrit
(b) Brahminisation
(c) Kshatriya
(d) None
Answer:
(b) Brahminisation

Question 15.
Sanskritization also known as____________.
(a) Teetotalism
(b) Totalism
(c) Mannerism
(d) None
Answer:
(a) Teetotalism

Question 16.
Where a seminar on ‘Social change in India’ was organised?
(a) Newyork
(b) Chicago
(c) New Delhi
(d) London
Answer:
(b) Chicago

Question 17.
Research is _________procedure of finding the answer to the questions.
(a) Natural
(b) Mathematical
(c) Scientific
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Scientific

Question 18.
Which research focussed on a real life problem solving.
(a) Pure research
(b) Applied research
(c) Action research
(d) Scientific research
Answer:
(b) Applied research

Question 19.
Who categorize action of research into five types?
(a) R. Cover
(b) D. Cover
(c) N. Cover
(d) R. Kover
Answer:
(a) R. Cover

Question 20.
Observation is a method of___________.
(a) Data collection
(b) Scientific research
(c) Analytical research
(d) None
Answer:
(a) Data collection

True or False Type Questions

Question 1.
Comte’s three stages of observation appeared in his book positive philosophy.
Answer:
True

Question 2.
Comte speaks about law of four stages theory.
Answer:
False

Question 3.
The term Sanskritization is conceived by Comte.
Answer:
False

Question 4.
M. N. Srinivas is a sociologist.
Answer:
True

Question 5.
Initially Srinivas defend the term. Sanskritization as Brahminisation.
Answer:
True

Question 6.
Sanskritization extends beyond caste system.
Answer:
True

Question 7.
Observation is the most cheaper and more effective technique of Data Collection.
Answer:
True

Question 8.
De-sanskritization the member of higher caste don’t abandon their dress and rituals.
Answer:
False

Question 9.
Teenagersuicide in Anomic Suicide.
Answer:
True

Question 10.
People detached from society opt for theAltructed suicide.
Answer:
False

Question 11.
Detached people go Egoistic Suicide.
Answer:
True

Question 12.
Scientific stage is known as positive stage.
Answer:
True

Question 13.
Monoltheismbelieves in one single god.
Answer:
True

Question 14.
Polytheism beliefs in many God.
Answer:
True

Question 15.
Fetishism, believes in supernatural power.
Answer:
True

Question 16.
Theological stage does not dominated by priests and military man.
Answer:
False

Question 17.
Fetishism doesn’t believe in spirits.
Answer:
False

Question 18.
Sanskritization is based on hierarchy.
Answer:
True

Question 19.
Sanskritization may lead to inter-class hostility.
Answer:
True

Question 20.
Sanskritization is not a process of social change.
Answer:
False

Question 21.
Research helps to improve our knowledge and ability to handle situations.
Answer:
True

Question 22.
Observation has mainly three components sensation, attention, and perception.
Answer:
True

Question 23.
Observation is a hateful physical and mental activity.
Answer:
False

Question 24.
Uncontrolled observation takes place in an unnatural setting.
Answer:
False

Question 25.
Twice-born means two times born.
Answer:
False

Question 26.
Fetish means animate.
Answer:
False

Question 27.
August Comte described the law of three stages.
Answer:
True

Question 28.
The term Research consists of the words Research.
Answer:
True

Question 29.
Research improves our knowledge and ability to handle situations.
Answer:
True

Question 30.
Research doesn’t aim to solve socioeconomic problems.
Answer:
True

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 3 Social Institutions Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 3 Social Institutions Short Answer Questions

Very Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is family?
Answer:
The family is the most important primary group in society. It is the most simplest and elementary form of society. It is the first and the most immediate social environment to which a child is exposed.

Question 2.
Give one definition of family.
Answer:
Ogburn and Ninkoff say that “Family is a mere or less a durable association of husband and wife with or without a child or of man or a woman alone with children.

Question 3.
What is the meaning of family and from which is it is derived?
Answer:
The term family has been derived from the Roman word Famulus which means servant. The servants enjoyed the status of members of the household in ancient times. Thus originally family consisted of a man and a woman with a child or child servant.

Question 4.
Mention the main characteristic of the family.
Answer:
As a social unit family has the following characteristics such as:

• Emotionality
• Universality
• Limited size
• Social Control
• Formative influence
• Responsibility of member

Question 5.
What is a matriarchal family?
Answer:
A matriarchal family is also known as mother centered family. Her mother or woman is the head of the family who exercises her authority. She is the owner of the property and the manager of the household. All the other members are subordinate to her.

Question 6.
What is a patriarchal family?
Answer:
The patriarchal family is also known as father dominant family. Here the father or the eldest man is the head of the family and we exercise authority. He is the owner and the administrator ofthe family property. On all family matters, he is the final voice and opinion.

Question 7.
What is a single-family or nuclear family?
Answer:
The nuclear family is one that consists ofthe husband, wife, and their unmarried children. It is an autonomous unit and frees all control of elders. The Anevecian family is a typical example of a modern-independent nuclear family. The size of the nuclear family is very small.

Question 8.
What is a joint family?
Answer:
The joint family is also known as an undivided family and sometimes as an extended family. It consists of the husband, wife, their married and unmarried children uncles, aunts, grandfather, grandmother, etc. The members of a joint family belong to several generations. The eldest member is the head of a joint family. In India, this family system is prevailing among the Hindus.

Question 9.
What is a patrilocal family?
Answer:
A patrilocal family is a type of family in which after marriage the wife goes and lives in the family of her husband.

Question 10.
What do you mean by matrilocal family?
Answer:
A matrilocal family is such type of family in which after marriage the husband goes and lives in the family of his wife. In this family, the husband occupies the secondary position. This type of family is only found among the Khasi tribes of Assam.

Question 11.
What is a monogamous family?
Answer:
A Monogamous family is composed of one man and one woman. In this family, one man marries one woman. Both spouses can’t marry for a second time. This type of family is regarded as an ideal family.

Question 12.
What is a polygynous family?
Answer:
In a polygynous family, one man marries more than one woman at a time and lives with them and their children in the same house. This type of family is found among the Eskimo tribes, African Negroes, and Muslims.

Question 13.
What is a polyandrous family?
Answer:
A polyandrous family is composed of one woman and many men. In this type of family one woman marries many men and lives with all of them alternatively. The Pandav family is a polyandrous family.

Question 14.
What is a patrilineal family?
Answer:
In the patrilineal family, the descent is traced through the father. An entry also continues through the male members or father. Father is the center of authority patrilineal family – is regarded as the best type of family in modem India.

Question 15.
What do you mean by matrilineal family?
Answer:
In a matrilineal family, the descent is traced through the matter. An entry also continues to female members throughout the family. Here female members enjoyed all rights and privileges including the right of property and inheritance.

Question 16.
Define kinship.
Answer:
Man is social. He doesn’t live alone in society. From birth till death he is surrounded which a number of persons. They are relatives, friends, neighbors, and strangers. Some are known while others were unknown persons the lie is bound to all those persons who are related to him in one way or the other. This relationship is based on blood and married. The bond of blood or marriage which binds people together in a group is called kinship.

Question 18.
How many types of kinship?
Answer:
Kinship is two types.

• Affinal kinship.
• Consanguineous kinship.

Question 19.
What is Affinal kinship?
Answer:
The bond of marriage is called affinal kinship when a person marries he establishes a relationship not only with the girl whom he marries but also with a number of persons in the girl’s family.

Question 20.
What is consanguineous kinship?
Answer:
The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The consanguineous kin is related through blood whereas in affinal kin are related through marriage.

Question 21.
What is sarhaj?
Answer:
The wife of the brother-in-law (sala) is called sarhaj.

Question 22.
Two examples of primary kinship.
Answer:
Sister, Father.

Question 23.
Give two examples of secondary kinship.
Answer:
Father, Brother, Sister’s husband.

Question 24.
What is Education?
Answer:
Education is that which makes one’s life harmonious with all existence and thus enables the mind to realize the ultimate truth which gives us a wealth of inner light and love and gives significance to life.

Question 25.
What is economics according to Marx?
Answer:
The economy is at the center of Marx’s sociological theories, he considered society to be the result of an economic base and a social superstructure. It is the economic base that determines all other social structures including ideology, politics, and religion.

Question 26.
What is the role of the economy as a social institution?
Answer:
The economy is a fundamental part of contemporary society. It contributes to the administrative, educational, ethical, legal, and religious organization of society. It is a social superstructure.

Question 27.
What does Marx claim about the forms of the state’s interest?
Answer:
Marx claim that the modern form of the state serves the interest of the ruling economic class by oppressing the collective interest of the proletariat.

Question 28.
What is class according to Weber?
Answer:
Class is defined in terms of market situation a class exists when a number of people have in common economic interest in the possession of goods and opportunity for income in commodity or labor markets.

Question 29.
What is your view of Weber on the economy?
Answer:
Economies result from communities that are arranged in such a way that goods, tangible and intangible, symbolic and material are distributed.

Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain Family.
Answer:
Family is a unique and universal social institution. The word Family has come from the Roman word Famulus which means servant. Because in those days family consisted of a man and a woman with her children and servants. According to Maclver, a Family is a group defined by a sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children.

Question 2.
Explain any three general characteristics of a family.
Answer:
A mating relationship :
Family is the outcome of the mating relationship between a man and a woman. Man and woman’s sexual desire is satisfied through this.

Forms of marriage :
The mating relationship is established through different forms of marriage like monogamy, polygamy, etc.

An Economic Provision :
Family provides for some sort of economic provision by which different economic needs of its members are met.

Question 3.
Explain any three distinctive features of the family.
Answer:
As a social organization par- excellence family has the following distinctive features as
Universal nature :
Family is a universal social institution that is found all over the world and at all stages of development.

Nucleus position :
Family is the nucleus, of all other social organizations and the whole social structure is built around it.

Emotional basis :
Family is grounded on human emotions. In other words, family is built upon love affection, sympathy, cooperation, and sentiments.

Question 4.
Explain Monogamous family.
Answer:
A monogamous family is based on a monogamous marriage system. It consists of a husband, a wife, and their children. Both husband and wife are prohibited to have an extramarital relationship. It is regarded as an ideal form of family.

Question 5.
Explain the Polygynous family.
Answer:
A Polygynous family is based on a polygyny system of marriage. In this family, a man has more than one wife at the same time. And all the wives may stay under one roof along with their children or each wife may have a separate house.

Question 6.
Explain the Polyandrous family.
Answer:
A polyandrous family is based on a polyandry system of marriage. In this family, a woman marries more than one husband at a time. Here the wife lives with her husband during the term. It is found among the Todas and Kuta Tribes.

Question 7.
Explain the Patrilineal family.
Answer:
The family in which the ancestry family name and property are determined on the basis of the male line or father’s called a patrilineal family. The family name as well as the right to property is handed over from father to son.

Question 8.
Explain the Matrilincal family.
Answer:
On the basis of rules of descent or ancestry, the family may be divided into matrilineal or patrilineal. In this family system ancestry or descent is traced through the mother. The family name, as well as the right to property, is handed over from mother to daughter. Here, female members enjoy all rights and privileges.

Question 9.
Distinguish between Primary and Secondary kins.
Answer:

• The relatives which are very close, direct, near, and are related through blood are called primary kins whereas the primary kins of a primary kins are called secondary kins.
• Father, son, and brother are called primary kins whereas father’s brother or father’s sister are examples of second kin.
• Primary kins are close blood relatives but secondary kins are related through primary kins.

Question 10.
Distinguish between Affinal kinship and Consanguineous kinship.
Answer:

• The relations created through marriage are known as affinal kins but kins related through blood are known as Consanguineous kins.
• Wife and sister-in-law are examples of affinal kins whereas parent’s sons and daughters are examples of consanguineous kins.

Question 11.
Explain Kinship.
Answer:
The bond of blood or marriage which binds people together in groups is called kinship. Kinship includes socially recognized relationships. Kinships are of two types Affinal kinship and Consanguineous kinship. Kinship is based on both blood relationships and marital relationships.

Question 12.
Explain Religion.
Answer:
Religion refers to a belief in supernatural or mysterious powers which express themselves in overt activities. It is a unified system of beliefs and practices relating to sacred things. It establishes a unit in society.

Question 13.
Explain the functions of the family.
Answer:
As a universal social institution family performs several functions on the basis of important functions of the family are divided into essential and non-essential functions. Satisfaction of sex needs reproduction protection provision of home care of the young are the essential functions of the family. Non-essential functions of the family are economic, educative, religious, and recreational in nature.

Question 14.
Explain affinal Kinship.
Answer:
The bond- of blood or kinship that kinds people together in a group is called kinship. It includes socially recognized relationships. The relations created through marriage are called affinal kinship.

Question 15.
Explain Consanguineous Kinship.
Answer:
Kinship includes socially recognized relationships. It kinds people together in a group. Kinship may be divided on the basis of blood or marriage. The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. These kins are related to each other through blood.

Question 16.
Explain the social roles of Religion.
Answer:
Religion refers to that institutionalized system of beliefs symbols, values, and practices that provide group of men with solutions to their questions of ultimate being. Religion acts as a source of social cohesion and brings social welfare. Religion acts as an agency of social control and enhances self-importance.

Question 17.
Explain the Patriarchal family.
Answer:
On the basis of authority, the family may be divided into patriarchal and matriarchal types. When all the authority is vested in the oldest male member calls outs the patriarchal family.

Question 18.
Write a short note on the social role played by religion.
Answer:
Religion explains and rationalizes individual suffering and makes it bearable. Religion acts as the most important source of social cohesion. Religion brings social welfare to society. Religion acts as an important agency of social control and exercises control both over individuals and society.

Question 19.
Write short notes on the functions of the family.
Answer:
As an important social institution family performs several functions. Kins Davis has divided functions into four heads such as reproduction, maintenance, placement, and socialization. Similarly, OgbumandNimkoff mentioned six functions of the family such as affectionate, economic recreational protective, religious and educational.

But Maclverhas made only two divisions of functions, such as essential and non-essential functions. Essential functions include stable satisfaction of sex needs production and rearing of children. Under non-essential functions, they include educational, economic, recreational, religious, and others.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 3 Social Institutions Objective Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 3 Social Institutions Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
A patrilineal or matrilineal kin group whose members are assumed to have a common ancestor but who do not know their exact genealogical relationship with one another is known as:
(a) Kingship t
(b) Family
(c) Clan
(d) Marriage
Answer:
(a) Clan

Question 2.
The term family derived from which of the following word:
(a) Roman word Famulus
(b) Latin word Logos
(c) Greek word Socius
Answer:
(a) Roman word Famulus.

Question 3.
Which are not secondary kin?
(a) Sister’s husband
(b) Brother’s wife
(c) Wife’s brother
(d) Wife of brother-in-law
Answer:
(d) Wife of brother-in-law

Question 4.
Which one is the Indian type of family?
(a) Consanguinous
(b) Conjugal
(c) Polyandrous
(d) Matrilineal
Answer:
(a) Consanguinous

Question 5.
Which of the following is not primary kin?
(a) Uncle
(b) Brother
(c) Mother
(d) Father
Answer:
(a) Uncle

Question 6.
Which among the following is tertiary kin?
(a) Wife of brother-in-law
(b) Uncle
(c) Brother’s son
(d) Father
Answer:
(a) Wife of brother-in-law

Question 7.
The mle of residence generally followed in society is ____________.
(a) Matrilocal
(b) Bio-local
(c) Patriloeal
(d) Avuneulocal
Answer:
(c) Patriloeal

Question 8.
Who classify functions and families into six categories.
(a) Green
(b) Iravati Karve
(c) Maclver
(d) Ogbum and Ninkoff
Answer:
(d) Ogbum and Ninkoff

Question 9.
Which among the following is tertiary kin?
(a) Father
(b) Uncle (mamu)
(c) Brother ’s son
(d) Wife of brother-in-law
Answer:
(d) Wife of brother-in-law

Question 10.
The family is an aggarian society is ________.
(a) Matriarchal
(b) Patriarchal
(c) Nuclear
(d) Matrilocal
Answer:
(b) Patriarchal

Question 11.
Family is a ________.
(a) Secondary group
(b) Reference Group
(c) Primary Group
(d) Outgroup
Answer:
(c) Primary Group

Question 12.
The word family has come from the word famulus which is a _________.
(a) Roman word
(b) Greek word
(c) French word
(d) Latinword
Answer:
(a) Roman word

Question 13.
Family is an _________.
(a) Kinship group
(b) Political group
(c) Economic Group
(d) Religious group
Answer:
(a) Kinship group

Question 14.
To constitute a family the essential characteristic is _________.
(a) Sense of unity
(b) Mutual help
(c) Specific object
(d) A form of marriage
Answer:
(d) A form of marriage

Question 15.
The family originated when _________.
(a) Promiscuous relations between him and women prevailed.
(b) Men come out of the primitive stage.
(c) Men felt the need for procreation.
(d) The lord created women.
Answer:
(c) Men felt the need for procreation.

Question 16.
Which of the following statement is not hue?
(a) Family is not found among nomadic tribes.
(b) Family is both an association and an institution.
(c) Family is a universal group.
(d) Family is the nucleus of all groups.
Answer:
(a) Family is not found among nomadic tribes.

Question 17.
A matriarchal family is where in _________.
(a) Authority of the family rests on the father.
(b) Marriage relations are permanent.
(c) Descent is reckoned through the mother.
(d) All children succeed in the property.
Answer:
(c) Descent is reckoned through the mother.

Question 18.
A patriarchal family is where in _________.
(a) Marriage relations are transitional.
(b) The husband goes to live in the home of his wife.
(c) All the members share equal authority.
(d) Descent is reckoned through the father.
Answer:
(d) Descent is reckoned through the father.

Question 19.
Out of the following which one is not a basis of the classification of the family?
(a) Ancestry
(b) Structure
(c) Religion
(d) Residence
Answer:
(c) Religion

Question 20.
A family may be classified on the basis of blood relationships in which type.
(a) Nuclear of extended.
(b) Conjugal or consanguineous
(c) Matrilocalorpatrilocal
(d) Matrilineal or patrilineal
Answer:
(b) Conjugal or consanguineous

Question 21.
Which one of the following is the essential function of the family?
(a) Socialization of the child.
(b) Transmission of culture
(c) Stable satisfaction Of sex ned.
(d) Procreation and rearing of children.
Answer:
(c) Stable satisfaction Of sex ned.

Question 22.
Which one of the following is the important role played by the family in society?
(a) Contributes to the economic growth of society.
(b) Provides recreation.
(c) Satisfies sex needs.
(d) It exercises great influence on the personality of the individual.
Answer:
(d) It exercises great influence on the personality of the individual.

Question 23.
Which one is found in a modem family?
(a) Position of the mother is inferior.
(b) There is decreased control of marriage bonds.
(c) The children have less freedom.
(d) Father dominates family.
Answer:
(b) There is decreased control of marriage bonds.

Question 24.
Indian family system is based on which are of the following.
(a) Matrilineal descent.
(b) Patrilineal descent.
Answer:
(b) Patrilineal descent.

Question 25.
Which one is not a characteristic of the joint family?
(a) Small size
(b) Common Religion
(c) Joint property
(d) Common occupation
Answer:
(a) Small size

Question 26.
The bond of blood is known as _________.
(a) Consanguineous kinship
(b) Attinal kinship
Answer:
(a) Consanguineous kinship

Question 27.
Out of the following which is not a feature of the modern family?
(a) Laxity in sexual relationships.
(b) Economic freedom.
(c) Subordination of wife.
(d) Declining influence in religion.
Answer:
(c) Subordination of wife.

Question 28.
Which of the following is an example of secondary kin?
(a) Sister
(b) Brother
(c) Uncle
(d) Wife of brother-in-law
Answer:
(c) Uncle

Question 29.
Which of the following factor helps in the disintegration of the family system in India?
(a) Women franchise
(b) Women’s Education
(c) Industrialisation
(d) Social Legislation
Answer:
(c) Industrialisation

Question 30.
The term education is derived from which of the following word?
(a) Greek word Pedagogy
(b) Sas word to know
(c) Latin word Educatum
Answer:
(c) Latin word Educatum

Question 31.
Education is the realization of self which is the propounder of view.
(a) Pamini
(b) Kautilya
(c) Sankaracharya
(d) GuruNanak
Answer:
(c) Sankaracharya

Question 32.
Education makes man self-reliant and selfless. Who is the propounder of view?
(a) Upanisad
(b) Yaganavalkya
(c) Kautilya
(d) Rigveda
Answer:
(d) Rigveda

Question 33.
Which of the following educational function of a family?
(a) Providing vocational education
(b) Development of knowledge
(c) Social development
(d) All of the above
Answer:
(d) All of the above

Question 34.
“By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man body, mind and spirit”. Who said this?
(a) Sri Aurobindo
(b) Swami Vivekananda
(c) R.N.Tagore
(d) M.K.Gandhi
Answer:
(d) M.K.Gandhi

Question 35.
The role of the family in education has been _________.
(a) Belongingness
(b) Independence
(c) Education Materials
(d)All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Question 36.
Which of the following educational functions of school?
(a) Providing vocational education.
(b) All-round development of the individual.
(c) Character development
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above

Question 37.
“Human Society” who write this book?
(a) K. Davis
(b) Burgess
(c) Locke
(d) Maclver
Answer:
(a) K. Davis

Question 38.
Which of the following educational functions of the state?
(a) Formulation of the curriculum.
(b) Establishing a new school.
(c) Controlling educational institutions.
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Question 39.
Who defines kinship as a cluster of social relations based on such factors as biological ties, marriage, and legal rules regarding adoption, guardianship, and the like”.
(a)K. Davis
(b) Maclver
(c) Mardock
(d) Smclser
Answer:
(c) Mardock

Question 40.
How many types of kinship are divided?
(a) Four
(b) Three
(c) Two
(d) Five
Answer:
(d) Three

Question 41.
Education is a due manifestation of the divine perfection already existing in man is defined by _________.
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Plato
(c) Pandit Gopabandhu
(d) Vivekananda
Answer:
(d) Vivekananda

Question 42.
Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body is defined by _________.
(a) Plato
(b) Mahatma Gandhi
(c) Aristotle
(d) Vivekananda
Answer:
(c) Aristotle

Question 43.
The term education is the combination and two words E and DUCO E – means – and DUCO means:
(a) Educare out of to lead.
(b) Educare to lead out of.
(c) All of the above.
Answer:
(c) All of the above.

Question 44.
Education as a bipolar process has been advocated by _________.
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Adam Son
(c) John Dewey
(d) Adams
Answer:
(d) Adams

Question 45.
Advocates education as a unipolar process _________.
(a) Admas
(b) Sir John Adamson
(c) John Dewey
Answer:
(a) Adams

Question 46.
What is education correspond to:
(a) Aims of education
(b) Agency of Education
(c) Functions of education
(d) Meaning of Education
Answer:
(c) Functions of education

Question 47.
Advocates education as a continuous reconstruction and integration of activities and experiences.
(a) Tagore
(b) Rousseau
(c) John Dewey
(d) Gopabandhu
Answer:
(c) John Dewey

Question 48.
Who said the economy is one social superstructure?
(a) Marx
(b) Weber
(c) Durkheim
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Marx

Question 49.
Who viewed the economy as one of a number of social institutions?
(a) Manx
(b) Weber
(c) Durkheim
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Durkheim

Question 50.
Who viewed the economy is part as an extension of religious belief.
(a) Marx
(b) Weber
(c) Durkheim
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(b) Weber

Question 51.
Who has written ‘Communist Manifests’?
(a) Marx
(b) Weber
(c) Durkheim
(d) Plato
Answer:
(a) Marx

Question 52.
Who has written the book “Division of Labour in Society”?
(a) Weber
(b) Durkheim
(c) Plato
(d) Marx
Answer:
(b) Durkheim

True / False Type Questions

Question 1.
The term family has been derived from the Greek word Famulus.
Answer:
False

Question 2.
The term family has been derived from the Roman word Famulus.
Answer:
True

Question 3.
When authority is vested in the oldest male member it is called a patrilineal family.
Answer:
False

Question 4.
When authority is vested in the oldest male member it is called a patrilineal family.
Answer:
True

Question 5.
A polygamy is an ideal form of family.
Answer:
False

Question 6.
Monogamy is an ideal form of family.
Answer:
True

Question 7.
A joint family consists of a husband, wife, and unmarried children.
Answer:
False

Question 8.
A nuclear family consists of a husband, wife, and unmarried children.
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Universality and emotional basis are two general characteristics of a family.
Answer:
False

Question 10.
Universality and emotional basis are two distinctive features of the family.
Answer:
True

Question 11.
Reproduction is one of the non-essential functions of the family.
Answer:
False

Question 12.
Reproduction is one of the essential functions of the family.
Answer:
True

Question 13.
K. Davis opines family performed six important functions.
Answer:
False

Question 14.
Ogburn and Nimkoff opine family performed six important functions.
Answer:
True

Question 15.
On the basis of the degree of relationship, kins are two types.
Answer:
False

Question 16.
On the basis of the degree of relationship, kins are three types.
Answer:
True

Question 17.
When ancestry or descent is determined on the father line it is called a matrilinear family.
Answer:
False

Question 18.
When descent or ancestry is determined on the father line it is called a patrilineal family.
Answer:
True

Question 19.
The bond of marriage is called affinal kinship.
Answer:
True

Question 20.
The bond of marriage is called consanguineous kinship.
Answer:
False

Question 21.
Close, direct and near relations are called secondary kins.
Answer:
False

Question 22.
Close, direct and near relations are called primary kins.
Answer:
True

Question 23.
Maclver writes the book “Human Society”.
Answer:
False

Question 24.
Kinsley Davis writes the book “Human Society”.
Answer:
True

Question 25.
Family is one of the most important social units.
Answer:
False

Question 26.
The family is one of the most important biological units.
Answer:
True

Question 27.
Family is one of the most universal social processes.
Answer:
False

Question 28.
Family is one of the most universal social groups.
Answer:
True

Question 29.
Family is the center of all social organization.
Answer:
False

Question 30.
Family is the nucleus of all social organizations.
Answer:
True

Question 31.
The functions of the family may be both permanent and temporary.
Answer:
False

Question 32.
The nature of family may be both permanent and temporary.
Answer:
True

Question 33.
The nuclear family is large in size.
Answer:
False

Question 34.
The extended family is large in size.
Answer:
True

Question 35.
The family in which after marriage husband comes to reside in the family of her wife is known as a patrilocal family.
Answer:
False

Question 36.
The family in which after marriage husband comes to reside in the family of her wife is known as a matrilocal family.
Answer:
True

Question 37.
The matrilocal family is just the opposite of the patrilineal family.
Answer:
False

Question 38.
The matrilocal family is just the opposite of a patrilineal family.
Answer:
True

Question 39.
Socialization is the most important characteristic of a family.
Answer:
False

Question 40.
Socialization is the most important function of a family.
Answer:
True

Question 41.
Family as a secondary social group.
Answer:
False

Question 42.
Family is a primary social group.
Answer:
True

Question 43.
Kingsley Davis essential and non-essential functions of the family.
Answer:
False

Question 44.
Maclver essential and non-essential functions of the family.
Answer:
True

Question 45.
The Kingship relationship established by family is known as affinal kinship.
Answer:
False

Question 46.
The kinship relationship established by marriage is known as affinal kinship.
Answer:
True

Question 47.
Maclver identified six important bases of kinship.
Answer:
False

Question 48.
H. M. Johnson identified six important bases of kinship.
Answer:
True

Question 49.
Education is the socialization of the self.
Answer:
False

Question 50.
Education is the realization of self.
Answer:
True

Question 51.
Education is the process of living through a continuous construction of experiences.
Answer:
False

Question 52.
Education is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences.
Answer:
True

Question 53.
Education is a one-polar process.
Answer:
False

Question 54.
Education is a bi-polar process.
Answer:
True

Question 55.
Sociology is the transmission of life from the living to the living.
Answer:
False

Question 56.
Education is the transmission of life from living to living.
Answer:
True

Question 57.
Education is the construction of a sound mind in a sound body.
Answer:
False

Question 58.
Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body.
Answer:
True

Question 59.
Education is a slow process.
Answer:
False

Question 60.
Education is a lifelong process.
Answer:
True

Question 61.
Marx claims that social and political structures are divided from the economic means of production.
Answer:
True

Question 62.
The social superstructure is not the economic base of society for Marx.
Answer:
False

Question 63.
The class which is the ruling material force of society is at the same time its ruling intellectual force.
Answer:
True

Question 64.
Marx claims that communication opposes the power of oppression.
Answer:
True

Question 65.
Marx, Weber, and Durkheim are economists.
Answer:
False

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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 2 Basic Concepts Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 2 Basic Concepts Long Answer Questions

Long Type Questions and Answers

Question 1.
What do you mean by society? Explain the characteristics of society.
Answer:
The term “society” is derived from the Latin word ’socius’, which means companionship means sociability. As George Simmel pointed out, it is this element of sociability which defines the true essence of society. It indicates that man always lives in the company of other people. ‘Man is a social animal’, said Aristotle centuries ago. Man lives in towns, cities, tribes, villages, but never alone.

Loneliness brings him boredom and fear. Man needs society for his living, working and enjoying life. Society has become an essential condition for human life to arise and to continue. Human life and society always together.

(1) According to Maclver and Page, “Society is a system of usages and procedures, authority and mutual aid of many groupings and divisions, of control, of human behaviour and of liberties”.
(2) According to F.H. Giddings, “Society is the union itself, the organisation, the sum of formal relations in which associating individuals are bound together”.

Characteristics of Society:
In its broadest sense society means the whole human society, the community of all human beings. A very large section of the humanity may be called a society. The Western Christendom; the people of Islam, the Indians, the English and the French are some such societies because they belong to very large social communities.

A society, thus, means a large social community having many things in common in the way of living of its members for a closer and better understanding we have to discuss the characteristics of society. Society is composed of people, without the students and the teachers there can be no college and no university. Similarly, without people there can be no society, no social relationships, and no social life at all.

Society is a group of people in continuous interaction with each other. It refers to the reciprocal contract between two or more persons. It is a process where by men interpenetrate the minds of, each other. An individual is a member of society so long as he engages in relationsihp with Other members of society. It means that individuals are in continuous interaction with other individuals of society.

The limits of society are marked by the limits of social interactions. Social interaction is made possible because of mutual awareness. Society is understood as a network of social relationships only where the members are aware of each other. Society exists only where social beings ‘behave’ towards one another in ways determined by their recognition of one another. Without this awareness there can be no society. A social relationship, thus implies mutual awareness.

The principle of likeness is essential for society. It exists among those who resemble one another in some degree, in body and in mind.
Likeness refers to the similarities. People have similarities with regards to their needs, works, aims, values, outlook towards, and so on. Just as the ‘birds of the same father flock together’, men belonging to the same species called homosapiens, have many things in common.

Society, hence rests on what F.H. Giddings calls consciouness of kind. “Comradeship, Intimacy, association of any kind or degree would be impossible without some understanding of each by the other and that understanding depends on the likeness which each apprehends in other”. Society in brief, exists among like beings and likeminded.

Society also implies difference. A society based entirely on likeness and uniformities is bound to be loose in socialites. If men are exactly alike, their social relationships would be very much limited. There would be little give-and-take, little reciprocity. They would contribute Very little to one another. More than that, life becomes boring, monotonous and uninteresting, if differences are not there.

Hence, we find difference in society. Family for example, rests on biological difference between the sexes. People differ from one another in their looks, personalities, ability, talent, attitude, interest, taste, intelligence, faith and soon. People pursue different activities because of these difference.

Thus we find farmers, labourers, teachers, soldiers, businessmen, bankers, engineers, doctors, advocates, writers, artists, scientists,- musicians, actors, politicians, bureaucrats and others working in different capacities, in different fields in society. However, difference alone cannot create society. It is subordinated to likeness.

Society is not static, it is dynamic. Change is ever present in society. Changeability is an inherent quality of human society. No society can Over remain constant for any length of time. Society is like water in a stream or river that forever flows. It is always in flux. Old men die and new ones are born.

New associations and institutions and groups may come into being and old ones may die a natural death. The existing ones may undergo changes to suit the demands of time or they may give birth to the new ones. Changes may take place slowly and gradually or suddenly and abruptly.

Primarily likeness and secondarily difference create the division of labour. Division of labour involves the assignment to each unit or group a specific share of a common task. For example, the common task of producing cotton clothes is shared by a number of people like the farmers who grow cotton, the spinners, the weavers, the dyers, and the merchants.

Similarly, at home work is divided and shared by the father, mother and children. Division of labour leads to specialisation. Division of labour and specialisation are the marks of modem complex society. Division of labour is possible because of co-operation. Society is based on cooperation. It is the very basis of our social life.

As C.H. Cooley says, cooperation arises when men realise that they have common interests. It refers to the mutual working together for the attainments of a common goal. Men satisfy many of their desires and fulfil interests through joint efforts. People may have direct or indirect co-operation among them. Thus co-operation and division of labour have made possible social solidarity or social cohesion.

Society has its own ways and means of controlling the behaviour of its members cooperation, no doubt exists in society. But side by side. Competitions, conflicts, tensions, revolts, rebellions and suppression are also there. They appear and re-appear off and an. Clash of economic or political or religions interests is not uncommon. Left to themselves, they may damage the very fabric of society.

They are to be controlled. The behaviour or the activities of people are to be regulated. Society has various formal as well as informal means of social control. It means society has customs, traditions, conventions and folkways, mores, manners, etiquettes and other informal means of social control. Also it has law, legislation, constitution, police, court, army and other formal means of social control to regulate the behaviour of its members.

Social relationships are characterised by interdependence. Family, the most basic social group, for example, is based upon the interdependence of man and woman. One depends upon the other for the satisfaction of one’s needs. As society advances, the area of interdependence also grows.

Today, not only individuals are interdependent upon one another, but even, communities, social groups, societies and nations are also interdependent. Each society has its own ways of life Culture. This distinguishes one society from another. Culture refers to the total range of our life. It includes knowledge, belief, art, morality, values, ideas, ideologies, sciences and philosophies.

A society has a comprehensive culture. It is culturally self-sufficient. It may carry on trade with other societies, but the cultural patterns involved in this trade are the part of the culture of the society itself. For example, the pattern of extending credit, the recognized rates of exchange, the means of payment, the form of contacts all these cultural patterns are the parts of the culture of each society involved in interaction.

The members of a society share a common and unique culture. In our society we share such cultural symbols as the August Fifteen, January Twenty six and so on. We also share cultural values of collectivism and spiritualism. Collectivism means the economic theory and industry should be carried on with a collective capital and spiritualism is the philosophical doctrine that nothing is real but soul or spirit.

Me Dougall, say that man is social because of the basic human instinct called the gregarious instinct. Gregariousness refers to the tendency of man to live in groups. Man always lives amidst, men. He cannot live without it. This internal nature of man has forced him to establish social groups and societies and to live in them.

Human life and society almost go together. Man is born in society and bred up in society, nourished and nurtured in society. From childhood to adolescence, from adolescence to youth, from youth to maturity, from maturity to old age, from old age up to death, man lives in society. He depends on society for protection and comfort, for nature and education.

Participation in society is necessary for the development of personality. Various cases show that man can become man only among man. Society makes our life livable. It is the nurse of youth, the arena of manhood and womanhood. Society, is therefore, as Maclver puts it, more than our environment. It is within us as well as around us, Society not only liberates the activities of men, but it limits their activities also. It controls their behaviour in countless ways.

It shapes our attributes, our beliefs, our morals and our ideals. Emotional development, intellectual maturity, satisfaction of problems needs and material comforts are unthinkable without society. Society is a part of our mental equipment and we are. a part of society, stimulates the growth of our personality. It liberates and controls out talents and capacities.

Question 2.
Examine the importance of the functional pre-requisites of society.
Answer:
Preservation of human society requires the fulfilment of certain functional necessities, which we may call as functional pre-requisites. There are certain pre-requisites of a harmonious and active social system. A tension ridden social system cannot function efficiently. As a healthy body works if there is no disorder in its parts.

Similarly, a society system can function efficiently if there is order among its parts. There are so many needs or requisite, which society needs. It is impossible to analyse all the requisites society needs. Yet some of the important pre-requisites of society are discussed here.

The basic needs are food, clothing, shelter and security. Every man needs food for very survival. Without it life is impossible. As a civilized being clothing is also another bare necessity of human being. Similarly for his rest, to avoid rain, cold and other hazards of environment he needs shelter.

Therefore, food, clothing and shelter are regard as the most human being is security. No human being or human society can survive without protection from its members. Therefore, human being needs protection from every front for his survival.

Another important need of human society is the human actions and systematic social relationship. For this there must be division of labour. Every society has a clear division & labour among men and women, the young and the old and on the basis of ability. Division of labour and division of responsibility if necessary for every society. Similarly, systematic of relationship rests upon the likeness among the people,

There should be sufficient number of people in a social system so that it may function efficiently. The number should not be too much or too less. In a society there should be a definite system of procreation to maintain the continuity. Procreation is the means through which new members come and old members are replaced.

The new members of society learn social values and systems of behaviour because of which continuity of society is maintained. Therefore, replacement of population is the need of society. Socialization of the young is very much necessary. Not only young but also other members go through the process of socialisation.

Through the process of socialisation the cultural norms of a society is transferred, to the next generation. Socialisation plays a very important role in this regard. Because no new generation is not a new beginning. The new members of society learn social values and systems of behaviour because of which the continuity in society is maintained.

Attainment of goal is another prerequisite of society. There must be flow among the members, a continuous stream of meaningfulness and goal without which the survival of society comes into question. Each social system has some norms of conduct. These are socially approved ways of behaviour which the members are expected to observe or to follow. If these are violated social system cannot function effectively

Sometimes individuals knowingly or unknowingly deviate – the existing social order for which it becomes impossible to maintain order in the society. Therefore, control should be exercised over individuals to observe the, norms of society. As a result of which the social system may function in a satisfactory manner. Social control helps members to learn and preserve value oriented behaviours;

The actors of a society should accept the social system instead of showing resentment against it. Even they should have eagerness towards positive action.

Question 3.
Analyse the characteristics of Community.
Answer:
Community consists of a group of people without a group of people community can not be formed. Every community has a definite geographical territory. This territory can be changed according to the growth of population. The members of a community have a sense of community sentiment and degree of we-feeling.

The customs, traditions, folkways, mores, language and many other things of the members of a community are very, similar. Like crowed community is not temporary or short lived. It is a natural and permanent organisation. A community may be big or small in size. The small community exists within a big community.

Every community has certain rules and regulations which members compulsorily obeyed Community fulfils all the fundamentals needs of its members. Community is not deliberately or purposively created. It is a spontaneous and naturally and group. It group naturally develops spontaneously. Each and every community has a particular name by which one community is distinct from another.

Question 4.
Analyse the characteristics of Association.
Answer:
An association is formed or created by people. It is basically a social group. Without people there can be no association. An association is not merely a collection of individuals. It consists of those individuals who have more or less the same interests. An association is based on the cooperative spirit of its members. People work together to achieve some definite purpose.

Association denotes some kind of organisation. An association is known essentially as an organised groups. Every association has its own ways and means of regulating the relations of its members. Associations, are means or agencies through which their members seek to realise their similar or shared interests.

Such social organisations necessarily act not merely through leaders, but through officials or representatives, as agencies. An association may be permanent or temporary. There are some long-standing associations like the state, family, religious associations etc. some associations may be purely temporary in nature.

Question 5.
Analyse the characteristics of Social Institution.
Answer:
The main characteristics of social institutions may be described here:
Institutions come into being due to the Collective activities of the people. They are essentially social in nature. Social institutions are ubiquitous. They exists in all the societies and existed at all the stages of social development. An institution must be understood as standardised procedures and norms.

They prescribe the way of doing things. They also prescribe rules and regulations that are to be followed. Marriage, as an institution, for example, govern the relations between the husband and wife. Institutions are established by men themselves. They cater to the satisfaction of some basic and vital needs of man.

Institutions like religion, morality, state, government, law, legislation etc., control the behaviour of men. These mechanisms preserve the social order and give stability to it. Institutions are like wheels on which human society marches on towards the desired destination. Institution normally do not undergo sudden or rapid changes.

Institutions are not external, visible or tangible things. They are abstract. Institutions may persist in the form of oral and or written traditions. Institutions may have their own symbols, material or non-material. Institutions, though diverse, are interrelated.

Question 6.
Distinguish between Society and Community.
Answer:
Society is a web of social relationship but community consists of a group of individuals living in a particular area with some degree of we filling. A definite geographical area is not an essential aspect of society. A definite locality or geographic area is essential for community.
Society is abstract but community is concrete.

Community sentiment or a sense of we-feeling may be present or may not. But for the community sentiment is an essential element of community. There can be no community in its absence. Society is wider community is smaller than society: There can be more than one community in a society.

The objectives and interests of society are more extensive and valid but community has limited objectives. Society involves both likeness differences, but likeness is more important in community. There is common agreement of interests and objectives on the post of members.

Question 7.
Different between Association and Institution.
Answer:
An association is a group of people organised for the purpose of fulfilling a need or needs. But institutions refers to the organised way of doing things. It represent common procedure. Association denotes membership but institution denotes only a mode or means of service. We belong to association, to political parties, trade unions, youth clubs, families etc.

We do not belong to institution. We do not belong to marriage property, education or law. Association consists of individuals, institution consists of laws, rules and regulations. Association are concrete but institutions are abstract. An association has a location, it makes sense to ask where it is but an institution does not have location. The question where it is, makes no sense at all.

Thus, a family can be located in space but we cannot locate examination, education, marriage etc. Association are mostly created or established but institution are primarily evolved. An association may have its own distinctive name but institution does not process specific names, but has a structure and may have a symbol. Association may be temporary or permanent but institution are relatively more durable.

Question 8.
Discuss the characteristics of Secondary Group.
Answer:
Large Size:
The first characteristic of secondary group is its large size. The size of secondary group is so large because it is formed by a large number of people. Secondary group have spread all over the country. For example political party which is secondary group, consisting of thousands of members and work throughout the country. Similarly, the members of International Red Cross Society scatter all over the world. Due to large size, all the members of secondary group are indirectly related to each other.

Indirect Relations:
Secondary groups are characterized by indirect relations. All members are indirectly related to each other because a secondary group is bigger in size than a primary group and the members cannot say together. The specialization of functions leads to indirect relation in secondary groups.

For example, in the large scale organizations where division of labour is complex, the members have not only different functions but also different powers, different degrees of participation, different sights and obligations. All these lead to indirect relations. The contacts and communications in secondary group are mostly indirect.

Formal and Impersonal Relations:
Relation among the members of secondary groups are formal and impersonal. The members do not have face-to-face relations. People do not develop personal relations among themselves. In large scale organization, there are contacts and they may be face-to-face, but they are, “as says Kingsley Davis, “the touch-and go variety. The numbers in secondary group are more concerned with their self-centred interests than with other persons. Thus the secondary relations are formal and impersonal.

Voluntary Membership:
The membership of secondary group is not compulsory but always voluntary. People may join secondary groups according to their sweet will. For instance, one may join a political party or may not joint it. Similarly one may or may not join a political party or may not joint it. Similarly one may or may not join a particular recreational club. It is not essential to become the member of Rotary International Club or Red Cross Society. This is no compulsion. This voluntary membership leads indirect and impersonal relations among the members of a secondary group.

Formal Rules:
Secondary groups are regulated by formal rules and regulations. A secondary group exercises control over its members through formal ways. The secondary relation are directly controlled by police, jail, anny, court and various other formal means. Status of Individual depends upon his role. In secondary group the position of status of every member depends upon his role.

Every members in a secondary group plays a role or a number of roles. His status in the group is determined by his role. For example, the status of the president of a political party depends upon the role he plays in the party and not upon his birth or personal qualities. Similarly, in a college, the status of the principal depends upon his role not upon his birth and other traits.

Individuality in Persons:
Secondary groups are sometimes called “special-interest groups”. Individuality develops in the persons in secondary groups because, their relations are based on self-interests. When their interests are satisfied they lose interest in the group. Thus self-interest leads the members to develop their individuality in secondary groups.

Active and Inactive Members: A secondary group is very large in size. Physical closeness and intimacy are totally absent among its members. Owing to this reason, some members of the group become active and some others are quite inactive. For instance, in a national political party, a majority of the members take active interest where as the rest of the members do not take any active interest in the party work.

Self-dependence Among the Members: The members of a secondary group are self-dependent. They want or desire to fulfil their self-interests. For this purpose, the members of a secondary group depend upon themselves in order to safeguard their own interests.

Goal Orientation:
Lastly, the main purpose of a secondary group is fulfill a specific aim. That means each secondary group is formed to achieve a specific goal. The members are not interested in maintaining close and personal relations but they are only interested in achieving the aim or which they have joined the group.

For example trade union is formed for the better working conditions of the workers. Similarly, a teacher’s association is formed for securing better conditions of service for teacher.

Question 9.
Describe the characteristics of Primary group.
Answer:
According to C.II. Cooley, following are the important and essential characteristics of a primary group.
Physical Proximity:
The members of primary group must be physically close to one another. They develop intimacy on account of close contact among themselves. It will be very difficult to exchange ideas and thoughts in the primary group unless its members are in close physical proximity to one another.

So that there exists a physical proximity among the members of a primary group which leads to the exchange of thoughts among them. Therefore, physical closeness is an essential ingredient of a primary group.

Small Size:
The primary group is always small in size. It is so small, that the desired intimate relationship can be developed among its members. Due to its small size, the members of a primary group know each other personally and develop a group character.

Continuity of Relationship:
The relations among the members of the primary group are direct, close, intimate and personal. These relations are continuous and permanent. The members of the primary group meet and discuss with each other frequently. The continuous and frequent relations bring stability in the primary group.

We-Feeling:
There a is strong “We- Feeling” among the members of a primary group. They are always motivated by unique slogan that ‘we are all the members of a particular group’. They treat the members of their own group as their near relatives or friends and the persons belonging to other groups their own group and all of them protect their interest unitedly.

The members of a primary group stand each other for the welfare of their group. For instance, the parents often sacrifice their interests for the sake of the family.

Personal Relations:
The relations among the members of primary group are personal, spontaneous and inclusive that means all the members of the primary group personally known each other. Member of primary groups have personal relations and this is why the gap of one member’s absence is not filled completely by the other.

For instance, in the family after the death of wife, a person may marry again but the memory of the dead wife does not end with it. No other person can take the place of a particular friend or a family member. Thus Maclver says that “in the primary group-life our relations with other are always, to some extent, personal”.

Common Aims and Objectives:
In a primary group all the members have common aims and objectives. For example in family the pleasure and pain of every member is shared by the whole family and all the members work for some common aim. Thus in primary groups, the aims and objectives are the same for all the members. In other words, all the members of a primary group work collectively for the fulfilment of their common aims and objectives.

Similarity of Background:
The members of a primary groups always have similar background. They should be equally experienced so that each member can either give or take something from other members. According to Maclver “A level on which every group must dwell and the person who is too far above or below it, disturbs the process of group participation”. In the primary group each member presents his own view point and accepts the view-point of others.

Limited Self-interest:
The member of a primary group have their own interest but self-interest of the members is subordinated to the common interest of the group as a whole.

They must come together in spirit to participate co-operatively. The common interest must predominate in their mind. It introduces the element of common cause among the members of a primary group. The common interest provide mental pleasure and contentment to the members.

Stability:
A primary group is more stable than other groups. To promote closeness and intimacy of relationship, the primary group should be stable and permanent to some extent. The stability of nature of primary groups brings unity and integrity among the members.

Maximum Control over the Member: Due to the intimacy, spontaneity, physical proximity, small size and stability of the group, all the member of a primary group can know each other personally. In the primary group, it is very difficult for any person to avoid the other. Therefore, primary group exercises Maximum control over the members.

In a primary group, the younger members are directly controlled by the elder members. For instance, in a family, the parents control the younger ones. The primary group does not permit anybody to follow a wrong path and stops him from doing any action contradictory to group customs, traditions, more, norms, values and ideals.

Question 10.
Distinguish between Primary and Secondary Group.
Answer:
Size of the primary groups is usually very small. It is because the big size of the group defeats the very purpose of a primary x group whereas the size of secondary groups is very large and runs into many thousands in many cases. Membership of a primary group are spread in a limited area whereas the members of the secondary group can be found all over the world.

Relations between the members in a primary group are very intimate, close and direct whereas the relations between members are neither very close nor direct but indirect and formal. Members in primary groups cooperate spontaneously with each other. They meet on long-term basis and solve their problems and differences.

Whereas in secondary groups deliberate efforts have to be made to organise and the members meet only for particular purpose and as soon as that purpose is achieved, the group is dissolved. In primary groups all the members have common interest They struggle and work hard to achieve those interests. Efforts are collective and combined.

In secondary groups the members have no direct interest. They have selfish aims and try to achieve them by joining this type of group. Therefore, efforts are not collective and combined. There is no formal code of conduct for the working of members ofprimary group. But in the case of secondary group a detailed code of conduct is required for the smooth working of the group.

A formal authority is also needed to regulate conduct and behaviour of members of the group. In primary groups no such authority is needed. In the primary group, all the members take active part formatting the group self-sufficient. But in the Case of secondary groups many members are not active but take only passive interest with the result that only few are leaders and all others are followers.

The primary groups are found in rural areas while secondary groups are found in urban areas. The size of the primary group being small, it does not include any other group in it. But the secondary group being large, many other small groups are included in it. A primary group sees that there is an allround development of personality of an individual.

It see that personality of an individual finds fullest expression in the group. The second any groups do not care for all sided development of its individuals. It is concerned with only one aspect of his life and tries to develop that one.  In primary groups, the co-operation of the members is direct and willing.

where as co-operation of members in the secondary groups is indirect and even that is not willing forthcoming. Thus it is clear that the primary groups were most suited in the primitive societies where social structure was neither complex nor complicated. But these groups cannot function smoothly in modem times because of our complicated social arrangement. It does not mean in any way that the need of primary groups has decreased.

Question 11.
Explain the Cultural Lag.
Answer:
The concept of cultural lag has come to occupy an important place in the writings of eminent sociologists. It is a concept that has a particular appeal in an age in which technological inventions and innovations of many other kinds are constantly disturbing the elder ways of livings. Ogburn was the first sociologist to elaborate upon the idea of cultural lag and to formulate a definite theory, though in the writings of other sociologists particularly Sumner, Muller-Lyer, Wallar and Spencer the existence of a cultural lag is implied.

Ogburn distinguishes between ‘material’ and ‘non-material’ culture. By material aspects of culture he means things like took utensils, machines, dwellings, the manufacture of goods and transportation. In the non-material aspects he includes family, religion government and education. When changes occur in the material aspects, those in turn simulate changes in the non-material aspects.

The non-material culture, according to Ogbum is often slow to respond to the rapid inventions in material culture. When non-material culture does not adjust itself readily to the material changes it falls behind the material and gives rise to cultural lag: In Ogbums words. “The strain that exists between two correlated parts of culture that changes as unequal rates of speed may be interpreted as a lag in the part that is changing at the slowest rate, for the one lags behind the other”.

In material culture, discoveries and inventions are rapidly made to which the non-material culture is to adjust itself and if it cannot, a lag culture. If society is to maintain an equilibrium, both the parts of culture, material and non-material should be properly adjusted. Ogburn, therefore concluded that the problem of adjustment in Modem society is chiefly one of enabling the non-material aspects of culture to catch up with the material aspects.

In other words, man should adopt his ways of thinking and behaving to the state of his technology. Ogburn gave examples to substantiate his thesis. The patriarchal type of family, adapted to agricultural conditions, is continued in a largely industrial urban society. The major problems faced by the modem family come from the persistence in any obsolete form.

Similarly, the old concepts of sovereignty are still held despite the obvious changes that have brought nations close to each other and made them much more interdependent than in the past. Another instance of a lag is the discrepancy between the number of police official and the growth of population.

The growing cities have not increased their police force fast enough, nor the decreasing cities have reduced their soon enough. The change in the number of police officials lags behind the change in the population. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth-century industry changed first, and the family lagged behind in its change.

Women were slow in following their jobs outside the home. Thus after citing various examples Ogbum concluded that “the many and frequent technological innovations of our modem age by occurring prior to the social changes they precipitate, are the causes of many cultural lags in society”.

Among the various technological developments and inventions that are producing cultural lags in contemporary society Ogbum included the telephone, motor-car, wireless, cinema, power-driven agricultural. machines, printing, photographs, alloys, electrical goods, welding, the aeroplane, air conditioning, artificial lighting contraceptives, television etc. These are resulting in a terrific impact on society its social institutions, its customs and its philosophies.

The result is a vast accumulation of cultural lags. Thus, in the modem age, cultural lag is visible in the various elements of culture. Lumley has beautifully written that “It seems as if many pedestrian soldiers or a complete army are marching out of step or as if some of the performers of an orchestra are playing last year’s music and still others last century’s music or even more ancient music at the same time.

Criticism:
Ogburn’s hypothesis of cultural lag has been accepted by many of sociologist but there are a few critics who point out that the distinction between material and non-material culture is not a workable one. It we cling to the old fashioned way when under new conditions our needs could be better served by changing them we cannot properly say that the lag is between the material and non-material.

Nor should it be assumed that it is always the material that is in advance of the non-material or that the main problem is of adjusting non-material to the material culture. Maclver observes that the term lag is not properly applicable to relations between technological factors and the cultural pattern of between the various components of the culture pattern itself.

He regards “technological lag” a better term than “cultural lag”. According to Meuller, “Cultural lag is artificial and imaginary.” Coming to the influence of cultural factors on social relationships it has been acknowledged by all that there is an intimate connection between our beliefs and our institutions. Our valuations and our social relationships.

The social and cultural factors are closely interwoven that all cultural change involves social change. New ideologies causes significant changes in the modes of group life. It was the social philosophy or Marxism, wrought into a dynamic evangelism and finding its opportunity in the suffering.

Question 12.
Define Culture and discuss its features.
Or,
What is Culture? Analyse the characteristics of Culture.
Answer:
Culture is one of the most important and basic concepts of sociology. In sociology culture has a specific mean. The anthropologists believe that the behaviour which is meant is called culture, hi other words the behaviour which is transmitted to as by some one is called culture. The way of living, eating, wear, sing dance and talk it are all parts of a culture.

In common parlance the word culture is understood to mean beautiful, refined or interesting. In sociology we use the word culture to denote acquired behaviour which are shared by and transmitted among the members of the society. In other words, culture is s system of learned behaviour shared by and transmitted among the member of the society.

In other words, culture is a system of learning behaviour shared by and transmitted among the members of a group. Definitions of Culture“Culture has been defined in various ways by sociologists and anthropologists. Following are the important definition of culture”. E.B. Tyler defines “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.

Edward Spiro says that “Culture is any socially inherited element the life of man, material and spiritual”. Malinowaski defines “Culture the handiwork of man and conventional understanding manifest in art and artist which persisting through which he achieves his ends”. Redfiled remarks that “Culture is an organised body of conventional understanding manifest in art and artifact which characterizes a human group”.

Maclver is of view that “Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and our thinking. Intercourse in our literature in religion, in recreation and enjoyment”. According to E.S. Bogardus “Culture is all the ways of doing and thinking of a group”. Characteristics of Culture For a clear understanding of the concept of culture it is necessary far as to know its main characteristics. Culture has several characteristics. Following are the main characteristics of culture.

Culture in Learnt:
Culture is not inherited biologically, but learnt socially by man. It is not an inborn tendency. There is so culture instinct as such culture is often called learned, ways of behaviour, unlearned behaviour such as closing the eyes. While sleeping the eye blinking reflex and so on are purely physiological and culture sharing hands or saying namaskar or thanks and sharing and dressing on the other hand are culture.

Similarly wearing clothes, combing the hair, wearing ornaments, looking the food, drinking from a glass, eating from a place or leaf, reading a newspaper, driving a car, enacting a role in drama, singing worship etc. are all ways of behaviour learnt by culturally.

Culture is Social:
Culture does not exist in isolation neither is it an individual phenomenon, it is product of society. It originates and develops through social interact. It is shared by the members of society. No man can acquire culture without association with other human beings. Man becomes man only among men. It is the culture which helps man to develop human qualities in a human environment deprivation is nothing but deprivation of human qualities.

Culture is Shared:
Culture in the sociological sense, is something shared. It is not something that an individual alone can possess. For example customs, traditions, beliefs, ideas, values, morals etc. are shared by people of group or society. The invention of Arya Bhatta or Albert Einstein.

Charaka or Charles Dante, the philosophical works of Confucious or LaoTse, Shankaracharya or Swami Vivekananda, the artistic work of Kavi Verma or Raphall etc. are all shared by a large number of people, culture is something adopted used, believed, practised or possessed by more than one person. It depends upon group life for its existence (Robert Brerstedt).

Culture is Transmissive:
Culture is capable of being transmitted from one generation to the next. Parents pass on culture traits to their children and they in turn to then- children and so on. Culture is transmitted not through genes by means of language. Language is the main vehicle of culture.

Language in its different forms like reading, writing and speaking makes it possible for the present generation to understand the achievements to earlier generation. But language itselfs is apart of culture. Once language is acquired it unfolds to the individuals it wide field. Transmission of culture may take place by imitation as well as by interaction.

Culture is Continuous and Cummulative:
Culture exists as a continuous process. In its historical growth, it tends to become cummulative culture is growing whole which includes in itselfs, the achievement of the past and present and makes provision for the future achievements of mankind. Culture way thus be conceived of as a kind of stream flowing down through the centuries from one generation to another.

Hence some sociologists like Lotion called culture the social heritage of man. As Robert writes culture or the money of human race. It becomes difficult for its to imagine what society would be like without his accumulation of culture what lives would be without it.

Culture is consistent and inter-related:
Culture in its development has revealed tendency to be consistent. At the same time different parts of culture are inter-connected For examples the value system of a society. A society is closely connected with its other aspects such a morality, religion, customs, traditions, beliefs and so on.

Culture is Dynamic and Adoptive:
Though culture is relatively stable it is not altogether static. It is subject to slow but constant, change. Change and growth are latent in culture. We find amazing growth in the present Indian culture when we compare it with the culture of the Vedic times. Culture is hence dynamic.

Culture is responsive to the changing conditions of the physical world. It is adoptive. It also intervence in the natural environment and man in his process of adjustment. Just as our house shelter us from the storm, so also does our culture help us from natural changes and assist us the service. Few of us indeed could survive without culture.

Culture is Gratifying:
Culture provides proper opportunities and prescribes means for the satisfaction our need and desires. These needs may be biological or social in nature our need for food, shelter and clothing on the one hand our desire for status,’ name formed money mates, etc. are all for example, fulfilled according to the culture ways, culture determines and guides the varied activities of man. In fact culture is defined as the process through which human beings satisfy their wants.

Culture varies from Society to Society:
Eyery society has a culture on its own. It differs from society to society. Culture of every society is quite to itself Cultures are uniform. Culture elements such as customs, tradition, ideals, values, ideologies, beliefs practice philosophic institutions, etc. are not uniform everywhere, ways of eating, speaking, greeting, dressing, entertaining, living etc. of different specialities differ significantly. Culture varies from time to time also.

No culture ever remains constant or changeless. It Manu were to come back to see the Indian society, today he would be bewildered to witness the vast changes that have taken place in our culture.

Culture is super-organic and identical:
Culture is sometimes called the super-organic. By super organic Herbert Spencer meant that culture is neither organic, nor inorganic nature but above those two, the term implies the social meaning may be independent of physiological and physical, properties and characteristics for example the social meaning of a national flag is not just a piece of coloured cloth.

The flag represents a nation, similarly, priests and prisoners professors and professionals, players, engineers are not just biological beings. There social status and role can be understood only through culture.

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Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
The intelligence of a person can be accurately assessed from his _________.
(a) eyes
(b) performance
(c) conversation
(d) intelligence test scores
Answer:
(d) intelligence test scores

Question 2.
I.Q. is calculated by the following formula
(a) I.Q=\(\frac{\text { Age }}{\text { Mental Age }}\)x100

(b) I.Q\(\frac{\text { Mental Age }}{\text { Chronological Age }}\)x100

(c) I.Q=\(\frac{\text { Chronological Age }}{\text { Mental Age }} \)x100

(d) I.Q=\(\frac{\text { Mental Age }}{\text { Chronological Age }}\)
Answer:
(b) I.Q=\(\frac{\text { Mental Age }}{\text { Chronological Age }}\)x100

Question 3.
The term intelligence is derived from the _________.
(a) Latin word
(b) Greek word
(c) German word
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Latin word

Question 4.
Intelligence refers to the _________.
(a) Effective capacity
(b) thinking capacity
(c) Cognitive capacity
(d) Conative capacity
Answer:
(d) Conative capacity

Question 5.
That intelligence is a capacity of the ‘O’ to adjust itself to an increasingly complex environment is believed by _________.
(a) Gallon
(b) Spencer
(c) Binet
(d) Spearman
Answer:
(b) Spencer

Question 6.
The two-factor theory of intelligence was proposed by _________.
(a) Guilford
(b) Thurstone
(c) Stanford
(d) Spearman
Answer:
(d) Spearman

Question 7.
Intelligence is influenced by _________.
(a) Hereditary factors
(b) Environmental factors
(c) Organic factors
(d) both hereditary and environmental factors
Answer:
(d) both hereditary and environmental factors

Question 8.
Accurate assessment of intelligence is possible through _________.
(a) Observation of behavior
(b) Abstract performance
(c) Mathematical ability
(d) Standardised intelligence test
Answer:
(d) Standardised intelligence tes

Question 9.
Edward’s personal preference schedule is a _________.
(a) Open-end inventory
(b) True/False questionnaire
(c) Forced choice inventory
(d) Multiple-choice inventory
Answer:
(d) Multiple-choice inventory

Question 10.
The factors of 16 PF questionnaires were selected through _________.
(a) Chi-square
(b) Factor analysis
(c) Rating
(d) Rank difference method
Answer:
(b) Factor analysis

Question 11.
When no language is used in an intelligence test it is called a _________.
(a) Performance test
(b) Non-performance test
(c) Verbal test
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Performance test

Question 12.
When the suitability of a particular person for a specific job is to be assessed he should be administered with _________.
(a) Power test
(b) Intelligence test
(c) Aptitude test
(d) Performance test
Answer:
(c) Aptitude test

Question 13.
A performance test is that which _________.
(a) Uses language
(b) Does not use language
(c) Assess special ability
(d) Assesses mechanical ability
(b) Does not use language

Question 14.
The progressive Matrices test is a test of _________.
(a) Aptitude
(b) Intelligence
(c) Attitude
(d) Language
Answer:
(b) Intelligence

Question 15.
Children’s progressive matrices test is a _________.
(a) Verbal test
(b) Non-verbal test
(c) Imagination test
(d) Creativity test
Answer:
(b) Non-verbal test

Question 16.
The capacity to perceive the relationship between the means and the end is called _________.
(a) Imagination
(b) Sensation
(c) Intelligence
(d) Learning
Answer:
(c) Intelligence

Question 17.
The first group test of intelligence was _________.
(a) W.A.T.
(b) T.A.T.
(c) The Standard Binet
(d) The Army Alpha
Answer:
(c) The Standard Binet

Question 18.
MMPI is a test of _________.
(a) Intelligence
(b) Personality
(c) Aptitude
(d) Interest
Answer:
(b) Personality

Question 19.
Rorschach test is a test of _________.
(a) Intelligence
(b) Power
(c) Personality
(d) Aptitude
Answer:
(c) Personality

Question 20.
Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposely, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment. This definition of intelligence was given by _________.
(a) Binet
(b) Thurstone
(c) Wechsler
(d) Spearman
Answer:
(c) Wechsler

Question 21.
The concept of mental age was introduced by _________.
(a) Wechsler
(b) Spearman
(c) Binet
(d)Galton
Answer:
(c) Binet

Question 22.
The adult intelligence scale Of Wechsler constitutes of _________.
(a) Non-verbal scale
(b) Verbal scale
(c) Verbal and performance scale
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) Verbal and performance scale

Question 23.
Binet was a/an _________psychologist.
(a) French
(b) Germany
(c) English
(d)American
Answer:
(a) French

Question 24.
Binet with the help of another collaborator devised a scale consisting of 80 tests arranged from the simplest to the most complex. Who is that another collaborator?
(a) Galton
(b) Simen
(c) Terman
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Simen

Question 25.
Binet and Simon revised the 1905 test scale in the year _________.
(a) 1908
(b) 1910
(c) 1913
(d) 1917
Answer:
(a) 1908

Question 26.
When the M.A. and the C.A. are the same, the I.Q. is _________.
(a) 95
(b) 98
(c) 100
Answer:
(c) 100

Question 27.
Mental age is calculated on the basis of _________.
(a) Chronological age
(b) Mental ability as calculated from the intelligence test score
(c) Ability calculated from the test of creativity
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Mental ability as calculated from the intelligence test score

Question 28.
Raven’s progressive Matrices test is _________.
(a) Verbal test
(b) Performance test
(c) Non-performance test
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Performance test

Question 29.
Raymond cattle’s IPTAtest is a _________.
(a) Culture fair intelligence test
(b) Culture-free intelligence test
(c) Structural test of intelligence
(d) Personality test
Answer:
(a) Culture fair intelligence test

Question 30.
The process of classifying all intellectual abilities into a systematic framework has been developed by _________.
(a) Guilford
(b) Stanford
(c) Jensen
(d) Thorndike
Answer:
(a) Guilford

Question 31.
The structure of intellect can be classified into _________.
(a) Three different ways
(b) Four different ways
(c) Five different ways
Answer:
(a) Three different ways

Question 32.
Intelligence reaches its peak by the age of 16-20 years and remains at the same level up to _________.
(a) 40 years
(b) 45 years
(c) 50 years
(d) 60 years
Answer:
(b) 45 years

Question 33.
Two children of the same age will have the same _________.
(a) Intelligence Quotient
(b) Mental age
(c) Chronological age
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) Chronological age

Question 34.
Intelligence is the ability to _________.
(a) Perceive new situations and learn
(b) To adjust oneself to the new situations
(c) To think about the present situation
(d) To do all the three above
Answer:
(d) To do all the three above

Question 35.
Most of the infant intelligence tests are meant to measure _________.
(a) Intelligence
(b) Sensory motor skills
(c) Perceptual ability
(d) All of these
Answer:
(b) Sensory motor skills

Question 36.
The score obtained by an infant in the infant intelligence test is called _________.
(a) Intelligence Quotient
(b) Mental Age
(c) Development Quotient
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) Development Quotient

Question 37.
Mental age is a measure of the level of intelligence _________.
(a) Specific level
(b) Absolute
(c) General
(d) All of these
Answer:
(b) Absolute

Question 38.
The most outstanding study conducted to compare the Developmental Quotient and I.Q. of children was conducted by _________.
(a) fleidbrelder
(b) Gessel
(c) Bayley and Schaefer
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Gessel

Question 39.
The very earliest tests of intelligence were based on the assumption that intelligence has a _________.
(a) Physiological basis
(b) Hereditary basis
(c) Environmental basis
(d) Psychological basis
Answer:
(b) Hereditary basis

Question 40.
_________believed that the fine-tuning of the nervous systems of intelligent people extended to their bodies and made them physically vigorous.
(a) Binet
(b) Galton
(c) Simon
(d) Wechsler
Answer:
(b) Galton

Question 41.
Binet had developed a number of intelligence tests by _________.
(a)1890
(b)1900
(c)1905
(d)1910
Answer:
(c)1905

Question 42.
The book “Experimental study of intelligence” authored by Binet was published in _________.
(a) 1900
(b) 1903
(c) 1905
(d) 1913
Answer:
(c) 1905

Question 43.
The mental age is computed by first finding the age level at which the child passed all the test items which is called the _________.
(a) Basal age
(b) Fractional age
(c) Chronological age
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Basal age

Question 44.
The _________Psychologist Louis Stem suggested the division of mental age by Chronological age to asses relative intelligence.
(a) American
(b) Germanic
(c) Swiss
(d) English
Answer:
(c) Swiss

Question 45.
Terman issued the first American revision of the Binet scale in _________which was called the Stanford Binet intelligence scale.
(a) 1910
(b) 1912
(c) 1916
(d) 1918
Answer:
(a) 1910

Question 46.
Intelligence tests are so constructed that the average person will receive an I.Q. score of about _________.
(a) 90
(b) 100
(c) 105
(d) 110
Answer:
(b) 100

Question 47.
An I.Q. of _________indicates the role of the intellectual development of the average person in the population.
(a) 95
(b) 100
(c) 105
(d) 110
Answer:
(b) 100

Question 48.
A person having an I.Q. of 55 is called _________.
(a) Imbecile
(b) Moron
(c) Idiot
(d) Boarder line case
Answer:
(b) Moron

Question 49.
When the number and representatives of the individuals in the standardizing sample increased the adequacy of the standardizing procedure.
(a) Decreases
(b) Increases
(c) Does not change
(d) Remains moderate
Answer:
(b) Increases

Question 50.
That intelligence is best conceptualized as a large number of independent abilities held by__________.
(a) Galton
(b) Cattell
(c) Thorndike
(d) Guilford
Answer:
(c) Thorndike

Question 51.
One of the most elaborate schemes for classifying intelligence into specific abilities was proposed by _________.
(a) Gallon
(b) Guilford
(c) Cattell
(d) Hebb
Answer:
(d) Hebb

Question 52.
Guilford made a unique contribution to the understanding of intelligence by including in his model the operation of thinking _________.
(a) Convergent thinking
(b) Divergent thinking
(c) Abstract thinking
Answer:
(b) Divergent thinking

Question 53.
Guilford’s “Plot Title Test” is an example of a test of _________.
(a) Divergent thinking
(b) Convergent thinking
(c) Creative thinking
(d) Autistic thinking
Answer:
(a) Divergent thinking

Question 54.
The ability to think abstractly was the essential ingredient of intellectual effectiveness. This was the view of _________.
(a)Terman
(b)Galton
(c) Guilford
(d)Thurstone
Answer:
(a)Terman

Question 55.
_________ holds that intelligence consists of specific cognitive abilities that enable an individual to adapt to the environment.
(a) IIebb
(b) Guilford
(c) Gallon
(d) Charlesworth
Answer:
(c) Gallon

Question 56.
That intelligence changes with age was the general observation made for the first time by _________.
(a) Spearman
(b) Gallon
(c) Binet
(d) Simen
Answer:
(d) Simen

Question 57.
Most of the infant intelligence tests are constructed to measure _________.
(a) Perceptual skill
(b) Sensory motor skill
(c) Cognitive ability
(d) Abstract thinking
Answer:
(b) Sensory motor skill

Question 58.
The most important infant intelligence test was developed by _________.
(a) Clark
(b) Charles Worth
(c) Gessel
(d) All of these
Answer:
(c) Gessel

Question 59.
The infant intelligence scale developed by Gessel is called _________.
(a) Differential Schedule
(b) Generalised Schedule
(c) Developmental Schedule
(d) Specified Schedule
Answer:
(c) Developmental Schedule

Question 60.
Gessel’s tests measure not intelligence but the child’s level of _________.
(a) Growth
(b) Emotion
(c) Adaptive Capacity
(d) Divergent thinking
Answer:
(a) Growth

Question 61.
In Gessel’s test, the score obtained by a child is called _________.
(a) Developmental Quotient
(b) Intelligence Quotient
(c) Creativity Quotient
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Developmental Quotient

Question 62.
Turnstone identified _______ primary mental abilities.
(a) 5
(b) 7
(c) 9
(d) 11
Answer:
(b) 7

Question 63.
Guilford proposed a structure of intellect containing items _________.
(a) 100
(b) 110
(c) 120
(d) 130
Answer:
(c) 120

Question 64.
Intelligence develops most rapidly during _________.
(a) Infancy
(b) Childhood
(c) Adulthood
(d) Late adulthood
Answer:
(b) Childhood

Question 65.
Boys score _________ in intelligence tests compared to girls.
(a) Higher
(b) Similar
(c) Lower
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Similar

Question 66.
Multifactor theory of intelligence is given by _________.
(a) Binet
(b) Spearman
(c) Guilford
(d) Thurstone
Answer:
(d) Thurstone

True Or False Type Questions

Question 1.
All intelligence tests also test creativity. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 2.
Intelligence tests are measured of both intellectual ability and achievement although the emphasis clearly strives to be on the former. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Culture-free intelligence tests measure intelligence more accurately than culturally biased tests. Culturally unfair tests do not under asses a child’s intelligence. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 4.
IPAT culture fair intelligence test was devised by Thurstone. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 5.
It is erroneous to define intelligence on the basis of abilities related to school performance. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 6.
Standard intelligence tests fail to measure all the cognitive abilities that contribute to intelligence, broadly defined. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 7.
I.Q. is only a measure of intelligence ‘B’. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 8.
According to Ilebb, the term intelligence ‘A refers to an innate potentiality for the development of intellectual capacities, and intelligence ‘B’ to die level of that development at a later time when the S’s intellectual functioning can be observed. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Spearman thought of intelligence as composed ofthe ‘g’ factor and a number of ‘g’ factors. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 10.
Guilford included in his model of intelligence the operation of convergent thinking. (True/False)
True

Question 11.
Guilford’s ‘Plot Title test’ ’ is an example of a test of convergent thinking. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 12.
Little relation has been found between scores obtained on standard I.q. tests and scores achieved on tests of divergent thinking. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 13.
The ability to think abstractly was according to Tennant the essential ingredient of intellectual effectiveness. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 14.
Charlesworth was an opinion that intelligence consists of specific cognitive abilities that enable an individual to adapt to the environment. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 15.
Intelligence changes with age. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 16.
Intellectual growth continues throughout the lifespan. (True /False)
Answer:
False

Question 17.
Most infant intelligence tests are constructed to assess sensory-motor skills. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 18.
The most important infant intelligence test was developed by Spearman. (True / False)
False

Question 19.
The most important infant intelligence test was developed by Gessel. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 20.
The infant intelligence test developed by Arnold Gessel is known as Developmental schedules. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 21.
Gessel’s developmental schedules contain items that show a clear age progression. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 22.
Gessel’s test measures not intelligence but the child’s level of development. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 23.
In Gessel’s test, the score obtained by an infant is called the developmental quotient. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 24.
The failure to find a strong relationship between infant DQs and their subsequent I.Qs suggests that two scores reflect different abilities. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 25.
Verbal reasoning grows with age. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 26.
Crystalised intelligence increases with age and declines only with the approach of very old age. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 27.
There is no difference between pure intelligence and measured intelligence. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 28.
Thurstone identified nine primary mental abilities. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 29.
Guilford proposed a structure of intellect containing 120 separate items. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 30.
Intelligence develops most rapidly during childhood. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 31.
General intelligence continues to increase until the later adult years. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 32.
The rate of increase in intelligence slows down as the person grows older. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 33.
Usually, boys score higher in standard intelligent tests than girls. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 34.
The scores of boys and girls are marked by similarity in standard intelligent tests. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 35.
Some personality traits are associated with the I.Q. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 36.
Aggression, competition, and self-reliance traits are found to but associated with the increase in I.Qs. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 37.
Social class does not influence the I.Q. of a person. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 38.
Intellectual development is a smooth and continuous process. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 39.
Extreme and prolonged social deprivation produces intellectual impairment. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 40.
Gifted individuals are those whose I.Qs are at the upper end of the distribution of intelligence. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 41.
Creativity has no relationship with giftedness. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 42.
Creative persons have a high tolerance for ambiguity. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 43.
Children’s reasoning and their use of increasingly complex hypotheses in problem-solving tasks indicate a progression through cognitive stages. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 44.
Piaget has emphasized the biological and adaptive significance of intelligence. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 45.
During the preparational state, children begin to use symbols like imagery and language. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 46.
The sensory-motor stage continues from birth to five years. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 47.
The stage of formal operations is the third stage of Piagetian stages of cognitive development. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 48.
The preparational stage lasts from three to seven years. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 49.
Cross-cultural studies have indicated that the stages Piaget has observed in western children are also found in children of very different societies. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 50.
Intelligence and creativity are highly co-related. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 51.
A maximum level of intelligence is required to be creative. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 52.
Flexibility is essential for creativity. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 53.
Intelligence can be greatly improved by competition. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 54.
The two-factor theory of intelligence was proposed by Stanford. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 55.
Accurate assessment of intelligence is possible, through standardized intelligence tests. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 56.
Accurate assessment of intelligence is possible, through standardized intelligence tests. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 57.
Edward’s personal preference schedule is a multiple-choice inventory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 58.
When no language is used in an intelligence test, it is called a verbal test of intelligence. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 59.
A performance test does not use language. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 60.
The Army Alpha test is the first group test of intelligence. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 61.
M.M.P.I. is a test of intelligence. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 62.
The concept of mental age was introduced by Galton. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 63.
The adult intelligence scale of Wechsler deals with non-verbal scales. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 64.
Binet was an American Psychologist. (True/ False)
Answer:
False

Question 65.
Binet and Simon revised the 1905 test scale in the year 1908. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 66.
When the M.A. and C.A. are the same the I.Q. is 100. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 67.
Mental ability is calculated from the intelligence test score. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 68.
Mental age is calculated from the chronological age. (True/ False)
Answer:
False

Question 69.
Raymond Cattell’s IPTA test is a culture fair test. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 70.
A culture-fair test is otherwise called a culture-free test. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 71.
The process of classifying all intellectual abilities into a systematic framework has been developed by Stanford. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 72.
Intelligence reaches its peak by the age of 16 to 21 years. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 73.
Ordinarily, intelligence does not grow after 45 years. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 74.
Two children of the same age will have the same mental age. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 75.
Two children of the same age will have the same chronological age. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 76.
The actual age of a person and his chronological age are the same. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 77.
Intelligence quotient and mental age are the same. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 78.
Guilford included in his model the operation of thinking. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 79.
Guilford’s Plot title test is an example of convergent thinking. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 80.
Guilford was of opinion that the ability to think abstractly was the essential ingredient of intellectual effectiveness. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 81.
Charlesworth held that intelligence consists of specific cognitive abilities that enable the individual to adapt to the environment. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 82.
That intelligence changes with age was for the first time made public by Binet. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 83.
Thurstone identified nine specific mental abilities which according to him are the constituents of intelligence. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 84.
Intelligence develops most rapidly during adolescence. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 85.
Boys are more intelligent compared to girls. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 86.
The sensory-motor stage Piaget continues from birth to two years. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 87.
F or Piaget the function of intelligence is the adoption to the world. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 88.
Children’s cognitive system change and grow to become more adaptive and hence provides a more realistic understanding of the world. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 89.
Accommodation is a change of the internal cognitive system to provide a better match to outside information. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 90.
Intelligence quotient and mental age are different concepts. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 91.
I.Q. and Developmental age are different. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 92.
Most infant intelligence tests are meant to measure sensory motor skills. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 93.
Mental age is a measure of the absolute level of intelligence. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 94.
Gcssel conducted the most brilliant study to compare the D.Q. of children with their I.Q. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 95.
The very earliest tasks of intelligence were based on the assumption that intelligence has a physiological basis. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 96.
The book experimental study of intelligence was authored by Binet. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 97.
The PASS Model of intelligence was developed by cattle. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 98.
The sensory-motor stage continues from birth to two years. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 99.
Piaget has chartered major stages of cognitive development three. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 4 Method of Teaching Maths Questions and Answers.

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CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Unit 4 Method of Teaching Maths Questions and Answers

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Discuss the Aims and Objectives of teaching Mathematics.
Answer:
The knowledge of mathematics is very essential for everybody. The most important aims and objectives of mathematics are discussed below.

To develop the thinking and reasoning, power of the child:
The power of thinking and reasoning is very much essential for an. individual to lead a disciplined and well-adjusted life. These powers can be developed by knowing mathematics.

To provide a suitable discipline to the mind:
Mathematics knowledge makes the mind of the learners disciplined which is essential for leading a healthy social life.

To develop an art of living:
Mathematics prepares children for economic, purposeful, productive, creative, and constructive life. The children learn an act of effective living.

To acquaint the learners with cultures:
Mathematics is the backbone of culture. So by studying mathematics an individual becomes acquainted with his own culture. So cultural development is possible.

To prepare the pupil for various professions:
The children are prepared to enter into various professions of engineering, cashiers, statisticians, accountants, auditors, bankers, etc.

To prepare the students for various higher educational centers:
Mathematics forms the basis of many educational courses and as engineering physical science etc.

To develop the habits of concentration, self-reliance, and discovery:
The habits of concentration, self-reliance, and power to discover new things, new laws, and principles in students are created by mathematics.

To create a love for hard work:
Mathematics as a subject needs consistent hard work. This has helped the student to undertake hard work for a longer period.

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Question 2.
Discuss briefly the inductive-deductive method of teaching mathematics. Bring a difference between the inductive and deductive methods.
Answer:
“Inductive-deductive method is the combination of two separate method-inductive and deductive methods.
Inductive method:-
The inductive method is based on induction. Induction is proving a universal truth or theorem by showing that if it is true of any particular case, it is also true for the next case in the same serial order. In this method, we proceed from particular to general, from concrete cases to abstract cases, and from specific to general formulas. In adopting this method, the students are required not to accept the already, discovered formula without knowing the formula by adopting inductive reasoning.

Example No.1:-
The students may be asked to construct a few triangles of various sizes and shapes. They may be asked to measure and sum the angle in each case. Then the sum will come to be the same in all cases. i.e, the sum in all cases will come to be two right angles. Hence, the students may conclude through induction that the sum of these angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles.

Example No.2:- Suppose we find out the simple interest of Rs. 400/- in four years at 5% per annum. It will be equal to Rs.80/-

Or, S.I=\(\frac{400 \times 5 \times 4}{100}\)=80.00

Similarly, the simple interest Rs. 500/- in a year at 6% per annum will be 90.00.

Or, S.I=\(\frac{500 \times 6 \times 3}{100}\)=90.00

From the above, two examples the students can evolve a rule that,

Simple Interest=

S.I=\(\frac{\text { PRT }}{100}\)

Deductive Method :
The deduction is the chief generalized form. In this method, one follows deductive reasoning which is just the opposite of inductive reasoning. Abstract ideas are preceded by concrete experience. The students memorize the different formulas and then apply them to solve a particular problem.

Examples- If the teacher wants to teach the calculation of simple interest in the class the formula for calculating interest to the students.

i.e. S.L =\(\frac{\text { PRT }}{100}\)

Question 2.
Explain with examples the analytic and synthetic methods of teaching mathematics. What are the merits and demerits?
Answer:
Analytic Method:
Analytic means breaking up the problem in such a manner that it ultimately gets connected with some known. The method proceeds from known to known. The analysis is the process of unfolding the problem to know the hidden aspects. We have to begin with what is to be found out and then proceed to further steps and possibilities that may concern the unknown with the known, the desired result is found out.

Merits of Analytic Method:
The Analytic Method has the following merits.
It is a logical method that leaves no doubt and it convinces the learner. The steps are developed in a general manner. Each step has a reason and justification. It facilitates understanding and creates an urge to discover facts. As the students face questions is what a statement is into simple elements they grapple with the problem confidently and intelligently. He gains competencies and skills.

Demerits:

• It is a lengthy method.
• It is very difficult to acquire efficiency and speed.
• It may not be applicable to all topics equally.

Example

If \(\frac{a}{b}=\frac{c}{d}\) prove that \(\frac{a c-2 b^2}{b}=\frac{c^2-2 b d}{d}\)

∴\(\frac{a c-2 b}{b}=\frac{c^2-2 b d}{d}\)

By cross multiplication

acd – 2b²d = be² – 2b²d

Cancellation of the common quality -2b²d from both sides can further he canceled.
acd = bc² will be true
If this is if ad = bc arranged in a more systematic form, ad = bc will be true.

\(\frac{\mathrm{a}}{\mathrm{b}}=\frac{\mathrm{c}}{\mathrm{d}}\) which is given is thus true.
So, we can say that,

\(\frac{\mathrm{ac}-\mathrm{b}^2}{\mathrm{~d}}=\frac{\mathrm{c}^2-2 \mathrm{bd}}{\mathrm{d}}\) is also true.

Synthetic Method :
The synthetic method is just the opposite of the analytic method. One has to proceed from known to unknown in this method. Synthesis implies the placing together of the parts to get the solution. One has to start from what is known as given and proceed toward the unknown part of the problem, thus, the unknown information becomes known and free. In practice, synthesis is complementary to analysis.

Merits :

• This is a logical method.
• It is short and elegant.
• It glorifies memory.

Demerits :
It leaves a long number of doubts in minds of readers and offers no explanation for them. As the reader gets no satisfactory explanation for his doubts while solving the problem, he will be perplexed when faced with a need problem. He may not recall the steps of synthesis. There is no provision for a complete understanding of the method. Discovery and thinking have no place in this method. Memory work and homework are too heavy.

Example:
Let us take the same example.

\(\frac{a}{b}=\frac{c}{d}\) then prove that \(\frac{a-2 b^2}{b}=\frac{c^2-2 b d}{d}\)

We have to start with the given or known fact \(\frac{a}{b}=\frac{c}{d}\)

∴\(\frac{2 b}{c}\) be subtracted from both sides

∴\(\frac{a}{b}=\frac{2 b}{c}=\frac{c}{d}=\frac{2 b}{c}\)

Or, \(\frac{a c-2 b^2}{b c}=\frac{c^2-2 b d}{c d}\)

(Cancelling from both sides)
Thus identity is proved.

Question 3.
Explain the problem-solving methods of teaching mathematics. What are the merits and demerits?
Answer:
The problem-solving method aims at presenting and repurposing the existence of problems in the teaching-learning situation. A problem is a sort of difficulty which has to be overcome to reach the goal. It may be a purely mental difficulty. The problem-solving methods aim at presenting the knowledge to be learned in the form of a problem.

It begins with a problematic situation and consists of continuous meaningful well-integrated activity. Mathematics is a subject of problems. Its teaching and learning depend on solving innumerable problems. Efficiency and ability in solving problems is a guarantee in learning this subject. The procedure of problem-solving is (almost like the project method. It can be taken the form of an inductive deductive method.

Steps to the situation :
Sensing the problem, interpreting, defining, and delimiting the problem. Gathering data in a systematic manner, organizing and evaluating the data, formulating tentative solutions, arriving at the true and correct solution, and verifying the results. It is a research-like method that involves scientific thinking as a process of learning.

How it is employed :
Suppose finding the volume of a cylinder is a problem before the class. Its formula is to be developed on the basis of the earlier formula for the volume of a thing while analyzing the problem it gets connected with the previous knowledge that the volume of any regular solid can be found by multiplying the area of its base with the height of the object.

The area of the base of the cylinder is found by the only known formula a new the results are checked. The solution to the problem and the result comes from the students. The teacher remains in the background and directs or guides the students from the position.

Merits of problem-solving method:
This method satisfies the laws of teaching. It involves reflective thinking. So it stimulates thinking and learning through self-effort, reasoning, and critical judgment in the students. It develops qualities of imitative and self-dependence in the students. It is a stimulating method, The problem is a challenge.

Once it is properly recognized it acts as a great motivating force and directs the students, attention, and activity. It serves individual differences. A student can solve any number of problems in a specific and make progress accordingly. It is especially suitable for mathematics which is a subject of problems. It develops desirable study habits in the students.

Limitations:
The process is purely literary. It only needs a mental solution. Life problems -need some physical activity also. All problems cannot be solved by this method. The method does not suit the students in lower classes. Teachers, the burden becomes heavy. Textbooks written in the traditional style do not help in the use of this method. There is an absence of suitable books for reference and guidance.

Question 4.
Discuss the steps in lesson planning.
Answer:
J.F. Herbert has suggested six important steps in planning a lesson. After his name, those steps are called “Herbartion” steps.
These six steps are:

• Preparation
• Introduction
• Presentation
• Recapitulation (comprehension)
• Summarisation
• Application

Preparation:
The teacher has to prepare himself and the students for the lesson. He has to formulate the objectives, select the content matters from the textbook, select the teaching aids and prepare the lesson accordingly.

Introduction:
The main purpose of the introduction is to motivate the pupils. The teacher has to test the previous knowledge of the students by asking some questions. Then the teacher can know the background knowledge is to be linked with the previous knowledge through the introduction. A teacher can introduce a reason by various means such as:-

• asking question
• showing pictures and models
• citing an example
• dramatization
• quoting a dialogue

Presentation:
It is the most important step in the lesson. During this step, the teacher presents some new ideas to the pupils. Questioning discussion, demonstration of aids, active pupil participation, and blackboard work are some of the essential elements of the presentation. The objectives of the lesson determine the nature of the presentation.

Recapitulation:
The teacher should ascertain to what extent the students have understood the topic taught by him. To test their understanding and comprehension the teacher has to put some questions. On this topic, after the presentation is over, this will also help the teacher to know whether his teaching is effective or not.

Summarisation :
The teacher has to associate and generalize the subject matter taught in the lesson in forming a blackboard. Summary, a formula or a rule ‘or a skeleton chart of the important learning points. The step completes the presentation by providing the gist of the topic.

Application :
At this step, the students make use to acquire, knowledge in familiar situations. It tests the validity of the generalization, rule principles or formula arrived at by the pupils at the end of the topic. Through the application, the new knowledge acquired by the students is retained in their minds for a longer period.

Question 5.
Six aims and objectives of Mathematics:
Answer:
It develops the power of thinking and reasoning. It helps the child to solve mathematical problems. It develops the self-confidence and habit of concentration. To help the child to develop the power of expression, and appreciation. It enables the child to go through the transaction of coins. It helps the child to lead a career as an accountant, auditor, engineer, and scientist.

Question 6.
Analytic method:
Answer:

• It proceeds from unknown to known.
• It is a process of thinking.
• It demands exploration.
• It is a method for. thinkers and discoverers.
• It develops originality.
• It is informal, psychological, and based on heuristic lines.

Question 7.
Aids used in teaching mathematics:
Answer:
Visual aids:
Samples, umbrellas, stick-rounded things, dolls, toys, balloons, plates blackboard, models, etc.

Audio Aids:
Radio, gramophone, tape recorders, etc.

Audio-visual aids:
T.V. and films. Through these aids, subjects are taught by experts. These are effective aids in teaching mathematics.

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