Class 11

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part 1.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Define the meaning and definition of thinking.
Answer:
Thinking is a very often used psychological term in our daily life. The importance of thinking is evident not only for the wide use of the term but also because thinking helps in the solution of all our day-to-day problems. Thinking is the most complex of all psychological processes and it is thinking that normally differentiates man from lower animals.

The reasoning is different from mere thinking of something, as it involves a sequence of symbolic activities. Reasoning also differs from the free association of ideas as in reasoning recall and the sequence of associations is more or less controlled. Thinking helps in solving a problem, and in fulfilling a need or motivation.

Ruch (1970) observed that thinking is always directed toward preparation for action towards producing new meanings, towards producing beliefs, and towards attending enjoyment. The graphic and verbal symbols are mentally manipulated in order to solve a problem, plan a building a decorate a drawing room. Thinking is, therefore, called ‘mental trial and error’.

The motor activities are minimum in thinking. Thinking is also called a symbolic process. Earlier we have discussed how thinking has been described in different ways by different psychologists on the basis of its characteristics such as thinking as a mental exploration, symbolic process, cognitive activity, problem-solving, behavior, mental or implicit trial and error, subvocal talking, and so on.

However, Warren has attempted to give a more comprehensive definition of thinking which embraces most of its characteristics. According to him “thinking is an activity concerning in cell. It is symbolic in character initiated by a problem or task which the individual is facing involving some trial and error but under the directing influence of that problem and ultimately leading to a conclusion or solution of the problem.”

Thinking is possible without immediate stimulus, with the help of ideas. An idea or an image stands as a substitute for an object in its absence. This is called a symbol. A symbol is said to be anything that stands for something else. All thinking deals with substitutes for things. That is why thinking is called a symbolic behavior. Hence, symbolic representation, and manipulation are the most important characteristics of thinking.

Question 2.
Define the pre-operational period.
Answer:
The preoperational period extends from two to seven years. The first part of this stage is also known as the pre-conceptual period. It is characterized by the use of language and symbolic function. These two are built upon the systematic use of representation which begins in the last stage of sensory-motor operation.

Pre-conceptual refers to the beginning of symbolization in thinking. It is the period prior to the use of symbols in thinking or the preparatory stage for the same. Actually, the pre-operational stage extends from the end of the sixth stage of the sensory-motor period i.e., about 18 months to -1 year of age to 6 or 7 years.

The pre-operational period is sub-divided into

• Pre conceptual period roughly lasts for 2-4 years and
• Intuitive 4-7 years.

By the time the child reaches the pre-conceptual period he has mastered some language, constructs symbols, and is engaged in make-believe play like preparing food for mama in small covers of tins and bottles getting their dollars married, giving injections to their dollars, etc. It is the period when the child develops his symbolic function, imagery, and genuine representation.

He starts differentiating between words and images and perceptually absent events. The connection between these two is made by images that intervene in the development of imitation, play, and cognitive representation. Piaget thus states “Towards one half to two years, the symbolic function appears, language, symbolic play (the beginning of fictional invention) deferred imitation i.e., occurring sometime after the original event and that kind of internalized imitation which give rise to mental imagery occurs.

However the child cannot immediately construct such an operation, several years of preparation and organization are still required. In fact, it is much more difficult to reproduce and act correctly in thought than to carry it out on the behavioral level. The child of 2 years, for example, is able to coordinate his movements from place to place (when he walks about the room or in the garden) in a group, as well as his movements when he turns objects around.

But a lengthy period of time will elapse before he will be able to represent them precisely in thought in reproducing, for example, from memory with the help of objects, a plan of the room or garden, or in inverting the positions of objects in thought by turning the pan around.” Another important characteristic of the pre-operational stage is showing a response to a new stimulus considering it as if a previously known stimulus.

For instance, a two-year-old child may use a stick as a candle and try to light it putting it on the candle stand, or taking several matchboxes he may try to construct a two-story building. It is commonly seen that children consider their toys or dolls as brothers, sisters, and playmates and talk with the term, feed them, make them sleep on their laps sing a lorry, etc.

HoweverAnurag the two-year-old grandson of this author while playing with dolls “Anu and Sweta clearly express that they are not real Anu and Sweta. He says, “real Sweta is at Bangalore and real Anime. “These two are false ones.” However, pre-conceptual thinking at this stage is not of a high order compared to older children and adults. The child during the pre-operational stage only possesses preconceptions.

Question 3.
Define the sensory-motor period.
Answer:
Sensory-Motor Period:
The sensory-motor period is the period that starts before the language development of the child. Piaget distinguished between two major stages in cognitive development i.e., sensory-motor intelligence (0-2 years) and conceptual intelligence (0-to Maturity). During the sensory-motor period, the child’s adaptations and activities do not involve extensive use of symbols or language.

For example, the ability of a 9-month-old baby to search for a missing toy under the bed or to move a blanket towards him to get the toy that is kept on the other end of the blanket is an act of intelligence that does not require any language. In this manner through various sensory-motor acts, the baby solves and adapts to various demands of life.

These acts are considered pre-verbal. The sensory-motor period extends approximately from birth to -2 years of age approximately. It is divided into six phases. Through these six stages, a gradually complex pattern of intellectual behavior develops. The first four stages of the sensory-motor period are generally achieved during the first year.

Reflex – (0 – 1 month):
During this stage, innate and simple reflexes like sucking movements become more prominently seen, for the first month the infant only exercises the reflexes present at birth. This is the only mental organization at this age according to Piaget. Besides sucking (reflex) the nipple put inside the infant’s mouth, other reflexes are crying, grasping, movement of arms, trunks, and head, etc.

All stimuli the infant faces in the environment are reacted through these reflex activities present at birth. These unlearned inborn reflexes constitute the major adaptive behavior of the infant.

Primary Circular Reaction (1-4 months):
This stage extends roughly from the age of one month to 0-4 months after birth. During this period simple activities are characterized by repeated acts. The same activity or reaction like sucking, fingering the bed sheet, and opening and closing of the fists are done repeatedly. These activities the child does without any purpose or intention.

He also appears not to be interested in the effect that his behavior has on the environment around him. His activities lack purpose and he makes simple coordinated movements. Particularly thumb sucking becomes habitual. Thus the primary circular reaction stage involves the coordination of responses and reflexes. There is eye-hand coordination. When he hears something he looks in that direction which is called orienting reflex. He grasps objects and sucks them.

Secondary Circular Reaction (4 to 8 months):
This is the third stage of the sensory-motor period, which extends from four to eight months approximately. In contrast to the second stage in this phase, the child is able to anticipate the consequences of his actions. After about four months of postnatal age, the infant starts making purposeful movements and intentionally repeats responses to achieve some end.

For instance, grasping activities are extended to pulling and shaking, etc. He may kick his legs at a toy to make astringing movements hanging in front of him. The child repeats responses to get some meaningful and interesting results. Most of the movements of the hand-eye and mouth are coordinated. His interest and attention are now shifted to objects outside his body.

Intentionality is the main characteristic of this stage which differentiates it from the second stage of the sensory-motor period. He repeats various activities to produce changes in his environment. He looks for toys and Other objects in which he is interested in places where he has seen them being kept earlier.

For instance, if he is interested in a pen kept on the small table, he may try to reach for it there. In the second stage, the act was repeated for its own sake without any intent or purpose while here the aim is to produce an interesting stimulus effect. Piaget names this act as reproductive assimilation meaning the child tries to reproduce events with an intention.

Now he is more interested in the objective world around him of which he was not aware in the earlier stages. These are all signs of intellectual development. Actions of this stage are called secondary as they are an amalgamation of images previously developed. Reactions are called circular because they are repetitive and self-reinforcing (Philips -1969).

Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (7-10 months):
In this stage, there is further development in the child’s mental activity. He starts solving simple problems and shows capability for the same. He uses already-learned responses to achieve a goal. A cigarette packet kept in daddy’s shirt’s front pocket earlier was hidden behind a pillow. Now when he does not sec it in daddy’s, he will try to search for it behind the pillow.

Here he uses his earlier learning of moving the pillow to get an object. The child understands that means are separate from ends and also forms a means-end relationship which is a sign of developed intellectual behavior, in this stage, he uses his learned response as a means to attain the desired goal (getting the toy) and not as an end in itself.

In this stage, he will with all seriousness do the job to achieve something in mind. He will try to overcome all obstacles to get the desired object. Thus his behavior shows greater intentionality. he shows the ability to anticipate. New objects are incorporated into the already existing schemata of the child. He shows lots of interest in different objects and play materials, and examines those in which he is interested.

He learns the shape, and size of the objects thus acquiring constancy of the shape and size of objects. He leams that an object exists in space even if it cannot be seen directly. This is a very important sign of improvement in the cognitive ability of the baby. This type of reaction indicates the rudiments of reasoning and anticipatory behavior.

Tertiary Circular Reactions (11-18 months):
This stage is characterized by active trial and error, experimentation like exploration, variation, and change of behavior. By the age of one year, the child seems to be really interested in new things and demonstrates a great deal of curiosity which indicate his operations at a higher level. He starts forming new schemata to solve new problems.

He will not play with the same toys again and again. In the earlier stages, he was repeatedly playing with the same toys. Now he wants new toys every day to play with and explore. He breaks toys to see what is inside. He would try to open toy cars, telephones, piano, etc, and then again would try to put them in order.

The child tries to experiment through trial and error methods to develop new means of reaching the end. Develops curiosity about different objects around him, and tries to know about them by asking questions like “what is this”, in the case of every object. He tries to solve various simple problems like opening a small pencil box, opening.

Question 4.
What is the period of institutional thought and concrete operative stage?
Answer:
Period of Intuitive Thought:
This stage lasts for 4 to 7 or 8 years, concepts develop more at his stage. He elaborates his concepts, thoughts, images and more complex representations are constructed. Now he is capable of grouping objects together into classes as per his own perception of similarity. Now he gathers some ideas about class membership and objects included in that particular class.

The child uses quantifiers such as some, all, more little, less, etc when Anurag who is now 26 months old eats a mixture, we put them one by one in his mouth, but he wants to eat more, says give me more or when a full spoon of rice is put inside his mouth, he says “give me less otherwise it will be stuck in my throat and I will have vomiting.”

Here he draws logical conclusions like if you give me more, it will stick inside my throat and I will vomit “If you go away I will cry”. However, in most children, this ability to draw logical conclusions at this stage is very very limited. His understanding is still comprehended objects or situations, from one angle only as discussed earlier.

A child of two years of age very well knows the existence of an object even if it is hidden from him. Even if the moon is not found in the sky in the daytime or during certain periods of the month, he knows that the moon stays in the sky because he asks his mama or grandma to show him the moon in the sky.

Irreversibility is the most important characteristic of the pre-operational stage according to Piaget. Reversibility refers to the ability of the child to main fair equivalence to perceive the object in a stereo-typed manner in spite of the change in the perceptual field. If papa is taller than Mama, then mama is shorter than Papa, and he is unable to accept, understand or conceive.

Thus during the age of 4 to 7 years, he does not develop the concept of invariance. Gradually his language develops and his thought processes become less entered. Conservation refers to the conceptualization that the quantity remains the same in spite of any change in the shape or position of the object.

Conservation of number appears around the age of 6-7 years. The conservation ability of the child can be increased through instruction and using various reinforcement techniques. But Piaget said that conservation comes mainly through experience, manipulation, and exposure, not by teaching the child how to conserve.

No difference is observed in the conservation ability of children of the same age who go to school and who remain at home. This happens for all cultures in the world. Further pre operational children are qualitatively different from sensory-motor children in thought.

Language helps tremendously in mental development at this stage. Piaget is of opinion that language serves three major purposes in mental development.

• It helps in the socialization process.
• The child thinks by using words and signs.
• Action is more internalized and symbolized rather than perceptual motor because of language development. Language facilitates logical thought.

Between the age of 2 to 4 years, the child’s speech is mostly egocentric. He speaks to himself even when no one is present. In all his talk he says “It is mine I have done this, where is my toy, my mama, my papa, my pencil, my rocket, etc? He is not concerned about others. His speech does not mention others. But between 4 to 7 years of age language becomes more communicative.

He talks with others and exchanges ideas. Instead of ‘I’, I mine more and more your, you, he, she, mama, papa, etc. are used in language and speech. Thus their speech becomes more and more socialized between the age of 4-7 years. Socialization starts speedily after language is developed. Through language, the child begins better communication with family members peers, and outsiders.

He is now able to express his thought and images through language. Bernstein’s observations on class differences in children’s language ability indicate that lower-class children perform relatively more poorly than their middle-class counterparts on tasks involving cognitive functioning i.e., thinkings, reasoning, conceptualization, and on standard intelligent tests which depend upon language skills.

This gap between the middle and lower classes becomes more significant with an increase in age. Culture has also a pronounced effect on intellectual development. Culturally deprived and disadvantaged environments produce and maintain progressive retardation in the area of intelligence, cognitive development, and school achievement.

Hers and Shipman (1965) conducted some very important research in America the results of which confirmed Bernstein’s findings. But certain studies show that with concentrated individual training, the effects of early deprivation can be overcome and market gain can be observed in intellectual functioning. (Blank and Soloman, 1968).

Concrete Operation Stage:
The concrete operation stage starts from 7 years and continues up to 11-12 years. Real symbolic activity emerges during this period. Improvement in language ability helps in mediation, concept formation, abstraction, and problem-solving, children at this age instruct and direct themselves through silent talking and covert speech.

During the concrete operation stage when the child reaches 7 years of age, he begins to relate different aspects of a situation to one another and at last arrives at a “notion of conservation”. Piaget calls this principle of invariance. Suppose the child is making different shapes of animals from a particular amount of clay which remains constant, say an elephant or a dog or a horse.

The child now understands that whatever may be the figure or shape the amount of clay remains constant, the figure may vary, but the clay is the same. He could not have had this idea in the earlier period. A five-year-old child believes that.

Question 5.
What is creative thinking and describe the stage and characteristics of creative thinking?
Answer:
Creative Thinking:
Creative thinking refers to the ability to explore the situation in a novel way to contribute something new to society and mankind. It becomes explosive in the performance of a person. A creative person tries to achieve something new, to produce something original, something unique.

Creative thinkers are great boons to society. Creative thinking is a must for the progress and prosperity of any country. The advancement of science and technology in any country is the outcome of creative thinking. On the whole, creativity is a characteristic of thought and of problem-solving, generally considered to include originality, novelty, and appropriateness.

It is the process of developing original level and yet appropriate responses to a problem. However, unless an original and novel solution is appropriate, it can not be termed creative. An appropriate response is one that is deemed reasonable in terms of the situation.

Stages in Creativity:
Morris Stein (1974) has defined creativity as a process involving three stages:

• hypothesis formation
• hypothesis testing and
• communication of results.

In hypothesis formation, people try to formulate a new response to the problem. However, finding a new response to a problem is not an easy affair. Individuals have to confront situations and try to think in non-stereotyped ways. They have to explore paths that have not been explored before and think in new ways. Creative persons sometimes experience a sudden brilliant illumination.

The creative person may be a scientist, an artist, or an artisan. But new ideas (or hypotheses) have to be tested against reality. At this stage, applying the criterion of appropriateness is crucial. If the result is novel, original, and appropriate, the individual can move towards the third stage i.e., communication of results. Communicating the idea is sometimes straightforward.

Very often, the process requires extensive explanation. Characteristics vary with creative people. Understanding the thought processes of creative individuals may allow psychologists to help others to become creative. Further, identifying the characteristics of creative individuals may allow psychologists and educators to spot these gifted persons early in life and facilitate the development of their creative abilities.

Research works of psychologists reveal that creative people are flexible in their approach to a problem. They do not use preconceived solutions. These people always desire a complex array of thoughts, ideas, and data (Dallas & Gaier, 1970). Moreover, creative people approach problem-solving in unique ways.

Guilford (1967) has defined creative thinking as a form of thought that is divergent. Guilford reveals that divergent thinking is the production of new information from known information or the generation of logical possibilities which serve as the basis of creativity. Emphatically he told that divergent thinking occurs in response to a problem that as yet is not defined.

The divergent mode of thinking is the essence of creative performance. From different studies, it was found that there is no significant difference between normal and creative people so far as brain-wave patterns are concerned. There is no firm evidence that creative people are either more or less intelligent than other people.

The data relating to IQ scores and creativity are inconclusive. Some studies have found a distinction between creativity and intelligence test scores others have shown a positive correlation. Creative people tend to be independent non-conformists, experiencing great tension and strong opposite drives.

Henry Poincare, the great French Mathematician experienced the following stages of creative thinking. These stages have been obtained through questionnaires, interviews, and the introspection of creative thinkers. Though these stages of creative thinking vary from individual to individual and problem to problem, still there are some common stages of creative thinking.
These stages are:

• Preparation
• Incubation
• Inspiration or Illumination
• Evaluation
• Verification or Revision.

Preparation:
The first step of creative thinking is preparation. Education prepares an individual for creative work. The training that a doctor, an engineer, and a scientist gets through education, takes them in a new direction and opens new vistas for them. Moreover, formulation of a problem, collection of information, a survey of relevant work in the concerned field, preliminary knowledge of the subject, and trial and error method are all essential for creative thinking. According to Edison, preparation provides much inspiration for creative work. It is the foundation for creative thinking.

Incubation:
This is the second stage of creative thinking. In this stage, there is an almost complete absence of overt activity. Conscious thought about the problem is totally absent. This is said to be a period of no progress. But the thinker is not aware of the progress. Some experts opine that though the creative thinker does not think consciously about his creation, the problem is solved without his awareness. This is how many problems are solved while we are asleep. In this span of time, the ideas which were interfering with the solution to the problem tend to fade.

Inspiration or Illumination:
In a sudden flash, creative ideas come to mind after the period of incubation. If you were unable to solve a mathematical problem yesterday, now all of a sudden the solution comes to your mind abruptly. Very often, new ideas come in the dream, when the person is in the subconscious stage. For creative people, these sudden ideas are very crucial. The period of inspiration is often proceeded by a certain amount of trial and error. Some experts view that trial and error activity does not, anyway, supplement creative thinking. However, inspiration provides a specific direction toward the goal and it makes the person think in that direction.

Evaluation:
This is the fourth stage of thinking. Here the thinker tries to find out whether the solution which comes to his mind is correct or not. Very often, the apparent solution proves to be wrong. When the thinker feels that it is wrong, then he goes back to the first stage of creative thinking i.e., the preparatory stage.

Verification:
It is the individual finds that the solution is correct, then it is accepted. If it is proven wrong, then he thinks that it does not suit the assumption. As a result, he has to start again from the beginning. In certain cases, he may invite some modifications or revisions. Some observations indicate that ‘inspiration’ comes as the last stage of creative thinking instead of ‘verification’. But studies reveal that it becomes necessary to evaluate the process of creative thinking in most cases.

Characteristics of Creative Thinkers:
Generally, creative people are high in intellectual ability, but they are not necessarily in the highest brackets measured by these tests. Many creative people are talented in some special way – in music or in literature. In other words, they have certain specific abilities that they can use in their search for new ideas.

No doubt, many creative thoughts come as sudden insights. But such ‘ flashes’ are more likely after hard thinking about a problem. So in one way, diligence and strong motivation to work at solving problems are characteristics of creative thinkers. Further, creative thinkers have some personality features in common. Evidence from personality tests indicates that these people have the following traits:

• They prefer complexity.
• They are more complex psychodynamically and have greater personal scope.
• They are more independent in their judgments.
• They are more self-assertive and dominant.
• They reject suppression as a mechanism for the control of impulses. (Barron, 1963).

In 1975, Welsh revealed that a personality dimension “origins” is related to creativity. An individual high on this dimension resists conventional approaches which have been determined by others. Such a person is more interested in artistic, literary, and aesthetic matters.

Question 6.
Describe the stages of cognitive development by Piaget.
Answer:
Piaget is a development theorist who believes that cognitive development occurs gradually phase by phase.
Piaget has divided the entire period of cognitive development into four basic stages.

1. The sensory-motor period is 0-2 years approximately.
2. Preoperational period 2-7years approximately.
3. Concrete operational period 7-12 years approximately
4. The formal operational period is 12 years above approximately.

Sensory motor period:
The sensory-motor period is the period that starts before the language development of the child. Piaget distinguished between 2 major stages in cognitive development that is sensory-motor intelligence (0-2 years) and conceptual intelligence (0-10 maturity). During the sensory-motor period, the child’s adaptions and activities don’t involve extensive use of symbols or language.

It is divided into six phases:
Reflex (0-1) month:
During this stage, innate and simple reflexes of live sucking movements become more prominently seen.

Primary circulation reaction (1-4) months:
This stage extends roughly from the age of one month to 0-1 month after birth.

Secondary circular reaction (4 to 8 months):
This is the 3rd. stage of the sensory-motor period who extends from four to eight months approximately.

Coordination of secondary circular reactions (7-10 months):
In this stage, there is further development in the child’s mental activity.

Tertiary circular reactions (11-18 months):
This stage is characterized by active trial and error, experimentation like exploration, variation, and change of behavior.

Internal mental combination (18-24 months):
This is the final and most advanced stage.

Pre-operational period:
The preoperational period extends from two to seven years. The first part of this stage is also known as the pre-conceptual period. It is characterized by the use of language and symbolic function. These two are built upon the systematic use of representation which begins in the last stage of sensory-motor operation.

Pre-conceptual refers to the beginning of symbolization in thinking. It is the period of the use of symbols in thinking or the preparatory stage for the same. Actually, the pre-operational stage extends from the end of the sixth stage of the sensory-motor period which is about 18 months to 1 year of age to 6 or 7 years.

The pre-operational period is subdivided into

• The pre-conceptual period roughly lasts 2-4 years.
• Initiative 4-7 years.

By the time the child reaches the pre-conceptual period he has mastered some language that he uses in his thinking process as a symbolic unit.

Period of intuitive Thought:
This stage lasts for 4 to 7 or 8 years. Concepts develop more at this stage. He elaborates his concepts, thoughts images, and more complex representations are constructed. Now he is capable of grouping objects together into classes as per his own perception of similarity. Now he gathers some ideas about class membership and objects included in that particular class.

The chi Id uses quantifiers such as some, all, more little, less, etc. when Anurag who is now 26 months, old cats mixture we put one by one in his mouth, but he wants to eat more sayS, give me more or when a full spoon of rice is put inside his mouth, he says, “give me less. Otherwise, it will stuck in my throat and I will have to vomit.”

Concrete operation Stage:
The concrete operation stage starts from 7 years and continues up to 11-12 years. Real symbolic activity emerges during this period. Improvement in language ability helps in mediation, concept formation, abstraction, and problem-solving, children at this age instruct and direct them through silent talking and covert speech. During the concrete operation stage when the child reaches 7 years of age, he begins to relate different aspects of a situation to one another and at last arrives at a “notion of conservation” Piaget catches this principle in this stage.

Formal operation stage (11 years and above):
After the age of 11, the child is capable of abstract thinking and reasoning. In the concrete operations stage, he uses logic and reasoning in an elementary way, applying them in the manipulation of concrete objects.

Question 7:
Define thinking as a problem-solving behavior and its steps involved in problem-solving.
Answer:
The problem means any conflict or difference between one situation and the goal is a problem. T}ie thinking that we do in problem-solving is goal-directed. For solving problems, we use some rules. But two rules are important algorithms and heuristics. An algorithm is a set of rules which if followed correctly will guarantee a solution to a problem.

Thinking is initiated by a problem and ends with a solution. The individual while interacting with the environment needs to solve several problems and fulfill goals and motives. But the satisfaction of various needs and desires is not so easily done. Sometimes using a face barrier to the goal blocks the satisfaction of a motive.

There is no readymade or immediate means to cross the barrier and reach the goal. Thus, the individual is faced with a problem. The problem is how to cross the barrier. For the solution to this problem, the person has to take recourse to some psychological process which helps in removing the obstacle from the way to the goal. This very psychological process is called thinking or problem-solving behavior.

Steps involved in problem-solving
Problem:
To start thinking the basic requirement is the perception of a problem. The ‘ S ’ or the individual must be interested to solve the problem. He must understand the importance of the problem.

Formulation of a Hypothesis:
The ‘S’ must analyze and review the problem from various angles and standpoints. Certain assumptions are made regarding the final outcome. These assumptions are called hypotheses.

Preparation:
Preparation includes assembling the tools or materials required to solve the problem. New ideas crystalize at this stage.

Possible solutions:
In this stage, this subject is engaged in finding out the solution. A variety of solutions may come to his mind.

Evaluation:
This stage includes checking the hypothesis against the obtained solution.

Testing and Revision of the solution:
Tentative solutions are carefully tested before they are accepted for practical use. All these steps are blended and interwoven in most problem-solving behaviors.

Question 8.
Define strategies in problem-solving and describe the different factors in helping problem-solving.
Answer:
While trying to solve a problem, the person seeks a strategy or systematic mode of attacking the problem:
Problem-solving as Gap Filling:
Bart left on the basis of his research on the thinking process has concluded that all problem-solving appears to illustrate one or more of B kinds of gap-filling processes.

Structures in problem-solving:
Problem-solving has been regarded as essentially a process of thinking in Structure.

Problem-solving involves trial and error:
When a problem becomes quite difficult for the S to solve only by thinking, the S may be engaged in random. Trial and error, the case of Thorndike’s cat in the puzzle box serves as an example of physical trial and error.

Problem-solving and insight:
In many problem-solving experiments, it has been found the solution to the problem comes suddenly without any observable trial and error.

Problem-solving involves concepts:
By manipulating concepts, problems are solved easily. According to Crovitz, “practice with the method of manipulating, concepts increases the ability to solve problems easily.

Factors in helping problem-solving behavior:
Every person’s thinking takes place in his own unique, background and psychological setup like the attitude, belief, motive, past experience, and mental set of the thinker.

Motivation:
Like learning motivation is one of the most important factors which make problem-solving easy by giving it direction. It directs behavior toward the goal. Tinking is always motivated by some problems.

Past Experience:
The positive transfer effect facilitates problem-solving a great deal. Acquisitions of the past in similar situations are generalized in the present situation. This makes it easier to solve the problem.

Personal Context:
Milton (1959) conducted a study to compare the responses of men and women to problems appropriate to masculine and feminine roles. Results show the influence of an individual’s personal context on his problem-solving behavior.

Mental Set:
The importance of a set as a preparatory adjustment for performing a task has been shown in diverse fields of different psychological experiments. Set because of its facilitatory or inhibitory effect has occupied an outstanding position in the psychology of thinking.

Question 9.
Define psychological or personal motive.
Answer:
Curiosity:
Curiosity is a psychological motive. It is a motivational tendency to act which does not have specific and indefinable goals. Behind any act of exploration, investigation, and research, there is a desire to know any curiosity. Research findings of Dember (1956) and Fowler (1958) revealed that rats preferred novelty, change, and complexity in Y and T mazes. It is not an exclusively human trait.

Animal experiments proved that curiosity behavior is also found in many animals (Buttler, 1954). Curiosity motives for sensory stimulation are also conducive to the motive for exploration. Evidence indicated that the curiosity motive can be unlearned. The need for changing sensory stimulation is closely related to curiosity. It is the basic motive. Exploration and curiosity are just two expressions of it. Very often, we are motivated to master challenges in the environment. This is called “Competence Motivation”.

Achievement Motivation:
The need for achievement causes individuals to strive for bigger and better accomplishments. It is a personal need that directs a person to strive constantly for excellence and success. It is a personality variable that appears to differ from one individual to another. Some people are highly achievement-oriented and competence-oriented and others are not so.

Need for Achievement:
It is a personal need that directs a person to strive constantly for excellence and success. This motive has been subjected to intensive study by a group of Harvard psychologists like David Me Cleveland and John Atkinson. They used projective tests to asses achievement motivation. Many studies have been done to find out the relationship between achievement motivation and performance.

Generally, people with a need for achievement seek to accomplish things and improve performance. The results of these studies revealed that people who are high in achievement motivation generally do better on tasks than those who are low. Further studies also revealed that people high in need for achievement are motivated to succeed.

Research works also indicated that the need for achievement is increased by independence, training, and self-dependent attitudes. Me Cleveland has found that the need for achievement is also related positively to the higher economic status of the society. Experts also revealed that both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are closely related to achievement motivation.

Self-actualization:
A humanistic approach to motive was developed by Maslow (1954). It is very important for its practical value. His humanistic model is popularly known as the theory of ‘self-actualization’. Maslow’s approach was unique. He attempted to portray a total picture of human behavior.

Maslow tried to explain human motives or needs by arranging them in a hierarchy. His arrangement was made in the order of potency and priority of unsatisfied human needs. The most basic aspects of human motivation are physiological needs and at the highest level, the desire to utilize one’s personal capacities is found.

Here the individual develops his potentialities to the fullest and engages in activities for which he is well-studied.’ This level is called ‘self-actualization’. Maslow’s approach reveals that every category of need has a limited capacity to motivate behavior. Beyond this point of limitation, it is necessary to involve a higher category of need.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 History Solutions Unit 3 Changing Traditions Objective & Short Answer Type Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 3 Changing Traditions Objective & Short Answer Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Where was Jesus Christ born?
(a) Bethelham
(b) Galilee
(c) Nazareth
(d) Madina
Answer:
(a) Bethlehem

Question 2.
Who was the king of Judea during the time of Jesus’s birth?
(a) Herod
(b) B John
(c) Nero
(d) Constantine
Answer:
(a) Herod

Question 3.
By whom Jesus Christ was baptised?
(a) John
(b) Saint Peter
(c) Pontius Pillate
(d) Moses
Answer:
(a) John

Question 4.
Which of the following is called the temple of Jeusish?
(a) Pyramid
(b) Masque
(c) Church
(d) Synagogus
Answer:
(d) Synagogus

Question 5.
When did the Gospels come to be complied?
(a) 1st Century A.D.
(b) 2nd Century A.D.
(c) 3rd Century A.D.
(d) 4th CenturyA.D.
Answer:
(a) 1st Century A.D.

Question 6.
What was the previous name of Paul?
(a) Peter
(b) Saul
(c) Mark
(d) Mathew
Answer:
(b) Saul

Question 7.
When was Prophet Mohammed born?
(a) 570 A.D.
(b) 610 A.D.
(c) 622 A.D.
(d) 632A.D.
Answer:
(a) 570 A.D.

Question 8.
Who brought up Mohammed when he was a child?
(a) Abutalib
(b) Abu Bakr
(c) Omar
(d) AK
Answer:
(a) Abutalib

Question 9.
Which of the following events is called as“Hijrat”?
(a) Meditation at Mount Hira.
(b) Advice of Angel Gabriel.
(c) Journey of Mohammed to Medina.
(d) Mohammed’s acquisition of knowledge.
Answer:
(c) Journey of Mohammed to Medina.

Question 10.
How many chapters of suras are there in Koran?
(a) 112
(b) 113
(c) 114
(d) 115
Answer:
(c) 114

Question 11.
What is Haj?
(a) Holy tax giving on wealth.
(b) Visit to Mecca once in lifetime.
(c) Fasting in the month of Ramzan.
(d) Prayer for five times a day.
Answer:
(b) Visit to Mecca once in lifetime.

Question 12.
Who was the first caliph of Islamic religion?
(a) Abu Bakr
(b) Omar
(c) AH
(d) Abdulla
Answer:
(a) Abu Bakr

Question 13.
Who was the first order of society in Europe?
(a) Knight
(b) People ofState
(c) Clevgy
(d) Monk
Answer:
(c) Clevgy

Question 14.
Doon de Mayence a 13th century poem recounting the adventures of______.
(a) People
(b) Clergy
(c) Knights
(d) Soldier
Answer:
(c) Knights

Question 15.
The word monastery derived from the Greek word_______.
(a) Monos
(b) Mono
(c) Mana
(d) Manas
Answer:
(a) Monos

Question 16.
In Benedictine monastries of France this are________chapter of rules which were followed by monks.
(a) 74
(b) 73
(c) 75
(d) 80
Answer:
(b) 73

Question 17.
Who has written Canterbury tales?
(a) Geoflry Chaucer
(b) Beowolf
(c) Shakespeare
(d) Flowman
Answer:
(a) Geoflry Chaucer

Question 18.
Who has written piers Floman contrasting the ease and luxury lives of some monks.
(a) Geoflry Chaucer
(b) Langland
(c) Shakespeare
(d) Flowman
Answer:
(b) Langland

Question 19.
Which period is known as Black death?
(a) 1347-50
(b) 1347-58
(c) 1347-60
(d) 1347-90
Answer:
(a) 1347-50

Question 20.
In which year peasant revolted?
(a) 1380
(b) 1381
(c) 1375
(d) 1395
Answer:
(b) 1381

Question 21.
Who is given the ‘poet laureate’ title in Rome in the year 1341.
(a) Georflry Chaucer
(b) Ottonman
(c) Petrach
(d) Leonoardo
Answer:
(c) Petrach

Question 22.
What was the name of the painting of Leonardo da vinici?
(a) Monalisa
(b) The Last Super
(c) Manarch
(d) Both A&B
Answer:
(d) Both A&B

Question 23.
When Thomas More’s Utopia was published?
(a) 1516
(b) 1517
(c) 1522
(d) 1518
Answer:
(a) 1516

Question 24.
Who has published the Principia Mathematica book?
(a) Issac Newton
(b) Luther
(c) Gregorian
(d) Harvey
Answer:
(a) Issac Newton

Question 25.
When Gregorian calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII?
(a) 1582
(b) 1583
(c) 1584
(d) 1589
Answer:
(a)1582

Question 26.
Where Academy of Science was set up?
(a) France
(b) Italy
(c) Paris
(d) England
Answer:
(c) Paris

Question 27.
Who translated the Bible into German?
(a) Luther
(b) Harvey
(c) Issac
(d) More
Answer:
(a) Luther

Question 28.
In which new Columbus discovered India?
(a) Santa Maria
(b) Santa Cruise
(c) Santa Merry
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Santa Maria

Question 29.
Where did Vasco da Gama reach in India?
(a) Calicut
(b) Kozhikode
(c) Both Calicut or Kozhikode
(d) None
Answer:
(c) Both Calicut or Kozhikode

Question 30.
In which year Cortes defeats Aztecs?
(a) 1520
(b) 1521
(c) 1530
(d) 1533
Answer:
(b) 1521

True or False Type Questions with Answers

Question 1.
Jesus is not called Nazareth.
Answer:
False

Question 2.
Jesus spent 25 years of Nazareth.
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Christians sacred text is Bible.
Answer:
True

Question 4.
Muslims sacred text is Koran.
Answer:
True

Question 5.
Islam is based on principles of Namaz, Zakat, Ramzan and Haj.
Answer:
True

Question 6.
Christians believe that three days after Jesus death, he came back to life.
Answer:
True

Question 7.
At age 40 years Jesus baptised by John.
Answer:
False

Question 8.
At age 30 years Jesus baptised by John.
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Mohammed died in 630 AD.
Answer:
False

Question 10.
Mohammed died in 632 AD.
Answer:
True

Question 11.
Clovis became king of France in 481.
Answer:
True

Question 12.
Nomans defeat Anglo Saxons and conquer England in 1068.
Answer:
False

Question 13.
Nomans defeat Anglo Saxons and conquer England in 1066.
Answer:
True

Question 14.
Leon Batista Albeti wrote an art theory and architecture.
Answer:
True

Question 15.
Niccala Machiavelli wrote about human nature in his books Human’.
Answer:
False

Question 16.
Niccala Machiavelli wrote about human nature in his books “The Prince”.
Answer:
True

Question 17.
Gregorian calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII.
Answer:
True

Question 18.
Issac Newton’s Principia Mathematica was published in 1688.
Answer:
False

Question 19.
Issac Newton’s Principia Mathematica was published in 1687.
Answer:
True

Question 20.
Balboa crosses Panama Isthmus sights pacific ocean in 1513.
Answer:
True

Question 21.
John Caborts Englishman explores North American coast.
Answer:
True

Question 22.
True History of the conquest of Mexico was written by Bernard Diaz Del Castello.
Answer:
True

Short type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Write some rules of Benedictine monasteries of 13 rules for monks?
Answer:
Rules are:
(a) Permission to speak should rarely be granted to monks.
(b) Humility means obedience.
(c) No monk should own private property.
(d) Idleness is the enemy of sould.

Question 2.
Where did monk lived?
Answer:
Monk lived in religious communities called abbeys or monasteries, often in places very far from human habitation.

Question 3.
What are two well known monasteries?
Answer:
Two of the well known monasteries were those establised by St. Benedict in Italy and of Cluny in Burgundy.

Question 4.
Why France and England were often at war?
Answer:
William, the Duke of Normandy, crossed the English Channel with an army and defeated the Saxon king of England often at war because of disputes over territory and trade.

Question 5.
What was the famous Catherdal in England then?
Answer:
Salisbury Cathedral.

Question 6.
Whom Historians called the new monarchs and why?
Answer:
In 15th and 16th centuries European kings strengthened their military and financial power. They created powerful new states in Europe. They are Louix XI in France, Maximellionin Austria Henry VII in England and Isabella and Ferdin and in Spain.

Question 7.
Who had written the book “The Prince”?
Answer:
Niccola Machiavelli wrote about the human nature in fifteenth chapter of his book “The Prince”.

Question 8.
What is the meaning of Nao?
Answer:
Nao means a heavy ship in Spanish. It is derived from Arabic and this is explained by the fact of Arab occupation of the region till 1492.

Question 9.
Which place does Calumbus claim to be Spain?
Answer:
Bahama Island and Cuba.

Question 10.
Who is Dona Marina?
Answer:
The people of Tabasco gave Cortes a woman attendant called Dona Marina. She was fluent in three local languages and was able to play a crucial role as an interpreter of Cortes. Without Dona Marina, we could not have understood the language of New Spain and Mexico.

Question 11.
What is the meaning of Malinchista?
Answer:
It means someone who slavishly copies the costumes and language of other people.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part 2.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Define meaning, the definition of motivation, and the goals of motivation.
Answer:
All these motivational terms regulate the behavior of a person. When we say one is motivated, we mean to say that he is driven or moved to an act by an inner control urge or force as in the case of the writer just discussed. In any action, except a simple reflex, the ‘O’ is guided by certain underlying internal conditions.

They direct the ‘O’ toward specific goals. In the opinion of Bunch (1958) a drive or a motive is a “persistent behavior which appears to be dominated by the time being by a relatively limited group of stimuli acting on the organism.” Motivation is derived from the Latin word “Movere” which means to move.

In the literal sense, it is a process that arouses the energy or drives in the individual to proceed in an activity. The activity aroused, fulfills the need, and reduces the drive or tension. Until it has not fulfilled the need, the drive is not reduced. P.T. Young has defined motivation as the process of arousing an action, sustaining the activity in progress, and regulating the pattern of activity.

Let us take the case of hunger which is a common biological motive. When one is hungry, the need is food. This need creates internal physiological changes in the ‘ O’ which induces a drive. This drive goal or directs the ‘O’ to search for food: When the food is available, the hunger needs is fulfilled and the drive is reduced and the activity ceases then and there.

A motivated act is completed When the goal is reached. Take the case of Thomdike’s eats. Only when the cat is hungry or has the need to escape out ofthe problem box, it tries to open the door. Otherwise, the cat may simply sleep inside the problem box very peacefully. Lashley (1938). He indicated that motivated behavior does not consist simply of chains of stimulus-response sequences.

Conditions within ‘O’ change his response to a particular stimulus at a particular moment. That is why the same person may show different types of responses to the same stimulus on different occasions. Motivation also varies from person to person. Freud, Young, Woodworth, and McDougall, all are of opinion that every action has an underlying cause behind it.

Every learning goal-oriented. Motivation is the superhighway to learning. So Thompson remarked, “All our behaviors are controlled from within the organism by primary motives and the secondary motives are determined by external stimuli.” McDougall and Freud both treated motivation in terms of energy, a conception That has persisted in the psychology of motivation down to the present time.

Freud stated that this energy is derived from a general reservoir of sexual motivation, the libido which is further supplied to all other behavior. McDougall said that all motives are purposive and directed towards a goal. “He led the foundation stone to the idea of motivational energy, the varieties of its expression, and the physiological mechanisms through which it operates.” (Kimbel and Germany 1980).

According to Atkinson (1958), the term motivation refers to the arousal ofthe tendency to act to produce one or more effects. Murphy considered motivation as the general name for the fact that an organism’s act is partly determined by its own nature and internal structure. N.R.F. Maier says that motivation is the process by which the expression of behavior is determined or future expression is influenced by consequences to which such behavior leads.

According to Guilford (1960), all the internal conditions that stir up activity and sustain activity come under motivation. Internal stimulation for motivation is essential while external stimulus may be of secondary importance. Like, if you are hungry, you will definitely search for food. Otherwise, food in the external environment will not motivate you.

Underwood (1968) gives the following operational definition of motivation. The classes of operations used to produce and measure changes in performance and changes in energy output. Maslow held that motivated behavior is need-related and need-based. I Ic also talked about the hierarchy of motives.

Maier defined motivation as a goal-directed activity. Young tried to define motive in a wider sense. He believed that “motivation is the process of arousing the action, sustaining the activity in progress, and regulating the pattern of activity”. New Comb has defined motive as “a state of the ‘O’ in which bodily energy is mobilized and selectively directed towards parts of the environment”.

According to Morgan and King (1975), “Motivation refers to states within a person or animal that drives behavior towards some goal”.
Thus, in the process of motivation, the following stages have involved

• a state that drives behavior or drives
• arousal of behavior by this physiological state, and
• the direction of the behavior toward a specific or selective goal is found. This definition more or less deals with the aspects of the motivational process.

Drive:
Drive is a psychological state, a tateWhjph leads one to activity. This State of the body leads the ‘O’ to a certain specific and selective activity that produces tension. When one is thirsty, if he is given food instead of water, it may not reduce his driving state. His activity is specifically directed towards getting a glass of water for the reduction of thirst drive. Drive is pure energy that is mobilized and made available for activity. Drive is further a consequence of unsatisfied needs. Only art unsatisfied need generates a drive.

Goal Or Incentive:
According to Ruch (1970), “A goal refers to some substance, objects or environmental initiated action. “Skinner and Bugelski have shown symbolic incentives in rats temporarily eliminating the complexity of internal conditions which initiated action, “Briefly, a goal is a reward, an incentive, or a motivation towards which behavior is directed.

The term incentive refers demotivational value of reinforcer. Without an incentive or reinforcer, motivation cannot be fulfilled, the incentive may be positive or negative, like food and electric shock or reward and punishment. It may be material, semi-material or non-material. It may also be verbal, non-verbal, biological, or social.

The incentive may be symbolic also when it does not have direct reinforcing power. Token experiments by Wulfe (1936) and Cowles (1937) have proved this, By achieving the goal through I the incentive satisfaction of the motive takes place. The goal or incentive varies with die nature of the drive. For hunger, food is the goal, for thirst water, sex mate and maternal-drive children, etc. are considered as goals.

A goal may be distant or near. It may be a long-range behavior sequence or a short-range behavior sequence or a short-range behavior sequence. Usually, near goals act as a better motivating factor than distant goals. In any process of motivation, we find this need, drive, and incentive (goal) sequence.

These three are indispensable for the process of motivation to operate and to be completed. Without a need, there cannot be a drive and without a drive, the behavior cannot be goal-oriented. Finally, without a goal or incentive, a motive cannot function successfully. Thus, it is aided by Hull that all learnings are purposive.

Question 2.
Define the meaning and definition of emotion and describe the nature or characteristics of emotion.
Answer:
Emotion:
Meaning, operational definition, and nature of emotion:
The only child of a woman dies in a road accident. She is so disturbed by this, pathetic incident that she sits like a statue for days together, completely motionless. Then one day her dead body is found inside a well. An old man, at last, is ruined by his long-lost son. He just cries and cries, not out of misery but in happiness.

The first incident indicates emotions of sorrow, distress, and unhappiness, and the second one of happiness, joy, and pleasure. Thus, emotions take life interesting as well as distressing pleasant as well as unpleasant, and happy as well as unhappy, sometimes emotions bring distress and disaster in human life, disorganize, and disturb the entire life pattern.

At other times, it rebuilds functions and organizes activities. The emotion of love, happiness, and joy help in uniting and reuniting many friends, relations, couples, and marriage patterns. Without emotions, life would have been dull and colorless, devoid of charm. Emotions are also responsible for the finest human characteristics as well as for the most horrible and mean things in life. Emotion makes life pleasurable as well as miserable.

According, to Ruch (1970), “Emotions play a vital part in our motivational patterns. Life without emotion would be virtually a life without motion. Emotion has also organized and motivational values. When strong emotions arise strong motives are satisfied.” Emotion, a very complex and intricate psychological process has been a matter of discussion by, physiologists and psychologists for the last 100 years or more.

Emotion Defined:
It is quite difficult to give a comprehensive definition of emotion, which is a very complex and intricate psychological process. Different psychologists have defined emotion in several different ways. But the most appropriate definition of emotion so far is given by P.T. Young. According to him, “Emotion is an acute disturbance ofthe organism, as a whole, psychological in origin involving behavior, conscious experience, and visceral functioning.

An analysis of this definition points out four important characteristics of emotion:
Emotion is acute or strong in the body, unlike feelings in which the disturbance is mild. The whole body is strongly disturbed and agitated.
The disturbance due to emotion has always had a psychological origin. That is, a stimulus either external or internal always produces an emotional reaction.

Suppose the person saw a tiger in the forest and became afraid. This very fear is psychological in nature, and it introduces a stirred-up state. Thirdly, the disturbed state produced by an emotional experience creates bodily l changes which are physiological in nature. Physiological changes take place in the entire body system.

Finally, emotion is a conscious experience. The person facing the emotion-provoking situation must perceive it as significant. Then only emotion can be produced. The individual must be aware that the situation is such and such, that it is dangerous for him and hence should be avoided, and so on.

Nature And Characteristics of emotion:
The term emotion has been derived from the Latin word E-mover, which means to move to stir up, to agitate, to excite, and to arouse oneself. This arousal of self creates an art urge towards action. It is a very complex, disturbed state of the organism. That is why emotion has been defined as a stirred-up state of the organism.

The entire organism is disturbed both physiologically and psychologically, activated, and excited. Titchener defined emotion as an affected state of the organism. By affective state, he meant to say joy, sorrow, love, hatred, etc. Emotion has got both integrating and disintegrating roles in life.

According to Carr (1925) emotion is a form of energy mobilization. On a Scale of one end, there is a strong emotion and at the other end, no emotion or sleep will be there. This mobilization of energy helps the individual overcome an obstacle at the time of emergency situation like fear or anger.

The person sees a shake, immediately he is activated by tonnes of energy to run away from that place. Emotion is very brief. It starts very abruptly and ends soon after the incident is over Since emotion involves physiological changes, it disappears after the emotional outburst is over. Emotion deals with both physiological and psychological changes, both Objective and subjective aspects.

It has got feeling or covert aspects as well as overt or behavioral aspects. Some psychologists like McDougall have considered emotions as instincts. But this is only a historical and Controversial issue. Emotions occur as a reaction to some basic biological drives. When the basic needs are not satisfied, the person is frustrated.

For example, fear is associated with danger. Similarly, joy is felt when a long-cherished need is satisfied. Certain emotional experiences also help in the satisfaction of some biological needs. During anger, we are able to make use Of more energy in fighting the obstructing situation. Thus, emotions have biological values. Strong emotions help the individual tO be less sensitive to pain.

Question 3.
Discuss the common emotional patterns and describe the cause of fear. Prevention and Elimination.
Answer:
Common Emotional Patterns:
Fear:
As Bridges (1932) says, at first fear is generated more like a state of panic, and excitement than of any specific form. Gradually with the development of language, fear increases and is expressed in many other linguistic expressions than by crying alone. Fear appears clearly at the age of six months.

It is supposed to be a very early emotion and in most cases very dangerous for normal personality development. The arousal of fear depends upon different situations. Loss of support, the sudden approach of anything, or loud noise lead to inherent fears. A five-year-old child has a fear of dogs, doctors, machines, etc. death, fainting persons, dead bodies, being left alone, deep water, etc.

All these are not natural but acquired fears. Fear for animals and fire etc. occurs because of conditioning and habit, says Watson, children also may develop certain imaginative fears or symbolic fears like fear for rats, and spiders. Fear for the parents may be expressed in fear for the teacher who resembles a parent.

However, before the age of 5, symbolic fear does not arise. Fear for animals is more found in childhood, but for non-animals, it increases with age such as fear of disease, illness, dentists, and doctors. Boys usually show more fear towards school work and girls towards illness, disease, darkness, and night. The stimulus itself does not create fear, the way it is presented determines a fear, response.

Causes Of Fear:
Suggestion and imitation:
Dreadful stories narrated by the parents or grandparents, particularly at night cause dangerous fear in them. Mother suggests the baby certain feared objects like Ghost, Tiger, and Demon, and sleeps peacefully, while the baby spends the night with horrible experiences and nightmares without being able to sleep.

In a particular case, whenever the mother sees a rat she screams in fear as if she is facing a lion. The child at the early stage had no such fear of rats. But when he saw several times his mother screaming, at the sight of a rat, he also gradually developed this fear of rats. Most of our childhood fears are partly due to imitation and partly due to suggestion.

For Getting Attention:
One shows fear of getting attention also. In order to escape an unpleasant task or experience one develops a fear response.

Poor Training:
Overprotected and sheltered home life prevents emotional maturity. Wien the mother or other family members make it a point to accompany the child whenever he goes, wherever he goes, to protect him, in future he cannot go anywhere alone, let it be the latrine or bathroom. If we say, don’t go in the dark, you will fall down, don’t go alone, somebody will kidnap you. Don’t touch the switch, you will get shocked, don’t go to high places, you will fall down, and the child will be afraid of everything and every place.

Symbolic and Imaginary fears:
Phobias are of this type. To repress fear for one tiling, they show fear for other things, such fear for spiders, a bunch of hair, and small rats, which are mostly symbolic fears. Since these are harmless stimuli, one should not normally show fear of these stimuli. But when these objects stand for some other feared objects because of repression, such fears become unhealthy for normal personality development.

Unpleasant Dreams:
Dreams about ghosts, demons; dangerous animals give rise to various fears.

Prevention and Elimination of Fear:
Jones found two broad techniques for preventing fear.

• social Imitation
• Direct Conditioning

Social Imitation:
Just as fear develops by imitation, it can also be eliminated by imitation. Suppose the child is afraid of a cat. The mother or somebody whom the child loves, respects, and obeys, should bring the cat, hold it, and show the child in a gradual process that the cat is not harmful. Similarly, fear of different domestic animals, dark places, open places, high places, rivers, water, and crowdy places can be removed by imitation. Thus far can be removed by allowing the child to learn from others.

Direct Conditioning:
By associating the feared object with a stimulus that the child wants or desires to get, fear can be eliminated. By associating with a stimulus that the child likes or wants to get, say with a chocolate or ice cream or with the mother or some near and dear one the child’s fear can be eliminated. However, the prevention of fear by the conditioning method cannot be done in a day or two. It is a gradual and slow process, which requires patience, time, and understanding of the child, his current needs, and desires.

Fear can also be prevented by other techniques :
Prevention of useless and needless fear like goats or big fish. Many persons develop an aversion to fish or meat by visualizing the killing of these stimuli. This should be discouraged. The child must not be told or allowed to hear horrible and dreadful stories as they imagine these stories in reality and develop tremendous fears. Stories of ghosts and witches should be avoided completely.

Reconditioning of fear by gradually familiarising the child with the fearful object, say water or any animal. This has been discussed earlier. By having someone with whom he has got confidence. Fear of a dog increases when the child is taken to the dog by a stranger. But when he approaches the dog with his mother or father, the fear gradually subsides.

By introducing counter motives by presenting the feared stimulus with attraction and pleasant ones. Curiosity and heroism should be developed to avoid fear. A sense of curiosity is required to avoid symbolic fear. Security in the family decreases fear response (Jersild and Homes).

Verbal appeal and reassurance combined with practical demonstration reduce fear. By developing good health. Self-expression and self-criticism also reduce fear (Conn). Acquaintance with the environment. According to Slater, Beekwitn, and Behnke fear of the unfamiliar disappears as the child becomes acquainted with his environment.

Question 4.
Define Anger and discuss the causes of treatment and jealousy.
Answer:
Anger:
Anger is said to be a negative emotion like fear. In the beginning, generalized undifferentiated and mass anger response is found. But gradually it is distinguished and differentiated. Anger is a more frequent emotional response in children than fear, as anger-provoking stimuli are more than fear-provoking stimuli in the child’s environment. When the natural desires and motives are not freely satisfied, but obstructed, anger is shown.

Causes of Anger:
The cause of anger is interference or restriction of any type or it may be due to frustration. This frustration may be due to personal, physical, or social causes. Ricketts has pointed out certain other causes of anger like conflict over playthings, conflict over toilet and dressing, interruption of interesting activities like pressurizing the child to leave play and study, etc.

Jones has found that in 3-5 years children’s anger is created over their daily toilet, habits, dressing, going to school, etc. But by and large, the main cause of anger both in children and adults is interference in the fulfillment of wishes and desires.

Treatment or Anger:
Checking or repression of anger is undesirable. Anger should be channelized in socially acceptable Ways rather than being suppressed, repressed, or restricted. In general, anger can be treated by obtaining a clear picture of all factors, removing the irritating factors which annoy the child, substituting a different goal, and redirecting its motives.

Jealousy:
Jealousy is an outgrowth of anger. It is an attitude of resentment directed towards other people only while anger can be directed towards people, self, and others. It is a negative emotion. The arousal of jealousy depends upon training and the treatment that one gets from others. Child-rearing practices have got a lot to do with the development of jealousy.

Clinical studies of jealousy in young children show that it is a common emotional experience, originating with the birth of younger siblings. Children also show jealousy towards parents, especially towards the father when they see him showing affection towards their mother. The characteristic expression of jealousy includes hurting others, reverting to infantile behavior like bed wetting, thumb sucking, and attention-catching.

In older people jealousy is directly expressed in verbal quarrels, gossiping, name-calling, and making sarcastic and taunting jokes. Jealousy is indirectly expressed in daydreams. Girls are found to be more jealous than boys as found by Foster. More Jealousy is found in children of higher intellectual levels.

Question 5.
Define the bodily changes and eternal expressions of emotion.
Answer:
Bodily changes from individual to individual. In spite of these variations, there are some common bodily changes, which can be divided into overt and covert, as external and internal bodily changes.

External Expressions of :
Facial Expression:
The face is the most expressive organ of the human body. It is thus said to be the barometer of emotion. The muscles in the forehead, head, around the eyes, nose, and mouth are used differently with each emotion. Facial expressions vary from emotion to In anger the facial expression is different than when one is happy or afraid or sony. But it is not always easy to judge accurately one’s emotions from these facial expressions, particularly of adults.

Besides, some do not show any definite pattern of facial expression for a particular emotion. Munn states that it is much easier to differentiate facial expressions of pleasant and unpleasant emotions than it is to differentiate expressions of specific emotions, say joy versus love or sorrow versus fear. In a study to relate the different facial expressions of emotion. Schlosberg (1952) obtained certain pictures of the same face posed to express different emotions.

These pictures were given to observe to sort out into one of the following six categories:

• Love, happiness, mirth
• Surprise
• Fear, suffering
• Anger, determination
• Disgust
• Contempt

Schlosberg found a high correlation in the judgments of different observers but found that in several cases pictures posed to express love were confused with those posed to express contempt. Nevertheless, looking at someone’s face we can say whether he is happy, angry, or afraid. The many parts of the face like eyes, nose, lips, cheeks, forehead, etc. reflect the emotional pattern of anger.

In joy, the eyes may shine. In grief, they get dimmed. In anger the face becomes red, and the nostrils may expand or contract, in happiness the bps may smile. The cheeks may be red in anger or when one blushes because of shyness. In fear, the mouth gets dry, the face is full of sweets, the body shakes and the hair stands.

Postural Reaction:
Different emotions arouse different postures. Fear involves flight violent anger involves not flight but aggressive movements, which may either be abusive or involve an actual attack. In grief we bow, we stiffen in anger, and we lean forward when we are anxious and expect something.

In the emotion of love, there is movement in the direction of the beloved. In sorrow, there is a general slumping posture while in joy the opposite is involved, i.e. the head is he Id high and chest out, and there is the movement of hands. Gestures as expressions of bodily changes are to what extent influenced by culture is not known.

The importance of postural reaction in emotional experience has been emphasized by James Lange’s theory. It holds that stimulations produced by assuming different postures contribute to the feeling aspect of emotion. For instance, it holds that if we put our hands on our cheeks and sit lowering our faces, we will feel sorry.

Vocal Expression:
Voice is a powerful organ for indicating different types of emotional experiences. The modulation of voice, change in loudness, and pitch may represent different types of emotion. A loud sound with enough variation in pitch indicates excitement, a rising inflection usually indicates a feeling of surprised doubt, and loud laughter indicates joy and happiness. A slow monotonous voice expresses defeat and dejection.

A higher pitch indicates anger. In anger the increase in body tension leads to more tension in the vocal cords which leads to a rise in voice, similarly, in fear there is suffering. Though the high pitch associated with anger is inborn these vocal expressions in most cases are also colored by cultural training. The word can be uttered differently to express different emotions. Say “COME” C…O…M…E‘come’.

Therefore from the verbal expression of a person, his emotional state can be easily detected in addition to his facial expression, postural and other reactions. Merry by recording the speaking and singing voices of actors and singers has shown how different emotions are expressed through them. In addition to these bodily expressions of emotion Ruch(1970) has stated four other emotional behavior patterns.

Destruction:
Destruction is found mostly in anger reactions. In anger, the most typical physical reaction is overt aggression or attack. The type of attack varies from culture to culture. In the case of uncivilized people, the attack is more of biting, hitting, shooting, and piercing with a knife. In the case of civilized people, the attack is more symbolic. This implies that in place of physical injury attack is made through language, i.e., sarcastic remarks, taunting words, abuses, etc.

Approach:
In happiness, joy, delight, pleasure, and love, the response made by the experiencing person can be said to be one of the approaches. The approach leads to further stimulation. Success in life produces elation. This is also an approach reaction. Even anticipation of success brings some pleasant emotion and ultimately an approach response.

Retreat or Flight:
The emotion erf fear, the typical bodily response observed universally is the flight from the emotion-provoking stimulus or retreat. By withdrawing from the fearful or dangerous situation the person saves himself. Flight is said to be the best medium of adjustment in dangerous situations.

In civilized people, the retreat may also be through symbols and withdrawal reactions like daydreaming. Ruch remarks “In civilized life, however, we often retreat symbolically through words, apologies, compromises, discussions, and various psychological mechanisms of withdrawal”.

Stopping of Response:
In sorrow, gloom, and depression, there is no destruction, no approach, no flight, but by and large a stop of unusual response. The person in such emotional experiences never shows any behavior. Even a strong stimulus does not bring any response in him.

Question 6.
Discuss bodily or organic Or physiological changes in emotion.
Answer:
Bodily changes mean physiological changes. Because of the excessive activation of different organs during emotional states, physiological changes occur.
They are discussed below:

• External expressions of emotion.
• Physiological changes.
• Glandular responses
• The Galvanic skin responses
• Pupillometrics
• Gastro-Intestinal functions

External Expressions of Emotion:
Facial expression:
The face is the most expressive organ of the human body.

Postural Reaction:
Different emotions arouse different postures, fear involves a flight. Violent anger involves not flight but aggressive movements.

Vocal Expression:
Voice is a powerful organ for indicating different types of emotional experiences.

Physiological Changes:
In our day-to-day experience of emotion, we find the body undergoing various physiological changes like the rate of breathing increases, the rise of heart palpitation, sinking feeling in the stomach, general feeling of weakness, sweating, trembling, rise in blood pressure, and similar physiological changes.

The symptoms of fear reported by thousands of soldiers during the second world war are given below:

Some felt symptoms of fear of Violent
the pounding of the heart	86%
The sinking feeling in the stomach	75%
Feeling sick in the stomach	59%
Trembling and shaking	56%
Cold Sweat	55%
Tense feeling in my stomach	53%
The feeling of weakness and tenseness	51%
Vomiting (Quoted from Munn M.L. 1953)	24%

A large number of researches have been undertaken to objectively measure the physiological concomitants of emotion to discover how the different physiological processes change during emotion and whether there are different patterns of physiological change underlying specific emotions like fear, rage, and disgust.

In such studies changes in blood pressure, heart-best, and respiration are recorded during emotional states by different instruments. The activity of the heart during an emotional state is studied by examining the shape of the curve recorded by an electrocardiograph.

Glandular Responses:
Glands play an important role during different emotional states. In anger, the module of the adrenal gland secrets excessive amount of adrenaline and non-adrenaline and pours them into the bloodstream. Adrenaline is responsible for many characteristics of strong emotional experiences. The level of sugar in the blood rises because of excessive secretion of this hormone.

This increases heartbeat, and blood pressure increases due to the release of glycogen from the lever. The pulse rate also rises. Blood clots more quickly, more air enters the lungs, pupils enlarge and the body sweats profusely. The skin temperature also rises. Non-adrenaline constricts the blood vessels at the surface of the body as a result of which more blood is sent to other parts of the body.

Evidence also indicates the role of the thyroid and pituitary gland in emotional response. Research shows that adrenaline by itself may not necessarily arouse emotional experience or behavior. In a study done jointly by Cantril and Hunt (1932), 22 normal subjects were injected with adrenaline, 3 out of 22 reported unpleasant experiences, one pleasant experience, and ten no emotional experience, and the rest had different kinds of emotions.

Though subjects injected with adrenaline report that they feel as if they are going to have an emotional experience, they do not experience it. This suggests that in addition to adrenaline, probably emotion-provoking situations arid-related postural activities are necessary to produce emotional states.

The Galvanic Skin Response:
The galvanic skin response is measured with an apparatus called a psycho-galvanometer. It measures the electrical resistance in the skin; technically called electrodermal changes. These changes result from the activity of the sweat glands. The galvanic skin response associated with blood pressure and respiration is a highly sensitive objective indication that an emotional experience is taking place.

In addition to its presence in manual and mental work, its presence is evident in upsetting emotional conditions. According to Munn (1953), changes in the galvanometer following emotional stimulations are due to the lowering of electrical resistance between the two electrodes on the skin. Munn further adds that the GSR may be studied in terms of its latency, its amplitude, its duration, and some derivative of such indices.

Pupillometrics:
Pupillometry is a novel technique for measuring physiological changes during emotional studies. The pupil of the eye during emotional states dilates in response to stimuli that arouse a favorable reaction and contracts in response to unpalatable and disliked stimuli. Thus pupillometry is based on Darwin’s view of the eyes widening and narrowing during emotion.

In 1960, Eckhard Hess rediscovered this fact in an incidental observation. Hess made further laboratory study on this and found the size of the pupil changes with die favorable or unfavorable nature of the stimulus, which may be taste, sound, or sight. It is assumed that pupillometrices are of immense value in psychotherapy as a diagnostic tool, in particular.

By looking at pictures loaded with emotional complexes the patient can without his knowledge hint at the stresses in his personality. Precisely, the reactions of his eyes will reveal this. Pupillometrics can also be used in lie detection, as pupil contracts only to unpleasant stimuli.

Gastro-Intestinal Functions:
There is also a change in gastrointestinal functions during emotional behavior. Gastro¬intestinal functions are usually measured with the help of balloons inserted into the stomach or intestines. By observing the stomach directly gastric functions can also be measured. Munn (1953) has given an example of this connection.

The patient suddenly experienced fear one morning amid a phase of accelerated gastric function. An errata doctor entered the room muttering imprecations about an important protocol that had been lost. The patient had misled it and feared that he had lost the record and his job. He lay motionless on the table and his face became pale.

Prompt and decided pallor occurred also in his gastric mucosa, and associated with it there occurred a fall in the rate of acid production. A minute later the doctor found his paper and left the room. Forthwith the face and the gastric mucosa of the patient regained their former color”.

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Question 7.
What is the motive? Describe biological motive.
Answer:
Motivational terms like line desire, wish aim, drive, purpose, goal-oriented activity, urge, incentive and so on which go to mean motive. All these motivational terms regulate the behavior of a person. Motivation is derived from the Latin word “movere” which means to move.

Types of motive:
Motivation has been classified by psychologists into some categories. These are:

• Biological motives
• Social motives
• Psychological motives

We discussed the
Biological Motives:
The biological motives are rooted in the physiological state of the body, hunger, thirst, sex is the most obvious biological or physiological motives. They are physiological because they are associated directly with physiological systems. Other physiological motives include temperature regulation, sleep, pain avoidance, and a need for oxygen.

Hunger:
Earlier Experimental literature on hunger reveals that the source of hunger drive is stomach contractions. The experiments were simple. The observers used subjects who were trained to swallow small balloons with rubber tubes attached. The balloons were inflated in the stomach and the rubber tubes were connected to kymographs recording mechanisms.

Here each spasm of the stomach muscles could cause a mark on the smoked drum. On different occasions, the subjects were also asked to press the key when they felt hunger pangs. As a result, a mark was made on the drum just below the record of stomach activities. Further, the abnormal breathing of subjects was also recorded.

The investigator, here, could decide very well whether the spasms represented in the record were due to the stomach or abdominal movements. It was observed that the hunger pangs coincided with stomach contractions, but these pangs were not related to movements of the abdominal muscles. But the recent works on hunger reveal a different story.

The conclusions depict that the relationship between stomach contractions and hunger is weak. A joint venture of both psychologists and physiologists tried to find out some other conditions of the body which trigger hunger. Recent research also has shown that people report normal feelings of hunger even when the nerves from the stomach have been cut or the stomach has been entirely removed.

Physiologists believe that changes in the metabolic functions of the liver when fuel supplies are low provide the body’s stimulus for hunger. The liver can give a signal to the hypothalamus that more fuel is needed which triggers the hunger drive. Further experiments on the functions of the hypothalamus revealed that two regions of the hypothalamus are involved in the hunger drive-lateral hypothalamus and ventromedial area.

The lateral hypothalamus is the excitatory area. Animals eat when this area is stimulated. When this area is damaged, animals stop eating and die of starvation. On the other hand, the ventromedial area is located in the middle of the hypothalamus, which is otherwise known as the ‘ hunger-controlling area’. Experts consider this area as the inhibited region of the hunger drive.

Studies revealed that when this ventromedial area is dangered, animals develop voracious appetites. They went to take a huge amount of food and they also overeat. Experimental literature also reveals that cessation of eating or satiety is controlled by a hormone called Cholecystokinin (cck), which is released into the bloodstream when food reaches the intestine (Gibbs Smith, 1973).

Injections of cck into food-deprived rats who are eating causes them to stop eating and start grooming and other behaviors which are part of satiety in animals (Smith & Gibbs, 1976). But the role of ‘cck’ as a satiety hormone has been questioned. Both the hypothalamus and blood chemistry are, no doubt, responsible for hunger.

Thirst:
Thirst serves as a strong drive mechanism in both animals and humans. Humans can live for weeks without eating, but they can not live only for a few days without replenishing their supply of fluid. When human beings experience fluid deprivation, their mouths and throats become dry, cooling them to drink.

Previously it was believed that drinking is triggered by a dry mouth. But physiologists revealed that dry mouth does not result in enough drinking to regulate the water balance of the body. Thirst and drinking are controlled by processes within the body itself. Since maintaining the water level is essential for life itself.

The body has a set of complicated internal homeostatic processes to regulate its fluid level and drinking behavior. Our body’s water level is maintained by physiological events in which several hormones play a vital role. One of these hormones is the antidiuretic hormone (ADII). It regulates the loss of water through the kidneys.

Experts feel that thirst drive and drinking of water are mainly triggered by two mechanisms. The first one is that when the water level of the body goes down, certain neurons located within the hypothalamus begin to give out water. The thirst which results from this mechanism is known as “cellular dehydration thirst.”

Some experimental results also revealed that the loss of water from the cells in a particular region of the hypothalamus might initiate the drinking behavior. The experiments view that the neurons in the preoptic regions of the hypothalamus (Known as osmoreceptors) are responsible for controlling the drinking behavior of the organism.

Thirst triggered by the loss of water from the osmoreceptors is called “cellular-dehydration thirst”. The second mechanism which is responsible for triggering drinking behavior is known as t ‘hypovolemia’ or the condition of low blood plasma volume. Loss of water in the body results in hypovolemia or a decrease in the volume of the blood.

When blood volume goes down, so does blood pressure. The drop in blood pressure stimulates the kidney to release an enzyme called ‘renin’. This enzyme is involved in the formation of a substance known as ‘angiotensin’ which circulates the blood and may trigger drinking.

Sex Drive:
Partially sexual behavior depends on physiological conditions. So it may be considered a biological motive. But sexual motivation is far more than a biological drive. Sexual motivation is social because it involves other people and provides the basis for social grouping in higher animals.

Sexual behavior is powerfully regulated by social pressures and religious beliefs. Sex is psychological because it is an important part of our emotional lives. It can provide intense pleasure, but it can also give us agony and involve us in many difficult decisions. Till now, physiologists are trying to find out the exact location of the internal control of the sexual drive.

No doubt, the intensity of sexual urges is dependent upon chemical substances circulating in the blood known as sex hormones. Studies confirmed that this urge is profoundly influenced by the presence of hormones produced by tests in males and ovary cases of human beings, socio-cultural and emotional factors seem to play pivotal roles.

Sleep:
Sleep is a basic necessity of life. About one-third of our life is spent sleeping. It is a dramatic alteration of consciousness and it also happens spontaneously. The ordinary fluctuations in consciousness are part of the rhythmic. All creatures in this world are influenced by nature’s rhythms.

Human beings are at least a time cycle known as circadian rhythms. These rhythms are bodily patterns that repeat approximately every 24 hours. About one-third of the circadian rhythm is devoted to the period of energy-restoring rest called sleep. The most significant discovery after EEG technology in sleep research was that of rapid eye movement (REM).

These are the bursts of quick eye movements under closed eyelids, occurring at periodic intervals during sleep. The time when a sleeper is not showing REM is known as non-REM or NREM sleep (NREM). Dreams are possible during REM sleep. But NREM reports were filled with brief descriptions of ordinary daily activities, similar to waking thoughts.

Research evidence indicated that over the course of the night, our sleep cycle crosses several stages, each of which shows a distinct EEG pattern. It takes about 90 minutes to progress through the first four stages of sleep (NREM sleep). The first period of REM sleep last for about 10 minutes. In a night’s sleep, an individual passes through this 100-minute cycle four.

Question 8.
What are social motives?
Answer:
Social motives are otherwise known as secondary motives. These are also known as acquired learned motives. These motives are complex in nature. Social motives are called secondary because they involve interaction with others and are learned due to social conditioning in a social context.

Need for affiliation:
Seeking other human beings and waiting to be close to them both physically and psychologically is called affiliation. It refers to keeping contact with other people, in other words, affiliation refers to the need that people have to be with others. This motive is aroused when individuals feel helpless or threatened and also when they are happy.

Research findings indicate that fear and anxiety are closely related to affiliation motives. Where the degree of anxiety and threat is very high, such affiliation behavior is often absent. Studies also revealed that early learning experiences influence this motive. The first-born or the only child in the family had stronger affiliation motives than those bom later.

Studies have also shown that children who are brought up to be dependent or raised with closed family ties show a stronger affiliation motive than those coming from more closely-knit families which encourages early independence. Cultural differences were also found. Affiliation needs are stronger in some cultures than in others.

Need for Power:
The need for power is an independent motive. It expresses itself in behaviors, which tend to control and influence the course of events including the behaviors of others. History reveals that mankind has always struggled for power. Power was desired by the individuals as an instrument to satisfy other motives like aggression, greed, affiliation, etc. But in recent years, emphasis has been placed on the power motive as independent in itself. This view was emphasized by McClelland.

In his theory, David Me Clelland (1975) has expressed that power motivation can be revealed in four general ways:

People do things to gain feelings of power and strength from sources outside themselves. For example, children express power motivation by reading stories. Individuals gain strength fry reading the activities of past leaders. People do things to gain feelings of power and strength from sources within themselves.

For example, a college student may express power motivation by building up the body and by mastering urges and impulses. People do things to have an impact on others. For example, an individual may argue with another individual or may have a competitive attitude in order to influence that person. People do things as members of organizations to have an impact on others.

For example, the leader of a political party may use the principles of his party or an army officer may express the need for power through the chain of command to influence others. Studies reveal that for any individual, one of these ways of expressing power motivation may dominate. But a combination of power motives can not be ruled out.

With age and life experiences, the dominant mode of expression often changes. Studies have also shown that women seem to have less strong needs for power than men. They choose indirect ways to impact and influence. For example, women prefer to express their power motivation by being counselors, advisors, and resource persons for other people.

Depending on motive:
Shortly speaking dependency refers to interpersonal relationships where an individual behaves in a way in order to gain attention, assistance, comfort, and support from fellow men. For example, children use to spend more time with parents or intimate friends in difficult situations. People appear to be more dependent on social interactions and approval. Studies reveal that girls and women tend to be more dependent and affiliative than boys. In stress, people want to resort to dependency.

Co-operation motive:
Co-operation is an acquired motive. Moreover, it is a condition manifested when two or more individuals or groups work together to achieve a common goal. It signifies a lack of mutual disagreement and opposition among fellow group members and the absence of rivalry. Research evidence indicates that the citizens of Zuni of New Mexico are found to be extremely cooperative.

Being wealthy in Zuni brings no status. Status is derived not from power, but from friendship. A happy and successful Zuni has many friends. Different studies on altruism among children provide evidence that helping behavior can be fostered through the use of models (Paulson, 1974).

Conformity motive:
Conformity refers to the tendency to allow one’s opinions, attitudes, actions, and even perceptions to be affected by prevailing opinions, attitudes, actions, and perceptions. Very often people act in ways consistent with the majority. This tendency to ‘go along with the group is popularly known as behavioral conformity.

Changes in attitude and belief also take place due to pressures from others. It is known as ‘ attitudinal conformity’. There is also conformity of personality traits i.e. underlying characteristics of a person changes according to the norms of society. With the help of a conformity curve, F.H. Allport (1935) described the conformity motive phenomena.

He related that most people exhibit complete conformity to social norms with fewer and fewer people having deviations. Our submissiveness to social influences is due to conformity motives to the norms of the society in which we live. Norms refer to behavior that is usual or expected, acceptable, and socially prescribed.

Points to remember:

Question 1.
Define the meaning and definition of thinking.
Answer:
Thinking is a very often used psychological term in our daily life. The importance of thinking is evident not only for the wide use of the term but also because thinking helps in the solution of all our day-to-day problems. Thinking is the most complex of all psychological processes and it is thinking that normally differentiates man from lower animals.

Question 2.
Define the sensory-motor period.
Answer:
Sensory-Motor Period.
The sensory-motor period is the period that starts before the language development of the child. Piaget distinguished between two major stages in cognitive development i.e. sensory-motor intelligence (0-2 years) and conceptual intelligence (0-to Maturity). During the sensory-motor period, the child’s adaptations and activities do not involve extensive use of symbols or language.

Question 3.
Describe the stages of cognitive development by Piaget.
Answer:
Piaget is a development theorist who believes that cognitive development occurs gradually phase by phase.
Piaget has divided the entire period of cognitive development into four basic stages.

• A sensorimotor period is 0-2 years approximately.
• Preoperalionalperiod 2-7years approximately.
• The concrete operational period is 7-12 years approximately.
• The formal operational period is 12 years above approximately.

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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 History Solutions Unit 3 Changing Traditions Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 3 Changing Traditions Long Answer Questions

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Discuss the life and teaching of Jesus.
Answer:
According to New Testament Jesus was born on 25th. December 4 B.C. He was born in Bethlehem in province of Judea. Bethlehem was a village, five miles way from Jerusalem.

His father Joseph was a poor carpenter and his mother was Virgin Mary. They lived in the village of Nazaerth near city of Galilee.

Mary had recieved a divine message that a son would be born to her who would deliver the world from its sins. They shifted from Nazareth to Bethlehem where they took shelter inside a stable. In that stable was born Jesus. Many miracles were associated with Jesus before and after he was born.

To the Jesus, these were auspicious signs that the king of kings would be born to deliver them from their sufferings. Joseph could not give proper education to his son. However, Jesus attended the synagogue and was greatly moved by the recitation of the holy scriptures by the priests.

Not much is known about his childhood Teachings of Jesus Christ teaching were primarily oral. These were delivered through the word of his mouth.

Our chief sources of information regarding these are principally five. Fistofthese are the writings of the New Testament and the Gospels. The compositions of Apocrypta constitute of second source of information.

The third source, the writing of Philo, name great help to understand the then ‘conduction of society and the attitude of the people to religion’. The writings of Josephus from our fourth source, though these appear to carry some meaning only for Pelemics. Finally comes the Old Testament.

The Jewish Portions of the Old Testament like the book of Daniel and the book of Enoch are important in that these tell us about the theories associated with the rise of prophets or messiahs.

Also they give us a clear picture as associated with the rise of prophets or messiahs. Also they give us a clear picture us frequently used, ‘son of man’ can be understood properly after reading about it from the book of Enoch.

The Gospels came to be complied during the later half of the 1 st. century A.D. These are filled with stories of miracles and supernatural elements.

The four Gospels named after the four Apostles, namely Mathew, Mark, John and Luke were not authored by then but carry the traditions that prevailed during the time of each one of them.

These Gospels historic significance. The Gospels are historic significance. The Gospel of Luke is in particular, based upon the documents of the time so it is historical. These Gospels echo the teaching of Jesus.

The teaching of Jesus were not written down and complied during his lifetime. They came to be written down into the New Testament of the Bible during 70 and 100 A.D. ‘

Jesus has ‘the words of eternal life’. He didn’t proclaim himself as the Massiah. He rejected the superistion of the Jewish faith. He believed in the one god of the early Jewish faith. The God was their father. He asked them to pray so that father’s will would be done on earth. It would them be that the kingdom would be stablished.

This divine kingdom was in the hearts of men and women. Virtues would entitle them to this kingdom, so he asked the people to develop love, faith, charity, justice, equality and humility etc. ‘Love your enemies’ the kingdom of God is come high to you’ ‘bless them that curse you’ ‘do good to ‘them that hate you’ were some of his own words.

All are equal before God. He preached for universal brotherhood. He praised truth asked people to avoid falsehood. Jesus died the death of a martyr. In his own words ‘Better the death of one man than the ruin of a people’.

He anticipated his death at hands of the pilate, so he said ‘my kingdom is not of this world’.

When he was crucified his final prayer was an appeal to God to excuse his murderers. The crucifixation took place in 33rd. year of the Christian Era. “Jesus was not a founder of dogma or a maker of a creed; he infused into the world a new spirit”.

Question 2.
Describe the life and teaching of Mohammed?
Answer:
Prophet Mohammed, the founder of Islam or Mahammedianism was born in Arabia. Arabia is a land of sandy deserts and green cases in the middle east. Its people are known as the Arabs. Arabs important towns were Mecca and Medina.

Mecca however is famous for something much more wonder than the haaba shrine of their chief God, here was born the prophet of Isam Mahammed in 570 A.D.

His father was Abdulah and mother Fatima were poor and by his sixth year Mohammed last birth. The orphan boy was brought up by grandfather Abdul Matailb and uncle Abu Talib.

This illustrate shephered boy was made to near sheep and whenever he was alone and felt inspired he would leave the sheep to graze and go to the cave to meditate all by himself.

In his youth he was chooser by a wealthy widow of Mecca named Khadija to look after her trade. He later looked after her as well after he married1 her. Soon a daughter was homed to them known as Fatima.

He was deeply influenced by the idea of one God or monotheism of the Syrian Jews. The Christianity of Palestine also influenced him.
This influence led him to the critical of the Arabs who worshipped many idols.

Often he retired to Mount Hera near Mecca and meditated. Then suddenly a realization or divine message came to him.

It was said that Archangel Gabriel was sent by God to advise Mohammed to preach the divine message the people as a prophet of God.
Mohammed founded Islam. It meant total surrender to the will of the God or Allah.

He started to convert others. But for long he could not convert any other than Khadija and Slalve Zeid as well as adopted son Ali and friend Abu. People opposed them.

Gradually other converted. The authorities of Mecca tried to punish him so he flee from Mecca to escape trial and prosecution. Medina invited Mohammed.

His flight from Mecca to Medina is known as the Hijra from these day was started the first Islamic year, to mark the down of a new era. People of Medina accepted him get converted to his faith and made him their governor.

His followers used force on other Arab tribes to convert them to Islam. He stayed in Medina for long eight years. During this time he built the first mosque after the synagogue of the Jews.

In 630A.D. the prohet of Islam became the leader in the first major among military success of Islam when his Medina ary defeated Mecca.

Mohammed entered into Mecca in a triumphant procession. He convinced and converted the inhabitants of Mecca. Soon whole Arabia came to accept him. They spread Islam far and wide. He died on 632 A.D., Holy Koran is the sacred scripture of the Mohammedans or Islametas or Muslims.

It has 114 chapters or suras. Mohammed was illiterate but he used to dictate his visions and sermons to his followers. They wrote these down and records are preserved carefully one of Mohammed’s wives in a box. This collection later known as Koran.

Teaching Islam as noted earlier means the ‘surrender to the God’. This God is Allah, the supreme and kind, the only God. They believed that God sent prophets to the earth, that Abraham and Moses had been the prophets earlier and Mohammed was the last and greatest prophet.

They believed in the final day of judgement on which the refers non Muslims will go to hell and the good Koran abiding believer will enter paradise. This last belief is directly borrowed from Jews and Christians.

Mohammed believed in tire Heaven of only physical enjoyment. Thus his idea of Heaven is different from thsoe of the Christians and the Hindus.

A true Mohammed performs five duties of his life, He should offer prayers five times a day, at fixed hours he must recite. There is not God but true god is Allah and Mohammed is his prophet. He should give alms to the poor. He must observe fasting from down to dusk during the month of Ramzan.

This is the month when Mohammed received the Words of God from Gabriel, finally life of the believer would be incomplete without at least a single pilgrimage to Mecca. Mohammed expected his followers to defend their faith even at the cost of their lives.

Question 3.
Describe about the first order of three orders society?
Answer:
Priests placed themselves in the first order, and nobles in the second. The nobility had, in reality, a central role in social processes. This is because they controlled land. This control was the outcome of a practice called ‘vassalage’.

The kings of France were linked to the people by ‘vassalage’, similar to the practice among the Germanic peoples, of whom the Franks were one. The big landowners the nobles were vassals of the king, and peasants were vassals of the landowners.

A nobleman accepted the king as his seigneur (senior) and they made a mutual promise: the seigneur/lord (lord’ was derived from a word meaning one who provided bread) would protect the vassal, who would be loyal to him. This relationship involved elaborate rituals and exchange of vows taken on the Bible in a church.

At this ceremony, the vassal received a written charter or a staff or even a clod of earth as a symbol of the land that was being given to him by his master.

The noble enjoyed a privileged status. He had absolute control over his property, in perpetuity. He could raise troops called ‘feudal levies’. The lord held his own courts of justice and could even coin his own money.

He was the lord of all the people settled on his land. He owned vast tracts of land which contained his own dwellings, his private fields and pastures and the homes and fields of his tenant-peasants. His house was called a manor.

His private lands were cultivated by peasants, who were also expected to act as foot-soldiers in battle when required, in addition to working on their own farms.

Question 4.
What are importance of church in society?
Answer:
The Catholic Church had its own laws, owned lands given to it by milers and could levy taxes. It was thus a very powerful institution which did not depend on the king. A

t the head of the western Church was the Pope. He lived in Rome. The Christians in Europe were guided by Bishops and clerics – who constituted the first ‘order’.

Most villages had their own church, where people assembled every Sunday to listen to the sermon by the priest and to pray together.

Everyone could not become a priest. Serfs were banned, as were the physically challenged. Women could not become priests. Men who became priests could not marry.

Bishops were the religious nobility. Like lords who owned vast landed estates the Bishops also had the use of vast estates, and lived in grand palaces. The Church was entitled to a tenth share of whatever the peasants produced from their land over the course of the year, called a ‘tithe’.

Money also came in the form of endowments made by the rich for their own welfare and the welfare of their deceased relatives in the afterlife.

Some of the important ceremonies conducted by the Church copied formal customs of the feudal elite. The act of kneeling while praying, with hands clasped and head bowed, was an exact replica of the way in which a knight conducted himself while taking vows of loyalty to his lord.

Similarly, the use of the term ‘lord’ for God was another example of feudal culture that found its way into the practices of the Church. Thus, the religious and the lay worlds of feudalism shared many customs and symbols.

Question 5.
Describe about the third order: Peasants, free and unfree society?
Answer:
Let us now turn to the vast majority of people, namely, those who sustained the first two orders. Cultivators were of two kinds: free peasants and serfs (from the verb to serve’)

Free peasants held their farms as tenants of the lord. The men had to render military service (at least forty days every year). Peasant families had to set aside certain days of the week, usually three but often more, when they would go to the lord’s estate and work there. The output from such labour, called labour-rent, would go directly to the lord.

In addition, they could be required to. do other unpaid labour services, like digging ditches, gathering firewood, building fences and repairing roads and buildings. Besides helping in the fields, women and children had to do other tasks. They spun thread, wove cloth, made candles and pressed grapes to prepare wine for the lord’s use.

There was one direct tax called that kings sometimes imposed on peasants (the clergy and nobles were exempted from paying this).
Serfs cultivated plots of land, but these belonged to the lord. Much of the produce from this had to be given to the lord. They also had to work on the land which belonged exclusively to the lord.

They received no wages and could not leave the estate without the lord’s permission. The lord claimed a number of monopolies at the expense of his serfs.

Serfs could use only their lord’s mill to grind their flour, his oven to bake their bread, and his wine-presses to distil wine and beer. The lord could decide whom a serf should many, or might give his blessing to the serfs choice, but on payment of a fee.

Question 6.
What were the development of science in 11th- 17th centuries?
Answer:
By the eleventh century, there is evidence of several technological changes. Instead of the basic wooden ploughs, cultivators began using heavy iron-tipped ploughs and mould-boards.

These ploughs could dig much deeper and the mould-boards turned the topsoil properly. With this the nutrients from the soil were better utilised.

The methods of harnessing animals to the plough improved. Instead of the neck- harness, the shoulder-harness came into use. This enabled animals to exert greater power.

Horses were now better shod, with iron horseshoes, which prevented foot decay. There was increased use of wind and water energy for agriculture.

More water-powered and wind-powered mills were set up all over Europe for purposes like milling com and pressing grapes.
There were also changes in land use.

The most revolutionary one was the switch from a two-field to a three-field system. In this, peasants could use a field two years out of three if they planted it with one crop in autumn and a different crop in spring a year and a half later.

That meant that farmers could break their holdings into three fields. They could plant one with wheat or rye in autumn for human consumption. The second could be used in spring to raise peas, beans and lentils for human use and oats and barley for the horses. The third field lay fallow. Each year they rotated the use among the three fields.

With these improvements, there was an almost immediate increase in the amount of food produced from each unit of land. Food availability doubled.

The greater use of plants like peas and beans meant more vegetable proteins in the diet of the average European and a better source of fodder for their animals. For cultivators, it meant better opportunities.

They could now produce more food from less land. The average size of a peasant’s farm shrank from about 100 acres to 20 to 30 acres by the thirteenth century.

Holdings which were smaller could be more efficiently cultivated and reduced the amount of labour needed, This gave the peasants time for other activities.

Some of these technological changes cost a lot of money. Peasants did not have enough money to set up watermills and windmills. Therefore the initiative was taken by the lords. But peasants were able to take the initiative in many things, such as extending arable land.

They also switched to the three-field rotation of crops, and set up small forges and smithies in the villages, where iron-tipped ploughs and horseshoes were made and repaired cheaply.

From the eleventh century, the personal bonds that had been the basis of feudalism were weakening, because economic transactions were becoming more and more money based.

Lords found it convenient to ask for rent in cash, not services, and cultivators were selling their crops for money (instead of exchanging them for other goods) to traders, who would then take such goods to be sold in the towns.

The increasing use of money began to influence prices, which became higher in times of poor harvests. In England, for instance, agricultural prices doubled between the 1270s and the 1320s.

Question 7.
Why the Europeans economic expansion slowed down?
Answer:
In Northern Europe, by the end of the thirteenth century the warm summers of the previous 300 years had given way to bitterly cold summers.

Seasons for growing crops were reduced by a month and it became difficult to grow crops on higher ground. Storms and oceanic flooding destroyed many farmsteads, which resulted in less income in taxes for governments.

The opportunities offered by favourable climatic conditions before the thirteenth century had led to large-scale reclamation of the land of forests and pastures for agriculture.

But intensive ploughing had exhausted the soil despite the practice of the three-field rotation of crops, because clearance was not accompanied by proper soil conservation.

The shortage of pasturage reduced the number of cattle. Population growth was outstripping resources and the immediate result was famine. Severe famines hit Europe between 1315 and 1317, followed in the 1320s by massive cattle deaths.

In addition, trade was hit by a severe shortage of metal money because of a shortfall in the output of silver mines in Austria and Serbia. This forced governments to reduce the silver content of the currency and to mix it with cheaper metals.

The worst was yet to come. As trade expanded in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, ships carrying goods from distant countries had started arriving in European ports. Along with the ships came rats -carrying the deadly bubonic plague infection (the Black Death’).

Western Europe, relatively isolated in earlier centuries, was hit by the epidemic between 1347 and 1350. The modern estimate of mortality in that epidemic is that 20 percent of the people of the whole of Europe died, with some places losing as much as 40 percent of the population.
As trade centres, cities were the hardest hit.

In enclosed communities like monasteries and convents, when one individual contracted the plague, it was not long before everyone did. And in almost every case, none survived.

The plague took its worst toll among infants, the young and the elderly. There were other relatively minor episodes of plague in the ,1360s and 1370s. The population of Europe, 73 million in 1300, stood reduced to 45 million in 1400.

This catastrophe, combined with the economic crisis, caused immense social dislocation. Depopulation resulted in a major shortage of labour. Serious imbalances were created between agriculture and manufacture, because there were not enough people to engage in both equally.

Prices of agricultural goods dropped as there were fewer people to buy. Wage rates increased because the demand for labour, particularly agricultural labour, rose in England by as much as 250 percent in the aftermath of the Black Death. The surviving labour force could now demand twice their earlier wages.

Question 8.
What are the political changes occured during 11th and 17th centuries?
Answer:
Developments in the political sphere paralleled social processes. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, European kings strengthened their military and financial power.

The powerful new states they created were as significant for Europe as the economic changes that were occurring. Historians have therefore called these kings ‘the new monarchs’.

Louis XI in France, Maximilian in Austria, Henry VII in England and Isabella and Ferdinand in Spain were absolutist rulers, who started the process of organising standing armies, a permanent bureaucracy and national taxation and, in Spain and Portugal, began to play a role in Europe’s expansion overseas (see Theme 8).

The most important reason for the triumph of these monarchies was the social changes which had taken place in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.

The dissolution of the feudal system of lordship and vassalage and the slow rate of economic growth had given the first opportunity to kings to increase their control over their powerful and not-so-system of feudal levies for their armies and introduced professionally trained infantry equipped with guns and siege artillery (see Theme 5) directly under their control.

The resistance of the aristocracies crumbled in the face of the firepower of the kings.

Question 9.
Describe culture, literature and art of Europe?
Answer:
From the fourteenth to the end of the seventeenth century, towns were growing in many countries of Europe. A distinct ‘urban culture’ also developed. Townspeople began to think of themselves as more ‘civilised’ than rural people. Towns particularly Florence, Venice and Rome became centres of art and learning.

Artists and writers were patronised by the rich and the aristocratic. The invention of printing at the same time made books and prints available to many people, including those living in distant towns or countries.

A sense of history also developed in Europe, and people contrasted their ‘modem’ world with the ‘ancient’ one of the Greeks and Romans.

Religion came to be seen as something which each individual should choose for himself. The church’s earth-centric belief was overturned by scientists who began to understand the solar system and new geographical knowledge overturned the Europe-centric view that the Mediterranean Sea was the centre of the world.

There is a vast amount of material on European history from the fourteenth century – documents, printed books, paintings, sculptures, buildings, textiles. Much of this has been carefully preserved in archives, art galleries and museums in Europe and America.

From the nineteenth century historians used the tenn ‘Renaissance’ (literally, rebirth) to describe the cultural changes of this period.

The historian who emphasised these most was a Swiss scholar Jacob Burckhardt (1818-97) of the University of Basle in Switzerland. He was a student of the German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886), Ranke had taught him that the primary concern of the historian was to write about states and politics using papers and files of government departments.

Burckhardt was dissatisfied with these very limited goals that his master had set out for him. To him politics was not the be-all and end-all in history writing, History was as much concerned with culture as with politics.

In 1860, he wrote a book called The Civilisation of the Renaissance in italti in which he called his readers’ attention to literature, architecture and painting to tell the story of how a new ‘humanist’ culture had flowered in Italian towns from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century.

This culture, he wrote, was characterised by a new belief – that man, as an individual, was capable of making his own decisions and developing his skills. He was ‘modern’, in contrast to ‘medieval’ man whose thinking had been controlled by the church.

Question 10.
Describe about the education of Europe.
Answer:
The earliest universities in Europe had been set up in Italian towns. The universities of Padua and Bologna had been centres of legal studies from the eleventh century.

Commerce being the chief activity in the city, there was an increasing demand for lawyers and notaries (a combination of solicitor and record-keeper) to write and interpret rules and written agreements without which trade on a large scale was not possible.

Law was therefore a popular subject of study, but there was now a shift in emphasis. It was studied in the context of earlier Roman culture.
Francesco Petrarch (1304-78) represented this change.

To Petrarch, antiquity was a distinctive civilisation which could be best understood through the actual words of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

He therefore stressed the importance of a close reading of ancient authors. This educational programme implied that there was much to be learnt which religious teaching alone could not give. This was the culture which historians in the nineteenth century were to label ‘humanism’.

By the early fifteenth century, the term ‘humanist’ was used for masters who taught grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy. The, Latin word humanitas, from which ‘humanities’ was derived, had been used many centuries ago by the Roman lawyer and essayist Cicero (106-43 BCE), a contemporary of Julius Caesar, to mean culture.

These subjects were not drawn from or connected with religion, and emphasised skills developed by individuals through discussion and debate.

These revolutionary ideas attracted attention in many other universities, particularly in the newly established university in Petrarchis own hometown of Florence. Till the end of the thirteenth century, this city had not made a mark as a centre of trade or of learning, but things changed dramatically in the fifteenth century.

A city is known by its great citizens as much as by its wealth and Florence had come to be known because of Dante Alighieri (1265¬1321), a layman who wrote on religious themes, and Giotto (1267-1337), an artist who painted lifelike portraits, very different from the stiff figures done by earlier artists. From then it developed as the most exciting intellectual city in Italy and as a centre of artistic creativity.

The term ‘Renaissance Man’ is often used to describe a person with many interests and skills, because many of the individuals who became well known at this time were people of many parts. They were scholar-diplomat- theologian-artist combined in one.

Question 11.
Describe about the Artists and Realism of Europe?
Answer:

Formal education was not the only way through which humanists shaped the minds of their age. Art, architecture and books were wonderfully effective in transmitting humanist ideas.

Artists were inspired by studying works of the past. The material remains of Roman culture were sought with as much excitement as ancient texts: a thousand years after the fall of Rome, fragments of art were discovered in the ruins of ancient Rome and other deserted cities.

Their admiration for the figures of ‘perfectly’ proportioned men and women sculpted so many centuries ago, made Italian sculptors want to continue that tradition. In 1416, Donatello (1386-1466) broke new ground with his lifelike statues.

Artists’ concern to be accurate was helped by the work of scientists. To study bone structures, artists went to the laboratories of medical schools. Andreas Vesalius (1514-64), a Belgian and a Professor of Medicine at the University of Padua, was the first to dissect the human body. This was the beginning of modem physiology.

Painters did not have older works to use as a model. But they, like sculptors, painted as realistically as possible. They found that a knowledge of geometry helped them understand perspective and that by noting the changing quality of light, their pictures acquired a three-dimensional quality.

The use of oil as a medium for painting also gave a greater richness of colour to paintings than before. In the colours and designs of costumes in many paintings, there is evidence of the influence of Chinese and Persian art, made available to them by the Mongols.

Thus, anatomy, geometry, physics, as well as a strong sense of what was beautiful, gave a new quality to Italian art, which was to be called ‘realism’ and which continued till the nineteenth century.

Question 12.
What is the Copernican Revolution? Discuss.
Answer:
The Christian notion of man as a sinner was questioned from an entirely different angle – by scientists. The turning point in European science came with the work of Copernicus (1473-1543), a contemporary of Martin Luther. Christians had believed that the earth was a sinful place and the heavy burden of sin made it immobile.

The earth stood at the centre of the universe around which moved the celestial planets. Copernicus asserted that the planets, including the earth, rotate around the sun. A devout Christian, Copernicus was afraid of the possible reaction to his theory by traditionalist clergymen.

For this reason, he did not want his manuscript, De revolutionibus (The Rotation) to be printed. On his deathbed, he gave it to his follower, Joachim Rheticus. It took time for people to accept this idea.

It was much later – more than half a century later, in fact – that the difference between ‘heaven’ and earth was bridged through the writings of astronomers like Johannes Kepler (1571¬1630) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642).

The theory of the earth as part of a sun-centred system was made popular by Kepler’s Cosmographical Mystery, which demonstrated that the planets move around the sun not in circles but in ellipses.

Galileo confirmed the notion of the dynamic world in his work 7he Motion. This revolution in science reached its climax with Isaac Newton’s theory of gravitation.

Galileo once remarked that the Bible that lights the roads to heaven does not say much on how the heavens work. The work of these thinkers showed that knowledge, as distinct from belief was based on observation and experiments.

Once these scientists had shown the way, experiments and investigations into what came to be called physics, chemistry and biology expanded rapidly.

Historians were to label this new approach to the knowledge of man and nature the Scientific Revolution. Consequently, in the minds of sceptics and non-believers, God began to be replaced by Nature as die source of creation.

Even those who retained their faith in God started talking about a distant God who does not directly regulate the act of living in the material world.

Such ideas were popularised through scientific societies that established a new scientific culture in the public domain. The Paris Academy, established in 1670 and the Royal Society in London for the promotion of natural knowledge, formed in 1662, held lectures and conducted experiments for public viewing.

Question 13.
Was there a European ‘Renaissance’ in the fourteenth century? Discuss.
Answer:
Let us now reconsider the concept ‘ of the ‘Renaissance’. Can we see this period as marking a sharp break with the past and the rebirth of ideas from Greek and Roman traditions? Was the earlier period (twelfth and thirteenth centuries) a time of darkness?

Recent writers, like Peter Burke of England, have suggested that Burckhardt was exaggerating the sharp difference between this ‘ period and the one that preceded it, by using the term ‘Renaissance’, which implies that the Greek and Roman civilisations were reborn at this time and that scholars and artists of this period substituted the pre-Christian world¬view for the Christian one. Both arguments were exaggerated.

Scholars in earlier centuries had been familiar with Greek and Roman cultures and religion continued to be a very important part of people’s lives. To contrast the Renaissance as a period of dynamism and artistic creativity and the Middle Ages as a period of gloom and lack of development is an over-simplification.

Many elements associated with the Renaissance in Italy can be traced back to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It has been suggested by some historians that in the ninth century in France, there had been similar literary and artistic blossoming.

The cultural changes in Europe at this time were not shaped only by the ‘classical’ civilisation of Rome and Greece. The archaeological and literary recovery of Roman culture did create a great admiration of that civilisation. But technologies and skills in Asia had moved far ahead of what the Greeks and Romans had known.

Much more of the world had become connected and the new techniques of navigation enabled people to sail much further than had been possible earlier. The expansion of Islam and the Mongol conquests had linked Asia and North Africa with Europe, not politically but in terms of trade and of learning skills.

The Europeans learned not just from the Greeks and Romans, but from India, Arabia, Iran, Central Asia, and China. These debts were not acknowledged for a long time because when the history of this period started to be written, historians saw it from a Europe-centred viewpoint.

An important change that did happen in this period was that gradually the ‘private’ and the ‘public’ spheres of life began to become separate: the ‘public’ sphere meant the area of government and of formal religion; the ‘private’ sphere included the family and personal religion. The individual had a private as well as a public role.

He was not simply a member of one of the ‘three orders’; he was also a person in his own right. An artist was not just a member of a guild, he was known for himself. In the eighteenth century, this sense of the individual would be expressed in a political form, in the belief that all individuals had equal political rights.

Another development was that the different regions of Europe started to have their separate sense of identity, based on language. Europe, earlier united partly by the Roman Empire and later by Latin and Christianity, was now dissolving into states, each united by a common language.

Question 14.
Explain the civilization of Aztecs?
Answer:
In the twelfth century, the Aztecs had migrated from the north into the central valley of Mexico (named after their god Mexitli). They expanded their empire by defeating different tribes, who were forced to pay tribute. Aztec society was hierarchical. The nobility included those who were nobles by birth, priests, and others who had been awarded the rank.

The hereditary nobility were a small minority who occupied the senior positions in the .government, the and the priesthood. The nobles chose from among them a supreme leader who ruled until his death. The king was regarded as the representative of the sun on earth.

Warriors, priests and nobles were the most respected groups, but traders also enjoyed many privileges and often served the government as ambassadors and spies. Talented artisans, physicians and wise teachers were also respected.

Since land Was limited, the Aztecs undertook reclamations. They made chinampas, artificial islands, in Lake Mexico, by weaving huge reed mats and covering them with mud and plants. Between these exceptionally fertile islands, canals were constructed on which, in 1325, was built the capital city Tenochtitlan.

Its palaces and pyramids rose dramatically out of the lake. Because the Aztecs were frequently engaged in war, the most impressive temples were dedicated to the gods of war and the sun.

The empire rested on a rural base. People cultivated corn, beans, squash, pumpkins, manioc root, potatoes and other crops. Land was owned not by individuals but by clans, which, also organised public construction works, Peasants, like European serfs, were attached to lands owned by the nobility and cultivated them in exchange for part of the harvest.

The poor would sometimes sell their children as slaves, but this was usually only for a limited period and slaves could buy back their freedom.
The Aztecs made sure that all children went to school. Children of the nobility attended the calmecac and were trained to become military and religious leaders.

All others went to the tepochcalli in their neighborhood, where they learned history, myths, religion and ceremonial songs. Boys received military training as well as training in agriculture and the trades. Girls were trained in domestic skills.

In the early sixteenth century, the Aztec empire was showing signs of strain. This was largely to do with discontent among recently conquered peoples who were looking for opportunities to break free from central control.

Question 15.
Describe the civilization of the Mayas.
Answer:
The Mayan culture of Mexico developed remarkably between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries, but in the sixteenth century they had less political power than the Aztecs. Com cultivation was central to their culture, and many religious ceremonies were centred on the planting, growing and harvesting of com.

Efficient agricultural production generated surplus, which helped the ruling classes, priests and chiefs to invest in architecture and in the development of astronomy and mathematics. The Mayas devised a pictographic form of writing that has only been partially deciphered.

Question 16.
What was the largest civilization in the South America. Discuss.
Answer:
The largest of the indigenous civilisations in South America was that of the Quechuas or Incas in Peru. In the twelfth century the first Inca, Manco Capac, established his capital at Cuzco. Expansion began under the ninth Inca and at its maximum extent the Inca empire stretched 3,000 miles from Ecuador to Chile.

The empire was highly centralised, with the king representing the highest source of authority. Newly conquered tribes were absorbed effectively; every subject was required to speak Quechua, the language of the court. Each tribe was ruled independently by a council of elders, but the tribe as a whole owed its allegiance to the ruler.

At the same time, local rulers were rewarded for their military cooperation. Thus, like the Aztec empire, the Inca empire resembled a confederacy, with the Incas in control. There are no precise figures of the population, but it would seem that it included over a million people.
Like the Aztecs, the Incas too were magnificent builders.

They built roads through mountains from Ecuador to Chile. Their forts were built of stone slabs that were so perfectly cut that they did not require mortar. They used labour-intensive technology to carve and move stones from nearby rock falls. Masons shaped the blocks, using an effective but simple method called flaking.

Many stones weighed more than 100 metric tons, but they did not have any wheeled vehicles to transport these. Labour was organised and very tightly managed. The basis of the Inca civilisation was agriculture. To cope with the infertile soil conditions, they terraced hillsides and developed systems of drainage and irrigation.

It has been recently pointed out that in 1500, cultivation in the Andean highlands was much greater than what it is today, The Incas grew com and potatoes and reared llamas for food and labour.

Their weaving and pottery were of a high quality. They did not develop a system of writing. However, there was an accounting system in place – the quipu, or cords upon which knots were made to indicate specific mathematical units. Some scholars now suggest that the Incas wove a sort of code into these threads.

The organisation of the Inca empire, with its pyramid-like structure, meant that if the Inca chief was captured, the chain of command could quickly come apart. This was precisely what happened when the Spaniards decided to invade their country. The cultures of the Aztecs and Incas had certain features in common, different from European culture.

Society was were very hierarchical, but there was no private ownership of resources by a few people, as in Europe. Though priests and shamans were accorded an exalted status, and large temples were built, in which gold was used ritually, there was no great value placed on gold or silver. This was also in marked contrast to contemporary European society.

Question 17.
Discuss the voyages of exploration by Europeans.
Answer:
The people of South America and the Caribbean got to know of the existence of European people when the latter began to sail across the Atlantic Sea. The magnetic compass, which helped identify the cardinal points accurately, had been known since 1380, but only in the fifteenth century did people use it when they ventured on voyages into unknown areas.

By this time many improvements had been made in European sailing ships. Larger ships were built, that could carry a huge quantity of cargo as well as equipment to defend themselves if attacked by enemy ships.

The circulation of travel literature and books on cosmography and geography created widespread interest right through the fifteenth century.

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was a self-taught man who sought adventure and glory. Believing in prophecies, he was convinced that his destiny lay in discovering a route to the East (the ‘Indies’) by sailing westwards.

He was inspired by reading Imago Mundi (a work on astronomy and geography) by Cardinal Pierre d’Ailly written in 1410. He submitted his plans to the Portuguese Crown, only to have them turned down. He had better luck with the Spanish authorities who sanctioned a modest expedition that set sail from the port of Palos on 3 August 1492.

Nothing, however, prepared Columbus and his crew for the long Atlantic crossing that they embarked upon, or for the destination that awaited them. The fleet was small, consisting of a small nao called Santa Maria, and two caravels (small light ships) named Pinta and Nina.

Columbus himself commanded the Santa Maria along with 40 capable sailors. The outward journey enjoyed fair trade winds but was long. For 33 days, the fleet sailed without sight of anything but sea and sky. By this time, the crew became restive and some of them demanded that they turn back.

On 12 October 1492, they sighted land; they had reached what Columbus thought was India, but which was the island of Guanahani in the Bahamas. (It is said that this name was given by Columbus, who described the Islands as surrounded by shallow seas, Baja mar in Spanish.)

They were welcomed by the Arawaks, who were happy to share their food and provisions; in fact, their generosity made a deep impression upon Columbus.

As he wrote in his log-book, They are so ingenuous and free with all they have, that no one would believe it who has not seen of it, anything they possess, if it be asked of them, they never say no, on the contrary, they invite you to share it and show as much love as if their hearts went with it.

Columbus planted a Spanish flag in Guanahani (which he renamed San Salvador), held a prayer service and, without consulting the local people, proclaimed himself viceroy.

He enlisted their cooperation in pressing forward to the larger islands of Cubanscan (Cuba, which he thought was Japan!) and Kiskeya (renamed Hispaniola, today divided between two countries, Haiti and the Dominican Republic).

Gold was not immediately available, but the explorers had heard that it could be found in Hispaniola, in the mountain streams in the interior.
But before they could get very far, the expedition was overtaken by accidents and had to face the hostility of the fierce Carib tribes. The men clamoured to get back home.

The return voyage proved more difficult as the ships were worm-eaten and the crew tired and homesick. The entire voyage took 32 weeks. Three more voyages followed, in the course of which Columbus completed his explorations in the Bahamas and the Greater Antilles, the South American mainland and its coast.

Subsequent voyages revealed that it was not the ‘Indies’ that the Spaniards had found, but a new continent. Columbus’s achievement had been to discover the boundaries of what seemed like infinite seas and to demonstrate that five weeks’ sailing with the trade wind took one to the other side of the globe.

Since places are often given the names of individuals, it is curious that Columbus is commemorated only in a small district in the USA and in a country in northwestern South America (Columbia), though he did not reach either of these areas.

The two continents were named after Amerigo Vespucci, a geographer from Florence who realised how large they might be, and described them as the ‘New World’. The name ‘America’ was first used by a German publisher in 1507.

Abstract

We have seen how, by the ninth century, large parts of Asia and America witnessed the growth and expansion of great empires – some nomadic, some based on 1 -developed cities and trading networks that centred on them.

The difference between the Macedonian, Roman and Arab empires and the ones that preceded them (the Egyptian, Assyrian, Chinese, Mauryan) was that they covered greater areas of territory and were continental or transfer continental in nature.

The Mongol empire was similar. Different cultural encounters were crucial to what took place. The arrival of empires was almost always sudden, but they were almost always the result of changes that had been taking place over a long time in the core of what would become an empire.

Traditions in world history could change in different ways. In western Europe during the period from the ninth to the seventeenth century, much that we connect with modem times evolved slowly the development of scientific knowledge based on experiment rather than religious belief, serious thought about the organisation of government, with attention to the creation of civil services, parliaments and different codes of law, improvements in technology that was used in industry and agriculture.

The consequences of these changes could be felt with great force outside Europe. As we have seen, by the fifth century CE, the Roman Empire in the west had disintegrated.

In western and central Europe, the remains of the Roman Empire were slowly adapted to the administrative requirements and needs of tribes that had established kingdoms there. However, urban centres were smaller in western Europe than further east.

By the ninth century, the commercial and urban centres, Aix, London, Rome, Sienna – though small, could not be dismissed. From the ninth to the eleventh centuries, there were major developments in the countryside in western Europe. The Church and royal government developed a combination of Roman institutions with the customary rules of tribes.

The finest example was the empire of Charlemagne in western and central Europe at the beginning of the ninth century. Even after; its rapid collapse, urban centres and trading networks persisted, albeit under heavy attack from Hungarians, Vikings and others. What happened was called ‘feudalism’.

Feudalism was marked by agricultural production around castles and ‘manor houses’, where lords of the manor possessed land that was cultivated by peasants (serfs) who pledged them loyalty, goods and services.

These lordis in turn pledged their loyalty to greater lords who were ‘vassals’ of kings. The Catholic Church (centred on the papacy) supported this state of affairs and itself possessed land.

In a world where uncertainties of life, poor sense of medicine and low life expectancy were common, the Church showed people how to behave so that life after death at least would be tolerable Monasteries were created where God-fearing people could devote themselves to the service of God in the way Catholic churchmen thought fit.

Equally, churches were part of a network of scholarship that ran from the Muslim states of Spain to Byzantium and they provided the petty kings of Europe with a sense of the opulence of the eastern Mediterranean and beyond.

The influence of commerce and towns in the feudal order came to evolve and change encouraged by Mediterranean entrepreneurs in Venice and Genoa (from the twelfth century).

Their ships carried on a growing trade with Muslim states and the remains of the Roman Empire in the east. Attracted by the lure of wealth in these areas, and inspired by the idea of freeing ‘holy places’ associated with Christ from Muslims, European kings reinforced links across the Mediterranean during the ‘crusades’.

Trade within Europe improved (centred on fairs and the port cities of the Baltic Sea and the North Sea and stimulated by a growing population). Opportunities for commercial expansion coincided with changing attitudes concerning the value of life.

Respect for human beings and living things that marked much of Islamic art and literature, and the example of Greek art and ideas that came to Europe from Byzantine trade encouraged Europeans to take a new look at the world.

And from the fourteenth century (in what is called the ‘Renaissance’), especially in north Italian towns, the wealthy became less concerned with life after death and more with the wonders of life itself. Sculptors, painters and writers became interested in humanity and the discovery of the world.

By the end of the fifteenth century, this state of affairs encouraged travel and discovery as never before. Voyages of discovery took place. Spaniards and Portuguese, who had traded with northern Africa, pushed further down the coast of western Africa, finally leading to journeys
around the Cape of Good Hope to India which had a great reputation in Europe as a source of spices that were in great demand.

Columbus attempted to find a western route to India and in 1492 reached the islands which the Europeans called the West Indies. Other explorers tried to ’ find a northern route to India and China via the Arctic.

European travellers encountered a range of different peoples in the course of their journeys. In part, they were interested in learning from them.

The papacy encouraged the work of the North African geographer and traveller Hasan al-Wazzan (later known in Europe as Leo Africanus), who wrote the first geography of Africa in the early sixteenth century for Pope Leo X.

Jesuit churchmen observed and wrote on Japan in the sixteenth century. An Englishman Will Adams became a friend and counsellor of the Japanese Shogun, Tokugawa Ieyasu, in the early seventeenth century.

As in the case of Hasan al-Wazzan, peoples that the Europeans encountered in the Americas often took a great interest in them and sometimes worked for them.

For example an Aztec woman – later known as Dona Marina – befriended the Spanish conqueror of Mexico, Cortes, and interpreted and negotiated for him.

In their encounters, Europeans were sometimes cautious, self-effacing and observant, even as they frequently attempted to establish trade monopolies and enforce their authority by force of arms as the Portuguese attempted to do in the Indian Ocean after Vasco da Gama’s arrival in Calicut (present-day Kozhikode) in 1498.

In other cases, they were overbearing, aggressive and cruel and adopted an attitude of superiority to those they met, considering such people ignorant. The Catholic Church encouraged both attitudes.

The Church was the centre for the study of other cultures and languages, but encouraged attacks on people it saw as ‘un-Christian.

From the point of view of non-Europeans, the encounter with Europe varied. For much of the Islamic lands and India and China, though, Europeans remained a curiosity until the end of the seventeenth centuiy. They were perceived as hardy traders and seamen who had little to contribute to their sense of the larger world.

The Japanese learnt some of the advantages of European technology quickly-for instance, they had begun large-scale production of muskets by the late sixteenth century. In the Americas, enemies of the Aztec empire sometimes used Europeans to challenge the power of the Aztecs.

At the same time the diseases the Europeans brought devastated the populations, leading to the death of over 90 percent of the people in some areas by the end of the sixteenth century.

An Introduction to Feudalism
The term ‘feudalism’ has been used by historians to describe the economic, legal, political and social relationships that existed in Europe in the medieval era.

Derived from the German and word ‘feud’, which means ‘a place of land’, it refers to the kind of society that developed in medieval France, and later in England and in Southern Italy.

In an economic sense, feudalism refers to a kind of agricultural production which is based on the relationship between lords and peasants. The latter cultivated their own land as well as that of the lord. The peasants performed labour services for the lords, who in exchange provided military protection.

They also had extensive judicial control over peasants. Thus, feudalism went beyond the economic to cover the social and political aspects of life as well.

Although its roots have been traced to practices that existed in the Roman Empire and during the age of the French king Charlemagne (742 – 814), feudalism as an established way of life in large parts of Europe may be said to have emerged later, in the eleventh century.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 1 Sociology & Its Relationship Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 1 Sociology & Its Relationship Short Answer Questions

Short Type Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Write short note on the etymological meaning of sociology.
Answer:
The term sociology has been desired from the Latin word Socius me Answer companion and the Greek word ‘Logos’ me Answer study or science. Etymologically sociology me Answer science which is concerned with the association of human beings. In other words it is a science of human society.

Question 2.
Define or explain Sociology.
Answer:
Sociology is a science of society According to Morris Ginsberg “Sociology is the study of human interactions and inter-relations their conditions and consequences”.

Question 3.
Write a short note on the nature of Sociology.
Answer:
Some sociologist opines that sociology is a science some other deny it. But sociology is-a social science not a physical science. It. is a pure science not an applied science. It is an abstract science.

It is a general science not a special social science. But science is a matter of degree. Sociology is not a science in terms of yes or no but it has attained scientific character in some degree.

Question 4.
Write short note on George Simmers view.
Answer:
German sociologist George Simmel led formalistic school of thought of scope of sociology He opines that the scope of sociology is very limited. Because sociology confines itself to describe classify, analyse and explain tire several forms of social relationships.

It should not be concerned with their contents He makes distinction between the forms of social relationships and their contents Hence, according to Sirhmel, sociology is the science of the forms of social relationship.

Question 5.
Write a short note on Weber’s view on scope of sociology.
Answer:
Max-Weber is another supporter of formalistic school of thought of scope of sociology. He opines the scope of sociology is limited. Because it confines itself to interpret and understand social behaviour social behaviour is related to behaviour of others.

Question 6.
Write short note on Veirkandt’s view on scope of Sociology.
Answer:
Veirkandt is the supporter of formalistic school of thought of the scope of sociology. He opines that the scope of sociology is limited because it studies only the ultimate from, of mental or psychic relationship which links people to one another in society. These relationships include love, hate, cooperation, competition etc.

Question 7.
Write short note on Vonwiese’s view on scope of Sociology.
Answer:
As a supporter of formalistic school of thought Vonwiese tries to establish sociology as an independent science. He opines that the scope of sociology is very limited because it studies different kinds of social processes in human society. There are two kinds of social processes such as associative like co-operation and dissociative like competition and conflict. Again these process are subdivided in different sub-processes.

Question 8.
Write short note on Durkhcim’s view on scope of sociology.
Answer:
Emile Durkheim is one of the chief exponent of synthetic school of thought of scope of sociology. He opines that the scope of sociology is very wide because it is a synthesis of social sciences.

He opines that sociology has three main divisions such as social morphology, social physiology and general sociology. All these branches are regarded as special sociologies which study all aspects of social life.

Question 9.
Write short note on Morris Ginsberg’s view on scope of Sociology.
Answer:
Morris Ginsberg was another supporter of synthetic school of thought of scope of sociology. He opines that the scope of sociology is very wide and the comprehensive, because it studies all forms of relationships between individual and society. It also studies different problems under social morphology, social process and social pathology.

Question 10.
Write short note on Ilobhouse’s view on scope of sociology.
Answer:
L.T. Hobhouse is another supporter of synthetic school of thought who holds that the scope of sociology is very wide. He opines that sociology is a science which has the whole social life of man as its sphere. Sociology studies social life as a whole. Hence general sociology is a synthesis of different social sciences.

Question 11.
Write short note on Sorokin’s view on scope of Sociology.
Answer :
P.A. Sorokin as a supporter of synthetic school of thought opines that the scope of sociology is very wide. It studies different aspects of social relationships such as economic, political or Sociology studies these general phenomena which are common to different aspects of our life.

Question 12.
Mention different characteristics of Science.
Answer:
(1) Science makes accurate observation.
(2) Science makes experimentation in the laboratory.
(3) Science makes accurate prediction.
(4) Objectivity science possesses the capacity to examine evidences without any prejudice and bias.

Question 13.
Distinguish between formalistic and synthetic schools of thought.
Answer:
(1) George Simmel, Vierkandt, Von Wiese, Weber, Small and Tonnies are the supporters of formalistic school of thought whereas of Emile Durkheim, L.T. Hobhouse, P.A. Sorokin and Morris Ginsberg are the supporters of synthetic school.
(2) Formalistic school opines that scope of sociology is limited whereas synthetic school of thought opines that scope of sociology is very wide.
(3) Formalistic school opines subject matter of sociology consists of forms of social relationships. On the other hand synthetic school of thought opines that sociology is a general science.

Question 14.
Distinguish between Sociology and History.
Answer :
Sociology is a science of society whereas history is a science which studies past events. The scope of sociology is very wide whereas the scope of history is limited. Sociology is an abstract science whereas history is concrete on nature. Sociology is the youngest science but history is older than sociology.

Question 15.
Mention four objections or arguments against Sociology as a Science.
Answer:
(1) Sociology lacks objectivity.
(2) Sociology lacks universal theory
(3) Sociology lacks laboratory experimentation.
(4) Sociology lacks accurate prediction

Question 16.
What is the etymological meaning of Anthropology?
Answer:
The term Anthropology is derived from two Greek wordsArithropos means man and Logosmeans study. Accordingly the etymological meaning of anthropology is the study of man.

Question 17.
What is Social Anthropology
Answer:
Social anthropology is similar with sociology. It is concerned with social institutions. Patterns of social organization and other aspects of society.

Question 18.
What is Physical Anthropology?
Answer :
Physical anthropology tries to study both primitive and modem cultures by studying physical traits like shape and size of skills and artifacts like pottery etc.

Question 19.
What is Archaeology?
Answer:
It is concerned with the early periods of human existence prior. to the written records. It is also called as pre-history.

Question 20.
What is Formalistic or Specialists School of thought?
Answer:
There is no unanimity among sociologist, regarding the exact scope of sociology. As a result there are two main schools of thought about the scope of sociology such as Formalistic or Specialists School of thought and synthetic school of thought. The Formalistic School or thought is led by the German Sociologist George Simmel and others like Alfred, Vierkandt, Leopold, Vonwiese, Max-Weber, Small and F. Tonnies.

According to this school and its supporters the subject matter of sociology consists of forms of social relationships. Besides it regard sociology as a pure and independent science which has a limited scope.

Question 21
What is Synthetic School of thought?
Answer:
There is one unanimity among sociologists regarding the scope of sociology. As a result two main school of thought about the scope of sociology come to exist one is formalistic and the other is synthetic school of thought.

The synthetic school of thought arises in reaction to die formalistic school of thought. The main supporters of this school of thought are Emile Durkhehji, L.T. Hobhouse, P.A. Sorokin and Morris Gipsberg. They believe that sociology is a synthesis of the social sciences. They opine sociology is a general science and not a pure science.

Question 22
Answer:
The Formalistic School of thought consider sociology as a pure and independent science which has limited scope. Though this school of thought has been advocated by many sociologists still it has been criticised by many on the following grounds.

(1) The formalistic school of thought has narrowed down the scope of sociology. It makes it scope very limited.
(2) Sociology alone does not study of forms of social relationships other. Social sciences like Pol. Science and Economics also study it. Besides the distinction between the fonts of social relations the theory contents is not practicable as designed by this school of thought.

Question 23.
Sociology is a Science. Give your arguments in its favour.
Answer:
Sociologists are not unanimous in their opinion about the exact nature of sociology. Some say it is a science whereas some others deny it. But the founding father of sociology took it for granted that sociology is a science. They opine the scientific nature of a subject can be assessed by the scientific method it adopts. However, sociology is a science because of the following reasons:

(1) Observation is possible in sociology. In most of the cases sociology make accurate observation like natural sciences.
(2) Experimentation is also possible in sociology. Sociology possesses laboratory like natural sciences. The whole social world is the laboratory of sociology.

Question 24.
‘Sociology is not a Science’. Justify your arguments.
Answer:
During recent years every subject claims the status of science. So also sociology. But there is no unanimity among sociologists regarding the exact nature of sociology. Some say sociology is a science but some other say that sociology is not a science. Those who deny sociology the status of science they put forth the following arguments:

(i) Sociology lacks objectivity hence can’t be a science.
(ii) Sociology lacks experimentation.
(iii) Sociology lacks a general or universal theory.

Question 25.
Discuss about the nature or characteristics of Sociology.
Answer:
(1) Sociology is a social science and not a physical science.
(2) Sociology is a categorical science and not a normative science.
(3) Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science.
(4) Sociology is an abstract science and not a concrete science.
(5) Sociology is a general science and not a particular science.
(6) Sociology is a general science and not a special social science.
(7) Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science.

Question 26.
Discuss in brief about the relationship between Sociology and Political Science.
Answer :
The relationship between Sociology and Political Science is very close, intimate and personal. As both are considered as social sciences, hence there exists a great deal of relationship between the two. As sociology studies man’s social life as a whole hence the subject matter of political science comes within the field of sociology.

Similarly, political science is concerned with the political life of man which is a part and parcel of man’s social life. Political science studies state, government, politics and power. But its main subject of study is state. Similarly, sociology and every political problem has social aspects so also each and every social problem has political aspects.

Question 27.
Distinguishes between Sociology and Political Science.
Answer:
Inspite of close relationship between sociology and political science both the sciences are different from each other in the following way:
(1) Sociology studies the whole society and all aspects of human life. But political science studies only the political aspects of society.
(2) The scope of sociology is very wide whereas the scope of political science is very limited.
(3) Sociology studies both organized and disorganized societies whereas political science studies only politically organized.

Question 28.
Discuss about the relationship between Sociology and Economics.
Answer:
As mother of all social sciences sociology has-close relationships with all other social sciences so also with economics. Both influences each other Economics is considered as a branch of sociology.

As a social science Economics studies human behaviour in relation to unlimited ends and scarce means Economics activities to a great extent are social activities. The study of Economics would be incomplete without an understanding of society. Each and every social problem has economic causes so also every economic problem has same social causes.

Question 29.
Discuss in brief the close relationship between Sociology and Psychology.
Answer :
As the mother of all social sciences, sociology has close relationship with psychology. Both are mutually dependent on each other. Both studies human behaviour. In many occasions sociology resembles psychology. Psychology depends on sociology for understanding of human nature properly. Sociological researches have contributed a lot to psychology.

Similarly psychologists analyse the role of society to the development of social behaviour. Sociologists take the psychological factors into consideration while standing changes in social structure psychological theories have explained the origin of social institutions. Almost all social problems have psychological causes. Similarly-every psychological problem has social causes.

Question 30.
Discuss the differences between Sociology and Psychology.
Answer:
Inspite of some close and intimate relationships are find the following differences between sociology and psychology.
(1) Sociology studies society as a whole whereas psychology studies human mind.
(2) The scope of sociology is very wide whereas the scope of psychology is very limited
(3) Sociology is a much younger science whereas psychology is a older science.
(4) Sociology studies different social processes whereas psychology studies different mental processes.

Question 31.
Discuss in brief the close relationship between Sociology and Anthropology.
Answer:
Sociology is a science of society. But Anthropology is a science of man and his work. The relationship between these two sciences are very close, intimate and personal. Both study human society and are concerned with all kinds of social groups, like families, tribes and nations etc. Social Anthropology a branch of sociology is almost similar with that of sociology many ideas and concepts in one discipline are used in the other.

Question 32.
Point out some differences between Sociology and Anthropology.
Answer:
Though there exists a great deal of relationship between Sociology and Anthropology still both sciences differ from each other in the following ways :
(1) The scope of sociology is very wide whereas the scope of Anthropology is very limited.
(2) Sociology studies modem, civilized and complex societies whereas Anthropology studies pre-literate aboriginal and primitive people only.
(3) Sociology is the science of society whereas Anthropology is the science of man and his work.

Question 33.
Discuss the relationship which exists between Sociology and History.
Answer:
Sociology is considered the mother of all social sciences. As a mother of all social sciences, it has a close relationship with history as well. The relationship between the two is very close intimate and personal because both sociologists and historians study human society. History studies the past, political, social, and economic aspects of society.

Sociology also teaches in these areas. Both sciences have many things in common. History provides materials that are used by sociologists. Similarlysociology provides facts that the modem historians relied on. History contains records of the society.

Question 34.
Discuss the differences between History and Sociology.
Answer:
Inspite of the close and intimate relationship between history and sociology, both the sciences differ from each other in the following way:
(1) The scope of sociology is very wide whereas the scope of history is very limited.
(2) Sociology studies the present society whereas history studies the past events of society.
(3) Sociology is an abstract science but history is a concrete science.
(4) Sociology is an analytical science whereas history is a descriptive science.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 History Solutions Unit 5 Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 5 Short Answer Questions

Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Why it is said, Industrialization gave birth to “imperialism”?
Answer:
Industrialization gave birth to imperialism. This is on the nature of the effect of the industrial revolution among the developed nations. As industrialization grew, there also grew keen competition among these advanced countries for finding more raw material abroad and finding more markets for their fences products. Pure economic greed lay at the root of it all. Thus industrialization led to commercialism, colonialism to imperialism. Imperialism to militarism and finally to war.

Question 2.
What is a balance of power?
Answer:
The countries of Europe had agreed upon the balance of power. It meant that no country would be allowed to grow stronger than others. Napoleon was defeated only by a coalition of European powers because France was stronger than any of them. Thus they adopted in 1815 that no single country would be allowed to grow stronger than others.

Question 3.
Who are the big powers of Europe?
Answer:
The big powers of Europe were Britain, Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Italy.

Question 4.
What are the factors which lead to World War-I?
Answer:
The factors that led to war were aggressive nationalism, the intense race for colonization, a mad arms race, the formation of the military alliance, an international crisis, and the absence of an international organization to show the path of sanity.

Question 5.
Who formed the Triple Entente and Triple Alliance?
Answer:
Austria, Germany, and Italy formed Tripple Alliance while France, Russia, and England formed Tripple Entente.

Question 6.
Why Austria declared war against Serbia?
Answer:
Serbia refused to accept the request given by Austria, it declared war upon Serbia. When Russia lent support to Serbia other powers turned toward their respective allies.

Question 7.
Who established socialism and how?
Answer:
The Second or Bolshevik Resolution adopted the ideas of Karl Marx and Dr. Friedrich Engles. These two German geniuses developed their idea of socialism during the days of the Industrial Revolution in Europe.

Question 8.
What is February and October Revolution?
Answer:
Russian Revolution was known as February or October Revolution because the Russian calendar that day was normally thirteen days behind the international calendar. The Russians called these two revolutions of March 1917 and November 1917 as “February” and “October” revolutions because as per their calendar they occurred in the last week of February and October respectively.

Question 9.
What is the Great October Revolution?
Answer:
The Russian Revolution broke out in its second phase in November 1917 and as per the Russian calendar, it was in October in Russia so it is called the great October Revolution.

Question 10.
How the problem of land was a cause of the October Revolution?
Answer:
Peasants had been freed from their bondage to the landlords since 1861. They were unhappy because they were not allowed to own any land and had to also pay a heavy amount as the price for their liberty. Inspired by the poem of Nekrasov, they believed that tillers of the soil must become the owners of the land, which caused the October Revolution.

Question 11.
Who is Lenin?
Answer:
Lenin’s real name was Vladimir Hyich Ulyanov. He was born in 1870 in a middle-class family. While studying law, he was drawn to Marxism.

Question 12.
Why have people lost faith in Czar?
Answer:
After losing the Crimean War and Russo-Japanese War, people in generally lost faith in the Czar.

Question 13.
Which are three periods of the new world order.
Answer:
20th. century would reveal three distinct phases. The first beginning -from 1900AD to 1945 could rightly be classified as the period of the world wars, and the second extending from 1945 -1991 till the dissolution of the Soviet Union is the crucial phase of the 20th century and it is the period of the Cold War. The thirst spanning from 1991 and moving on into the 21st. century is the period of the World Trade Organisation.

Question 14.
When World War – II broke out? Describe events leading to war.
Answer:
World War II broke but in September 1939. A chain of events followed in quick succession after the First World War and all such events led to the outbreak of the Second World War.

Question 15.
What are the main causes of the Second World War?
Answer:
The cause is the failure of the Treaty of Versailles, the rise of fascism and Nazism, the growth of Militarism in Japan, and the French search for security. The rise of communism and its propaganda machinery, the failure of the League of Nations, and the formation of military alliances were all cataclysmic events that paved the path for the outbreak of war.

Question 16.
What is the impact of the Treaty of Versailles?
Answer:
The Treaty of Versailles deprived Germany of its industrial wealth. Its colonial empire broke its military and naval strength. The German General staff was disbanded and its ammunition industry was dismantled. It resulted in inflation unemployment and an acute shortage of food.

Question 17.
How did Italy fight against the consequences of the First World War?
Answer:
The new leadership under Benito Mussolini and his Fascist Party took charge. He propagated the idea that war was inevitable for achieving power.

Question 18.
What is NATO?
Answer:
NATO is North Atlantic Treaty organization. On April 4, 1949, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United States created NATO.

Question 19.
What is the difference between LON and UNO?
Answer:
LON is the League of nations and UNO is United National Organisations. UNO borrowed heavily from its predecessor the League of Nations had certain characteristics which differentiated it from the league. League in actuality since lacked to be a truly international character.

Question 20.
How UNO was formed?
Answer:
The organization has been framed by an international agreement known as the ‘charter’ of the United Nations and the maker of the UN charter, were basically the representatives of the victorious power of the Second World War.

Question 21.
What is the structure of the United Nations?
Answer:
The charter of the United Nation provides for six principal organs. These are

• The General Assembly
• The Security Council
• The Economic and Social Council
• The Trusteeship Council
• The Secretariat
• The International Court of Justice.

Question 22.
What is the composition of the General Assembly?
Answer:
The General Assembly has the states as its members, and all member nations are equally represented in this organ. Each member state is entitled to send 5 representatives and 5 alternate representatives. Irrespective of the number of its delegates present in the General Assembly, each member country is entitled to one vote only.

Question 23.
Explain the jurisdiction of the General Assembly.
Answer:
General Assembly can discuss any issue affecting international peace and security, it cannot discuss any matter falling within the domestic jurisdiction of any member state. Since the General Assembly is not a world parliament, its decisions are not obligatory but only recommendatory in character. Members states are free to accept or reject the decisions of the General Assembly.

Question 24.
What is the role of the Security Council in UNO?
Answer:
The Security Council functions as the executive wing of the UNO as long as there is unanimity among the Big Five. This organ can function very effectively and efficiently. Article – 7 of the charter states that the Security Council like the General Assembly is a primary organ of UNO.

Question 25.
Write four functions of the Security Council.
Answer:

• To maintain international peace and security.
• To investigate any dispute which might lead to international friction.
• To take military action against the aggressor.
• To recommend the admission of new members.

Question 26.
What is ECOSOC?
Answer:
It is a primary organ of the UN and works under the direct supervision of the General Assembly. It consists of 54 members.

Question 27.
Write the seven functional commissions of ECOSOC.
Answer:
The seven functional commissions are:
1) The Statistical Commission
2)Population Commission
3) Commission for Social Development
4) Commission on Human Rights
5) Commission on the Status of Women
6) Commission on Narcotic Drugs
7) Commission on Commodity Trade

Question 28.
What is Trusteeship Council?
Answer:
Trusteeship Council shall be a primary organ of the United Nations. But like ECOSOC the trusteeship council does not have an independent jurisdiction. It is directly subordinated to two other primary organs like

Question 29.
How many types of trust territories are there in Council?
Answer:
There are two types of trust territories
(1) Strategic Trust Territory
(2) Non- Strategic Trust Territory.

Question 30.
Write the four objectives of the Trusteeship council.
Answer:
They are:

1. To further international peace and security.
2. To promote political, economic, social, and educational advancement.
3. To promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedom for all people.
4. To provide equal treatment to all countries.

Question 31.
Explain the three factors on which Trusteeship Council is based.
Answer:
The composition of the Trusteeship Council is based on three factors:

• All the administering powers are to be represented on the Trusteeship Council
• All the permanent members of the Security Council who are not administering powers are also to be represented on the Trusteeship Council.
• The elective members of the Trusteeship Council are

Question 32.
What is the International Court of Justice?
Answer:
Article – 38 of the Permanent Court of International Justice of the League of Nations is an amended form that became Article 38 of the statute of the International Court of Justice of the United Nations. It is UNO’s principal judicial organ and is also designated as one of its primary organs.

Question 33.
What is the composition of the International Court of Justice?
Answer:
The Court consists of fifteen judges, elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council legal luminaries from all over the world are chosen to be represented on this body and basically, judges to the ICJ are chosen on the basis of their qualifications, not on the basis of their nationality. All principal and civilized legal systems of the world are represented in the Court. No two judges can be nationals of the same state.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 1 Sociology & Its Relationship Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 1 Sociology & Its Relationship Long Answer Questions

Long Type Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Briefly discuss about the emerge and development of Sociology.
Answer:
Sociology is the study of the ways in which social experience function in developing maturing and repressing human beings through their interpersonal stimulation. It is the study of social relationship and the various forms which affect them and whatever they affect.

It is a systematic study of society and social institution. Its study started as early as in the 5th Century B.C. more systematic study of the subject has however only recently started.

Science of sociology as we understand it today emerged very late. Attempts to understand social phenomena have been made since earliest times. The Greek Philosopher Plato and Aristotle attempted an analysis of the only community of those days. Their investigation resulted in deflecting the character of an-ideal social order.

However, they were prejudiced to defined their own social system and found fault with their systems. They did not favour a change though social life is never static, it is definitely dynamic.

It is hue that old order change yielding place to new Among the Roman the most outstanding thinker is cicero. He gave the tributes to Greek learning in philosophy politics law and sociology to the western world. The Roman were however more concerned with law.

In India too, the society has always remained the most important subject of study Hindu Shastras discuss at large about the way one should behave individually and in society Upanishads Sutras and Puranas, Manu Smruti discuss in detail about the observance of moral laws and duties which is the highest Dharma.

There is a clear mention of the four ashrams and the clear instructions to be followed by an individual for the well-being of the society. Our sages and Roishis have discussed at length the duties and responsibilities of each and every man in society Kautilya’s Arthshastra lays down the duties of the ruler and the people to make an ideal society. He has discussed as length the economic social and political life of man in society.

In the Mughal period the celebrated scholar Abul Fazal of Akbar ‘s court has discussed at length in Ain-i-Akbari about the social institutions of those day, one can get a fairly good idea of state and society in those days.

It was until the 16th Century that clear cut distinction was made between state and society and there were writers who treated life’s problems on a more realistic plan. Hobbes and Machiavelli were the most distinguished one among those thinkers who studied state and statecraft and discovered the principles which go to make an ideal state and society.

The ‘Prince’ of Machiavelli is devoted chiefly to an exposition of the principles governing the successful state. Another scholar Sir Thomas more in this Itopia published in 1515 tried to deal with everyday social problems thereby depicting on an ideal social order which was meant to serve as an example to others to be emulated.

He presented a picture of ideal life as a way of painting out what real life of an individual should be on real life. Other thinkers who made rich contribution in the exposition of social life and institutions were Sir Frances, Bacoft and James Harrington in their works New Atlarris and The Common Wealth of Nations respectively.

Development of Sociology:
In Italy Vico and in. France Montesquieu made notable contribution in the development of sociology as a science of social relationship. They studied social life and human behaviour in all its aspects. Vico in his great work.

The New Science contended that society was subject to definite laws which can be observed through objective observation and study. Montesquieu in his book, “The Spirit of laws analysed the role of external factors like climate etc. on human societies.

The laws determining national character were to be explained in the light of social and geographical conditions under which man loved. Credit goes to Auguste Comte who is rightly the fathers of sociology who sought to establish a science embracing the totally of human life and activities.

In the evolution of society it has to traverse through three stages of social development theological stage metaphysical stage and scientific stage.

Man has now reached the scientific stage so far his thinking about natural phenomenon is concerned but his thinking about society was still in the metaphysical stage with the publication of origin of species by Darwin it was made clear that all complete forms of life gave evolved from the simple process of survival of the fittest and natural selection.

Herbert Spencer attempted to integrate all the sciences into one system and to find one fundamental law that would explain all phenomena physical and social.

He pointed out that the social phenomena like the organic undergo an evolutionary process of growth from the simple and homogenous to the complex and heterogeneous. The primitive man represented the sample human type from which civilised man evolved. Spencer occupies the foremost place in the biological school of sociology”

Psychological Approach:
Herbert Spencer’s theory of organic evolution of society was displaced by psychological interpretation of social life. By the beginning of 20th Century Mac Dongal G Wallace and Hobhouse in England and Ward.

Giddings and Dewey on America tried to interpret social evolution in psychological terms Durkheim was the first modem thinker who emphasized on social facts and provided a separate ground to sociology from that of psychology.

According to him social facts and provided a separate ground to sociology from that of psychology. According to him social facts are extreme and exercise constraints our individuals. He gave a new direction to the study of sociology.

Study of sociology in India started in 1919 at the university of Bombay, but it was in 1930 that its study as a separate discipline was started. Thus it is clear that many individuals and thinkers on their own way and in their Own times tried to discuss social institution and systems.

Question 2.
How did Sociology Emerge?
Answer:
Sociology is the science of society and its institutions. It is considered as one of the youngest social sciences. There has been numerous factors that can be attributed to the development of the subject in the historical perspective, specially in the Nineteenth Century.

It is true that we can find in the writings of philosophers religions and legislatures of all civilizations and epochs observations and ideas which are relevant to modem sociology.

Kautilya’s Arthashashtra and Aristotle’s politics analyse political systems in ways which are still of interest to the sociologist. Nevertheless there is a real sense in which a new science of society and lot merely a new name was created in the Nineteenth Century.

It is worthwhile to consider the circumstances in which this happened and examine the characteristics which distinguish sociology from earlier social thought.

The conditions which gave use to sociology were both intellectual and social. Naturally these were inter-woven and an adequate sociological history of sociology which has not yet been attempted would have to take account of these inter-connections.

In fact, literature concerning the subject matter of sociology is not of recent origin.

But the name to this subject matter was not given before Auguste Comte who in his work course i.e. philosophic (Positive Philosophy) clearly emphasized the need for a distinct subject for studying the society and in his endeavour he first named it as social physics but later remained it sociology which is universally accepted as proper title, and by virtue of this Auguste Comte is called the father of sociology.

Question 3.
Describe the scope of Sociology.
Or
Define Sociology and discuss its scope.
Answer:
(1) Auguste Comte, the founding father of sociology, defines sociology as the science of social phenomena “subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation”.
(2) Morris Ginsberg defines sociology in the following way: “In the broadest sense, sociology is the study of human interactions and interrelations, their conditions and consequences”.

There are wide differences of opinion about the scope of sociology. It is maintained by some that sociology studies everything and anything under the sun. This is rather too vague and vast a view about the scope of sociology. As a matter of fact sociology has a limited field of enquiry and deals with those problems which are not dealt with by other social sciences.

Sociology is the study of human inter-relations, interactions their conditions and consequences sociology has for its field the whole life of man in society, all the activities whereby men “maintain themselves in the struggle for existence, the rules and regulations which define their relations to each other, the systems of knowledge and belief, art and morals and any other capacities and habits acquired and developed in the course of their activities as members of society.

There are two views about the scope of sociology:
(1) Specialistic or Formalistic School; and
(2) Synthetic school.

(1) The Specialistic or Formalistic School: This school of thought is led by the GermAnswerociologist George Simmel. The other main advocates of this school are Vierkandt, Max Weber, Small, Von Wise and Tonnies. Simmel and others are of the opinion that sociology is a pure and an independent science.

As a pure science it has a limited scope. Sociology should confine itself to the study of certain aspects of human relationships only. Further, it should study only the forms of social relationships but not their contents.

Social relationships such as competition, subordination, division of labour etc. are expressed’ in different fields of social life such as economic, political, religious, moral, artistic etc.

Sociology should disentangle the forms of social relationships and study them in abstraction. Sociology as a specific social science describes, classifies and analyses the forms of social relationships.

Vierkandt says that sociology concerns itself with the ultimate form of mental or psychic relationship which links men to one another in society.

He maintains that in dealing with culture, sociology should not concern itself with the actual contents of cultural evolution but it should confine itself to only the discovery of the fundamental forces of change and persistence. It should refrain itself from making a historical study of concrete societies,

Max Weber opines that the aim of sociology, is to interpret or understand social behaviour. But social, behaviour does not cover the whole field of human relations.

He further says that sociology should make an analysis and classification of types of social relationship.
Small insisted that sociology has only a limited field. Von Wiese and Tonnies expressed more and less the same opinion.

1. It narrows the scope of sociology to merely abstract forms.

2. Abstract forms separated from concrete relations can not be studied. Study of social relationships remains barren if it is conducted in the abstract without full knowledge of the terms to which in concrete life they relate.

3. The conception of pure sociology is impractical. No social science can be studied in isolation from other social sciences.

4. Sociology alone does not study social relationships. Political science. Economics and International law also study social relationships.
Thus the formalistic school extremely narrows and confines the fields of sociology.

(2) Synthetic School: In reaction to the formalistic school of thought there arose the synthetic school. This school hold the view that sociology is a synthesis of all social science. The main exponents of the synthetic school of thought are, Emile Durkheim, Hobhouse, P. Sorokin and others. According to Durkheim sociology has three principal division, viz.,
(i) Social morphology,
(ii) Social physiology and
(iii) General sociology.

Social morphology covers the geographical settings, the density of population, etc., social physiology deals with such dynamic processes as religion morals, law, economic life, etc. Each of these becomes the subject matter of a special discipline like sociology of religion sociology of morals, sociology of law and so on.

General sociology is an attempt to discover the general social laws manifest in the specialized social processes to this he regards as the philosophical part of sociology. Hobhouse also holds a view similar to that of Durkheim regarding the functions of sociology. According to him sociology should be a synthesis of numbers social sciences. It should include other science in its scope.

According to Sorokin, the subject- matter of sociology includes.
(i) The study of relationship between the different aspects of social phenomena.
(ii) The study of relationship between the social and non-social.
(iii) The study of general features of social phenomena.
From the foregoing discussions on the scope of sociology it can be conveniently concluded that the range of this science is very wide. Sociology is regarded as a general. Science as well as a special science like all other sciences, the subject matter of sociology is society.

Question 4.
Explain the nature of Sociology.
Answer:
Certain elements are essential before any study can be regarded as science. The essential characteristics of science are the following:
(1) The scientific method consists of minute and careful observation, recording, classification, generalisation and verification. A science is so called not because of its subject matter but because it employs the scientific method.
(2) Science is the study of facts. Its subject matter is facts not ideals.
(3) Scientific principles are universal. They hold true irrespective of the temporal and spatial order.
(4) Scientific law is vertical. Its validity can be examined at any time and tested any number of times. It will prove true in every case.
(5) Science searches for the cause and effect relationship in its subject matter and in this connection provides universal and valid laws.
(6) Science can also make predictions on the basis of universal and valid laws relating ‘ to the cause effect relationships in any subject. The foundation of science is based upon a faith in causality. What will happen can be predicted by basing the prediction upon what is, for the law of cause and effect is universal and inevitable.

Some objections against sociology being called a science are the following:
(1) An objective and unbiased study can not be made in sociology. It is because the sociologist has to resume the dual role of both the doctor and the patient. He is also a part of that very society with his studies.

(2) The objection which has been raised to challenge the scientific status of sociology is the lack of laboratories. Sociology as a science can neither catch, nor see neither weigh nor analyse its fundamental elements in the test tube of a laboratory. The relation at cooperation or non-cooperation of love and hatred are such which cannot be studied under any microscope. Sociology makes the world its laboratory for its purposes.

(3) It is alleged that the knowledge of sociology is not exact as that of physical sciences., Society cannot be weighed in the balance nor tested in the test tube. The socialist himself is a part of society.

(4) Critics raise objections that sociology cannot make predictions. It is true we can not hope for the same degree of the capacity of prediction from sociology which can be found in physics and other sciences. Sociology can lay claim to being a science because it employs
the scientific method m its study.

Its exactness, the capacity to predict, the possibility of measurement in it etc. are comparatively less than the physical sciences in view of the unique subject matter. But, it can, despite these factors be called a science. Since a number of other sciences are sciences in spite of all these drawbacks.

Question 5.
Define sociology and discuss its relationship with Economics.
Answer:
(1) “The subject matters of sociology is the interaction of human minds”- L.T. Hobhouse
(2) “Sociology is the study of relationships between man and his environment”- II.P. Fairchild

Relation: Sociology and Economics are closely related to each other. Because society is greatly influenced by economic factors and economic processes are largely and determined by the environment of society. Economics is a science which deals with production consumption and distribution of wealth. It studies the economic life of man.

The economic factors plays a vital role in every aspect of our social life. Total development of individual depends very much on economic factors without economic conditions the study of society is quite impossible social life of man is greatly influence by economic factors. The sociologists study present social problems with the help of economics. All the social problems are directly connected with economic conditions of the people.

In the same way Economics is also influenced by Sociology. Economics takes helps from Sociology in order to study the economic welfare of the people. Economic welfare is considered as a part of human welfare and it can be sought only proper knowledge of social laws.

Without the social background the study of Economics is quite impossible because the economic life of the people is directly controlled and regulated by the society.

In order to solve the economic problems the economists have to take into consideration the social phenomena existing at particular period. The Economics is an independent social science whose relation to sociology is one of mutual assistance.

Differences :
(1) Sociology studies all kinds of social relationships but economics deals with only those social relationships which are economic in character.
(2) Sociology is a general social science but economics is a special social science.
(3) The scope of sociology seems to be wider. It has a comprehensive viewpoint but the scope of economics is narrower. It does not have a comprehensive viewpoint.
(4) Sociology is a science of recent emergence but economics has attained an advanced degree of maturity.
(5) Sociology is abstract in nature and less precise also. Social variables are very difficult to measure and to quantity but economics is concrete in nature. It is more precise. economic variables can be measured and quantified more easily and accurately.

Question 6.
Define Sociology and discuss its relationship with History.
Answer:
(1) Park regards sociology as “the science of collective behaviour”.
(2) Small defines sociology as “the science of social relations’’.

Sociology and History are very much interrelated. Like Political science, sociology is becoming one of the most genuine fruits of history to which it is intimately connected. The two sciences are so close that some writers like G Von Bulow refused to accept sociology as a science different from history.

History: History is the reconstruction of man’s past. It is the story of the experience of mankind. It is a record of the human past. It is a systematic record of man’s life and achievements from the dim past to the present. The historian studies the significant events of man in .the order of time. The historian is interested in what happened at a particular time in the past.

Sociology: Sociology as a science of society, on the other hand, is interested in the present Jt tries to analyse human interactions and interrelations with all their complexity and diversify. It also studies the historical development of societies.

It studies various stages of human life, modes of living, customs, manners and their expression in the form of social institutions and associations. Sociology has thus to depend upon history for its material. History with its record of various social events of the past often data and facts to sociologists.

Difference between History and Sociology:
(1) Sociology is interested in the study of the present social phenomena with all their complexity but history deals with the past events of man. It is silent regarding the present.

(2) Sociology is relatively a young social science. It has a very short history of its own. It is not even two centuries old but history is an age-old social science. It has a long story of2000 years or even more.

(3) Sociology is an analytical science but history is a descriptive science.

(4) Sociology is abstract in nature. It studies mostly regular, the recrurrent and the universal but history is concrete. This historian is interested in the unique, the particular and the individual.

(5) Sociology is a generalising science. Sociology seeks to establish generalisations after a careful study of the social phenomena but history is an individualising science. History rarely makes generalisations. It seeks to establish the sequence in which events occured.

(6) Sociology follows the sociological approach. It studies human events from the sociological point of view, i.e., from the view point of social relationships invovled but history studies human events in accordance with the time order. Its approach is historical.

Question 7.
Define Sociology and discuss its relationship with Political Science.
Answer :
(1) “Sociology deals with behaviour of men in groups’ – Kimbal Young
(2) “Sociology in its broadest sense may be said to be the study of interactions arising from the association of living beings”.Gillin and Gillin.

Political science and sociology are intimately related to each other. Political science deals with social groups which live, work and develop under the sovereignty of the state. The state and the social groups cannot be separated from each other. In the same way many social institutions family, church etc. work in close cooperation with the state.

It is the responsibility of the state to give laws to the society. But no law can work successfully unless it has the cooperation of society.

The most significant thing about sociology and modem political theory is that most of the changes which have taken place in the political theory in the last thirty years have been along the line of development suggested and marked out by sociology knowledge of sociology is necessary for understanding the problems of political science because political problems have also a social aspects.

According to Catlin, political and sociology are two facts or aspects of the same figure. According to Comte and Spencer, there is no difference whatsoever between the two.

The laws of the state have a profound influence upon society. It is by means of laws that the Government changes and improves society. But while formulating laws it is necessary to keep in view the mores, traditions and customs of the country. The points of differences between the two are:

(1) Sociology is a science of society,Political science studies political society or government.
(2) Sociology proceeds in its investigation from social view point. But political science has an attitude of authority. Sociology studies both organised and disorganised communities. Political science studies only organised communities.
(3) Sociology studies all kinds of social relationships, political science studies political relationships only.
(4) Sociology studies all forms of society. Political science studies the political society only.
(5) Sociology studies all means of social control. But political science studies only of government recognised means of control.
(6) Difference in approach: Political science starts with the assumption that man is a political being, sociology goes behind this assumption and tries to explain how and why man became a political being.
(7) Sociology deals with unconscious activities also unlike political science with treats only conscious activities of man. Society treats unconscious activities of man also.
(8) Sociology is a general science while political science is special science.

Question 8.
Describe the relationship between Sociology with Psychology.
Answer:
Sociology and psychology are contributory sciences Psychology has been defined as the study of human behaviour. In the words of Thoughtless, “Psychology is the positive science of human experience and behaviour”.

Emphasising the close relationship between sociology and social psychology, Paiere writes that “Social Psychology is to sociology and Psychology, as Biochemistry is to Biology and Chemistry”.

Maclver says that “Sociology in special gives aid to psychology, just as psychology gives special aid to sociology”. To Quota Murphy, “Social Psychology is to study of the way in which the individual comes member of and functions in a social group”.

T.B. Bottomore says that “Social psychology is that part of general psychology which as particular relevance to social phenomena or which deals with the psychological aspects of social life”. Robert. Bierstedt says that ‘ ’Social psychology, serves as bridge between psychology and sociology”.

Maclver and Page have said, “When we study the nature of the individual consciousness which expresses itself in social relationship, we are taking the psychological point of view.

When we study the relationships themselves we take the sociological point of view. Both sciences are concerned with different aspects of an indivisible reality. Individual cannot be understood apart from their relations with one another; the relations cannot be understood apart from the units of the relationship”.

1. Sociology studies society and social groups. It has no primary, interest in the individual, nor in this personality nor in his individual behaviour. But social psychology studies the behaviour of individual in group situation or in society. Its focus of interest in individual and not the society as such.

2. Sociology analyses social processes. But social psychology analyses mental processes of man.

3. Sociology is interested in the social forms and structures within which the behaviour of man takes place. But psychology and social psychology are primarily concerned with the behaviour of individuals as such.

4. Sociology studies in groups themselves and die larger social structure within which both individual and group processes occur. But psychology studies the individual and social psychology the individual in his social groups.

5. Sociology-studies society from the sociological view points. But social psychology studies the individual’s behaviour from the view point of psychological factors involved.

Question 9
Describe the relationship between Sociology and Anthropology.
Answer:
According To Hoebel, sociology and social Anthropology are in their broadest sense are and the same. Evans Pritchard considers social anthropology a branch of sociology.

Sociology is greatly benefited by anthropological studies. Sociologists have to depend upon anthropologists to understand the represent day social phenomena from our knowledge of the past which is often provided by anthropology.

The studies made by famous anthropologists like Radcliff Brown, B. Malinowski, Ralph Linton, Lewie Raymond fifth, Margaret Mead, Evans Pritchard and others have been proved to be valuable in sociology.

Sociological topics such as the origin of family, the beginning of marriage, private property, the genesis of religion, etc. can better be understood in the light of anthropological knowledge.

The anthropological studies have shown that there is no correlation between anatomical characteristics & mental superiority.

The notion of racial superiority has been disproved by anthropology. Further, sociology has borrowed many concepts like cultural area, culture traits, interdependent traits, cultural lag, culture patterns.

The knowledge of anthropology, physical as well as socio-cultural, is necessary for a sociologist. An understanding of society can be gained by comparing various cultures, particularly the modem with the primitive.

Anthropology as a discipline is so closely related to sociology that the two are frequently indistinguishable. Both of them are fast growing. The socio-cultural anthropologists, today are also making a study of the present peoples and their societies. In a number of universities anthropology and sociology are administratively organised into one department.

The conclusions drawn by sociologists have also helped the anthropologists in their studies. For example, anthropologists like Moryan and his followers have come to the conclusion regarding the existence of primitive communism from tire conception of private property in our modem society.

Differences :
(1) Sociology studies the modem, civilised and complex societies but anthropology concerns itself with the simple, uncivilised or primitive and non-literate societies.

(2) Sociologists more often study parts of a society and generally specialise in institutions such as family marriage, or processes, such as social change, social mobility but anthropologists tend to study societies in all their aspects as whole. They concentrate their studies in a given “culture area”, such as Melanesia or Nagaland.

(3) Sociologists study, ‘small’ as well as Targe’ so anthropologists usually concentrate on small societies such as of Naga, Rongma Naga, Khasis, Gond, Bhil, etc.

(4) Sociology makes use of observation, interview, social survey, questionnaires and other methods and techniques in its investigations but anthropologists directly go and live in the communities they study. They make use of direct observations and interviews.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 History Solutions Unit 5 Long Answer Questions Part 1.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 5 Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
When the First World War began and what are its causes?
Answer:
The First World War began in 1914. It ended in 1918. As a war it is unique. It was a war that made all regions of the world take part in it, either directly or indirectly. A century before it, the great wars of Napoleon’s time were limited only to Europe. In other words, before 1914, wars were regional or confined to a continent. But the First World War was a war in which all continents fought on behalf of any one of the two main groups of nations.

Thus, Winston Churchill says, “the great war differed from all previous wars.” The world fought this war for 1565 days from 28 June 1914 to 11 November 1918. Major General Taylor, in his book “History of Modem Wars” describes this war as the bloodiest and the costliest, till 1938.
More than 13 million people died and over 15 million were wounded out of whom 7 million were rendered invalid for the rest of their lives.

These figures are more than twice the total of all wars from 1790 to 1913 taken together. The soldiers killed in the war molded into the soil, and the common people, the civilians, suffered from miseries of starvation, epidemics, massacres, raids, and diseases. The birth rate of many nations came to be affected. The economic losses of a modem war are incalculable.

Speaking of the First World War, Lipson says, “a modem war is fought on two fronts the fighting front and the home front.” Because of the incalculable economic losses in a modem war, “in an economic sense, there are no victors (of a war).” However, according to One account, the world lost 270 billion dollars as a result of the First World War. This great war had no precedent, and it produced a new out¬look to war as an institution.

Causes of the First World War (1914-1918):
The First World War was the first great war of its kind. It involved the big powers and their colonies; as such it was a global war such a great war was bound to have a number of causes at the root of its outbreak. No single cause, however important, could alone have produced such a war. Multiple causes lay behind the outbreak of the First World War.

Aggressive Nationalism :
The first cause of this great war was aggressive nationalism. The French Revolution (1789) had given a new emphasis to nationalism. It came to promote the ideas of nationalism in all countries in general and in Poland, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands in particular. That is why Edmund Burke came to describe the 19th century as the ‘age of nationalism.

During the hundred years from the defeat of Napoleon till the outbreak of the First World War, not only the people in all countries wanted to strengthen their nations but also a sense of national pride led them to work out ways and means for making their nation stronger than other nations.

Industrial Competition:
The second cause of the First World War was the economic competition among the nations as a result of the industrial revolution. It is said, ‘‘Industrialisation gave birth to imperialism.” This is explained by the nature of the effect of the industrial revolution among tile developed nations. As industrialization grew, there also grew keen competition among these advanced countries for finding more raw – materials abroad and finding more markets for their finished products.

Pure economic greed lay at t root of it all. Britain, France, Germany, Spain, and Portugal came to be engaged n a cut-throat competition in Asia and Africa for this purpose. Thus industrialization led to commercialism, commercialism to colonialism, colonialism to imperialism, imperialism to militarism, and finally to war.

Commercial Competition :
Commercialism became the natural cause of the Great War. The primary of every commercial nation was to find out new markets and monopolize those markets for individual purposes. Production of industrial goods must be matched by more sales of those so as to bring more profit and more production.

Thus, to increase sales, new markets were necessary. The more the markets, the more the sale and so, so profit. The British did the same in India, and the European powers and Japan did it to China by the end of the 19th century. There were no accepted rules for international commerce and business was the business of the powers.

Sometimes the interests of one came in conflict with that of another. For example, in Morocco in 1906, there was almost a war between Germany on the one hand and Britain and France on the other. War might have been avoided in such cases, but the relationships grew bitter. This made a final show-down among the rivals almost certain. The First World War came as a climax to this international bitterness.

Colonial Rivalries :
One way of relief from this bitterness was to establish one’s own colonies for oneself. A colony would be only under the ‘mother country’ to whom alone it would give its raw- materials and from whom it would purchase the finished products. Regions in Asia, Africa, and South America came to see competition among these powers for colonization.

Examples of colonial rivalries were many, but the most outstanding ones were Japan’s conflict with the USA and Russia in China, Austro-German rivalry with Russia in the Balkans and Central Europe, and Anglo-German enmity arising out of naval competition and armament. Thus, international friendship and rivalries were already determined, before 1914, out of economic interests.

Imperialist Competition:
Naturally, colonialism led to imperialism, resulting in wars, sometimes small but finally the big one in 1914. The two centuries before the First World War had seen the powerful European countries establishing vast overseas empires for themselves. During the 19th century, in particular, these imperialist countries fought for more colonies.

Just as India was the colonial ‘Jewel’ in the British Crown, so every country including Germany after 1871 wanted to establish colonies or to acquire more colonies. Imperialism stands for power, strength, and forceful domination. In this game of ‘might is right’, there are no rules or referees.

Question 2.
Short Notes on.
Militarism and race for armaments :
Conquest by force was the order of the day during the forty years before the Great War. So militarism was the result of this process. Victory is possible through better and superior military power. The race for armaments began among all. Each power wanted to have the latest, the best, and the most lethal weapons. Advancements in scientific research brought many new, though inhuman, weapons, without better arms, victory is impossible in modem wars.

The race for armaments was a never-ending process. A minor spark in this race was bound to bring in conflagrations; a minor conflict might end up in a major war. Thus, aggressive nationalism, industrial competition, commercial rivalries, colonial competition, imperialism, and militarism made the First World War inevitable. The basic causes were translated to actual war by the following practical causes.

Power Politics:
The big powers of Europe were Britain, Germany, France,- Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Italy. They all looked upon one another with suspicion as all of them were engaged in the competition for more power. The rise of two non-European powers, the USA and Japan, also came to add to this struggle for power.

Thus the relations of nations came to be determined along two lines, namely, the power-politics relationship and the convenient-cooperation relationship. In the former, a friend of a friend and the enemy of an enemy was regarded as friends; the friend of an enemy and the enemy of a friend were enemies. Inconvenient cooperation relationship, two or more countries come together as long as this helped both sides.

The Russain-German friendship till 1882 and the Anglo-Japanese alliance till the war can be cited as two of the many such friendships of the period. This was the game of politics or power politics. Also, in this struggle for power, no country was sure of victory over its enemy in a war, because of the ‘balance of power’.

Balance of Power :
Since the Congress of Vienna, the countries of Europe had agreed upon a ‘balance of power’. It meant that no country would be allowed to grow stronger than others. Napoleon was defeated only by a coalition of European powers because France was stronger than any of them. Thus, they adopted the policy in 1815 that no single country would be allowed to grow stronger than others.

Thus, when a country would not sure of victory over another country, it would not resort to war; and in the absence of war, peace would prevail. From 1815 to 1914, there was no major war except the Crimean War. The peace of this period was due to the balance of power. Lord Hankey, therefore, says that the balance of power “held peace in Europe for the longest time” before the First World War.

Triple Alliance :
But this was an uneasy peace. Countries now decided to safeguard themselves by forming themselves into groups of friends or ‘alliance groups’. Countries with similar interests and having common enemies now came to form themselves into groups or ‘Collective-fronts.’ Germany had defeated France and become the strongest power in Europe. France was now its enemy, determined to avenge the Sedan- defeat. Britain was afraid of Germany.

Austria- Hungary, and Russia were the traditional enemies. After 1882, Germany neglected Russia and openly supported Austria. Italy continued to be the friend of Germany. The Balkan region was now open to domination; Austria-Hungary, with German support, wanted to dominate the region at the cost of Russia. Thus, when Italy, in 1882, decided to join the Austro-German alliance of 1879, the three of them formed the Triple Alliance.

Question 3.
How Germany is responsible for the war?
Answer:
Germany was defeated in the First World War and in the peace conference of 1919, was declared to be guilty of having started the First World War. The defeated party ways take the blame. So, British and French historians say that Germany was primarily responsible for the First World War. This is neither reasonable nor true.

No single individual or country can be held solely responsible for the outbreak of a global war. Germany had become a newly unified nation in 1871. It was rich in natural resources but did not have colonies as markets for its industry. France was defeated by Germany in 1870-71, but France had its colonies, like Britain, years before the birth of Germany in 1871.

Germany, after 1871, was not only the strongest but also the richest in Europe. It was natural for Germany to search for colonies for herself. This brought her into conflict with France, Britain, and Russia. To hold Germany ‘solely’ responsible for these conflicts is unreasonable. For example, for the crisis in Morocco (1906), France and Britain, and even, the USA were as much responsible for the danger to peace as was the German Emperor, ‘Kaiser’ William II.

Bismarck was the first Chancellor of a United Germany. He continued to enjoy the support of his Emperor ‘Kaiser’ William I in all his steps in making Germany a more industrialized imperial power. But when William I died in 1888, his successor William II could not tolerate Bismarck. ‘There can never be more than one horse in a stable.

So, Bismarck was given retirement in 1890 and William II became the sole guardian of German destiny. Wiliam II was an ambitious militant nationalist. ‘Germany was the result of Bismarck’s policy of ‘blood an iron’. The Kaiser now wanted her to dominate the world. For that, Germany was to have a strong navy.

Napoleon’s France suffered because it did not have a strong navy. So, Germany started building up a strong navy for itself. But Britain had the strongest navy in the world and never liked any other country challenging her superior navy. Therefore, when Germany started having an equally strong navy for itself, Britain wanted an early end to this German challenge and worked for it, while putting the blame on Germany for this naval race.

Imperialism could not be the monopoly policy of one nation. When German imperialism rose from strength to strength, Britain and France were alarmed and wanted to destroy it by all means. Germany had joined the race for armaments, started by Britain and others. The Kaiser asked the German people to be strong nationalists and remember their racial, cultural and military superiority always. German industries started producing to their best capacity.

The Germans now wanted to extend their dominance over the Balkans and Central Asia. Germany started constructing the railway lines to Baghdad. The Persian sea was to be made into a German lake. This naturally alarmed the ‘entente’ members. It posed a direct threat to the Russi empire and to the British Empire in India in terms of security. But this German policy was not illegal, though it came to endanger peace in the region.

Question 4.
Why Historians are confused about Russian Revolution?
Answer:
Many historians have confused ideas about the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was 1917 when Russia saw two great revolutions, one in March and the other in November. Each of these was historic*. The March revolution was purely a popular revolution for the overthrow of Tsarist rule. The people, not the Bolsheviks or Mensheviks, not Lenin Stalin, or Trotsky brought about this revolution.

It was spontaneous and leaderless. “The revolution found them sleeping”, comments Lipson on the revolutionary leaders. No revolutionary group or party prepared for it or anticipated it. It is only after Tsarism was overthrown and a provisional government set up in Russia that the revolutionary groups became active.

The Bolshevik revolutionary party, then, successfully brought about the second revolution of the year, in November and captured power under Lenin’s leadership. The latter is known as Bolshevik Revolution, with its ideals of socialism. But the March Revolution was aimed at the liberation of the people from the oppressive rule of the Tsars.

Thus, it can be said that the people of Russia liberated themselves; only after that, the Bolsheviks captured power to teach them the doctrine of socialism as opposed to capitalism. The second Bolshevik Revolution adopted the ideas of Karl Marx and Dr. Friedrich Engels. These two German geniuses developed their idea of socialism during the days of the industrial revolution in Europe.

They called for the overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of socialism in its place. Mainly they wanted all powers of production and distribution for the workers and laborers and from private owners. The means of production, privately owned under capitalism should be socially owned under socialism.

Capitalism stood for profit but socialism stood for service to all the people. Capitalism is based on conflict whereas socialism is based on cooperation. Socialism stood to end the capitalist system of exploitation of man by man. Socialism bridges the gap between the rich and the poor; capitalism widens this gap.

Question 5.
What are ‘February’ and ‘October’ Revolutions?
Answer:
The Russian Revolution of March 1917 can be described as two revolutions or a single revolution that developed in two-phase. The first phase of March 1017 was the political phase. “It sealed the fate of autocracy” and the monarchy was Overthrown. The second phase was the social phase the Bolshevik revolution of November 1917 – which brought into existence the first Republic of the workers.

It is interesting to remember that the Russian calendar of those days was normally thirteen days behind the international calendar. The Russians called these two revolutions as ‘February’ and ‘October’ revolutions because, as per their calendar, these occurred in the last week of February and October respectively.

The roots of the Russian Revolution lie deeply embedded in the history of Russia. Russia is an old country with a rich history. It was a big empire, almost one-sixth of the total land- area of the world. Though most of this empire was in Asia and the rest of it in Europe, Russia historically has been more European than Asiatic.

Since the early 17th century, it was ruled over by the Romanov dynasty. This dynasty was founded by Romanov. The Russians called their emperor as Tsar (of Czar), just as the Ger Emperor was known as ‘Kaiser’. Both these titles are derived from the title of Caesar, which meant the absolute head ofthe empire. Russia was traditionally an orthodox country.

It did not want to modernize itself as others in Europe were doing. Only Tsar Peter, the Great, wanted to modernize Russia with European ideas and ventures. He is said to have opened a ‘window’ to Europe, it was shut down after him till the 19th century when the people came to be in a revolting mood against their oppressive Tsars.

The military defeats of Russia in the Crimean (1854) and Russo-Japanese (1904-05) wars had resulted in popular revolts which were suppressed easily. But the series of defeats(from 1914 till 1917) during the First World War led to a mass eruption (‘February Revolution, 1917) that swept away the Tsars and the old order.

At the beginning of the 19th Century, Tsar Alexander-I was regarded as a leader of Europe. After him, Tsar Nicholas-I came to be an oppressive ruler who even brought the Crimean war for Russia. His successor, Tsar Alexander II brought in some reforms which roused the people more than benefitted them. This Tsar was killed by the extremists called ‘nihilists’.

The last two Tsars, Alexander-Ill (1881 -1894) and Nicholas-II (1894-1917) were oppressive and inefficient. Popular consciousness, roused since the 19th century could not tolerate the Tsars. The people voluntarily rose in revolt and overthrew the last Tsar in February 1917. This first phase is called the ‘February Revolution’.

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Question 6.
What are the causes of the Russian Revolution?
Answer:
Oppressive Rule of Tsars :
Among the many causes of the Russian Revolution of 1917, the first and foremost cause was the oppressive nature of Tsarist rule in Russia. Russia was a country of extremely rich and extremely poor. Tire Tsar and his royal family, ministers, and officials of the empire formed 1.5 percent of the total population but they controlled nearly 98 percent of national wealth and income.

The rest of the population were poor peasants who worked as slaves (serfs till 1861) and were made to pay the tax that was more than their income. Punishment was heavy and the will of the officers was the law of the land. This was possible because Russia was a backward country, depending only on agriculture, without any attempt at industrialization till 1891, and without an educated middle class.

In a word, Russia was a reactionary state in a liberal Europe. Those members of rich families who got liberal education outside Russia from the latter half of the 19th century, returned to Russia to realize how backward Russia was, and wanted to correct the evils of society by educating the masses. The people ultimately came to blame the Tsar for everything.

The poverty of the people and the military defeats of Russia during the First World War made them violent and revolting. Like in the French Revolution (1789), this Russian Revolution began (March 8, 1917) with cries of ‘bread’ and ‘down with autocracy’. The place of Par in the French Revolution was taken by Petrograd in the Russian Revolution.

The misery of the People of Russia:
The miserable condition of the Russian people was the next cause. The people were poor and illiterate. They had no independent income till 1861 because they worked as ‘Serfs’ in the agricultural lands of their masters (Gentry). After 1861 when the ‘Serf system was abolished, they became agricultural laborers without any land for themselves on a permanent basis.

They were heavily taxed and were also forced to pay an additional tax for having been made free from ‘Serf status. The rotation of land allotments among them made agriculture suffer. No modem methods of cultivation and the total absence of industries (till 1891) made them groan under poverty. Families were frequent. Whatever little industrialization took place after 1891 failed to satisfy the revolutionary mood of the industrial workers.

Peasants and Workers :
The popular unrest of the peasants and industrial workers was directed against the Tsar. People were convinced that Tsar cannot solve their problems of poverty, nor could he bring Russia any wealth and glory. So the people rose in rebellion against Tsar Nicholas II. They had nothing to lose and everything to gain. This was their mood on March 8, 1917.

Question 7.
Discuss the rise of the middle class and political parties.
Answer:
The rise of the middle class in Russia and their role in the revolution was the third cause. As mentioned earlier, the second half of the 19th century saw the rise of an educated middle class. The members of this middle class were educated in Europe. They realized that Russia was poor because her people were neither educated nor conscious of nationalism.

So, they started educating the people. The Tsar’s government wanted to prevent them from doing so, by threats of punishment and exile. So, they organized themselves into political parties, like the Social Democrat and the Social Revolutionary parties. Leaders like Plekhanov worked to strengthen the political parties with grass-root support and organization.

Even extremists like ‘nihilists’ came to carry out their programs for the overthrow of Tsarism with popular support. Tsar Alexander-II was killed by the nihilists in 1881 .’Tsar Alexander III then wanted to root out the nihilists. These revolutionaries were underground, organized popular support for them, and worked tirelessly for a revolution to overthrow Tsarism.

Military Defeats:
Military defeats of Russia during the first three years of the First World War I made the people of Russia violent against Tsar Nicholas II. Russians, by nature, are sensitive about national glory. So, whenever Russia lost a war, the people rose in revolt against the Tsar. In 1856, they revolted against Tsar Alexander II for Russia’s defeat in the Crimean war in 1905 they did so against Tsar Nicholas II for Russia’s defeat in the war with Japan. They would never forgive Tsar Nicholas II for a second time for the military defeats from 1914 to 1917.

Racialism:
Racialism of the Tsars was another cause of the revolution, Russia had a large number of Jews. The Jews were rich but without a homeland. The policy of Tsar Nicholas II was to capture the wealth of the Jews by killing them for any slight excuse. He organized ‘pogroms’ in Russia where Jews in large numbers would be assembled and then massacred. This led the Jews in Russia to oppose the racialist policy of the Tsar. They got the support of the Poles, Finns, Muslims, and other subjects of Russia.

Rasputin :
Another cause of the February Revolution was the notorious role played by Rasputin in the governance ofRussia. Rasputin was a Siberian monk. He was invited by the Tsar and the Tsarina to the palace at St. Petersburg, the capital of Russia The cause of this invitation was that the baby prince was suffering from a disease that only Rasputin could cure with his magical powers. Rasputin stayed in the palace and won the queen to his side.

The Tsar being away at the battlefields during the First World War, Rasputin influenced the Tsarina to act as per his advice. Soon Rasputin’s words became law. The Tsar also fell for him, as Rasputin was the only hope for the baby prince to be cured. But the people of Russia knew the true nature of Rasputin. They hated him for his oppressive measures. They wanted his removal either by fair or foul means. He was the object of universal hatred and the target of the revolutionaries. He was killed by the revolutionaries in 1916.

Question 8.
What is the ‘Bread’ riot – March 1917, Overthrow of Monarchy and Provisional Govt?
Answer:
Russia was basically an agricultural country. Industries were very few in number. The Russian peasants used to serve as soldiers in the country in times of war. Most of them were busy in the battles that Russia fought during the first three years of the Great War. So agriculture was neglected. Production of food grains fell down so much that a famine-like situation came over the whole country.

Long queues for bread led to disturbances. These led to strikes and protests against the monarchy. On March 8, 1917, the women workers of textile mills in Petrograd came out with a general strike. They demanded ‘bread’. Soon the workers and general public of Petrograd joined them. Cries for ‘bread’ soon took the tone of ‘Down with the War’ and ‘Down with monarchy’.

Within a week the agitation grew into a revolt. The Tsar ordered the Petrograd troops to go and suppress the revolt. Unfortunately, the troops, sent to suppress the revolt, joined the masses and turned against the Tsar himself. The Tsar had no other alternative. He abdicated the throne. The revolt became a revolution.

It was crowned with the success of the fall of the monarchy in Russia for all times to come. The masses set up a Provisional Government. This government abolished the monarchy in Russia and took over the administration of the whole of Russia. The deposed Tsar was murdered in July 1918 along with his family The workers who had overthrown the monarchy soon realized that they themselves cannot form the new government in Russia.

So they offered the reins of the administration of Russia to the middle class of Russia. The latter controlled the national parliament (Duma) and enjoyed the loyalty of the Russian army. The middle-class (bourgeoisie) would prevent any attempt on the part of the royal supporters for a counter-revolution.

So the ‘Petrograd Soviet of workers and soldiers ’ decided to hand over the power to the Duma. Thus ended the first successful phase of 1917, i.e., the ‘February Revolution’, This was purely and primarily a mass movement, sudden and spontaneous. No political party or person had any major role behind it.

The people, the Duma members, and the Petrograd Garrison were the only instruments of this totally leaderless movement. The leaders rose to give shape to the future destiny of Russia only after the Provisional Government took the place vacated by the monarchy for good.

Question 9.
What is the Great October Revolution (November 1917) and what caused the October Revolution?
Answer:
The Russian Revolution broke out, in its second phase, in November 1917. As per the Russian calendar which was behind the international calendar by thirteen days it was October in Russia. So it is called the October Revolution As a revolution, it was monumental and unique. It brought into focus a new ideology and a new dictatorship.

The ideology was Marxism, modified by Lenin to suit Russian conditions. The dictatorship was the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat (workers and laborers)’. Karl Marx, who was bom in Germany and who developed his doctrine of socialism in England, became the prophet of Russia.

Causes Of The October Revolution, 1917 (The Bolshevik Revolution):
First World War and the problem of Peace:
The February Revolution had overthrown Tsarism. But it had not been able to solve certain fundamental issues. The Provisional Government set up by the Duma could neither continue the war for Russia nor could it withdraw Russia from the First World War. The soldiers of Russia were tired of war and defeats. Now they “refused to fight”.

The Russian army had ceased to function, for all practical purposes, after the overthrow of the Tsar. Many in Russia believed that it was a war in which Russia took part due to the wrong policies of the Tsar; now that the Ts&r was no more there, why should Russia suffer by continuing the war? But the Provisional Government could not find a suitable way out of the problem.

Organized political parties used this popular discontent with the Government. The Bolshevik Party of Lenin made it an issue for its revolution. Why should Russia fight the imperialist war, they questioned? They commanded full popular support for this cause. Thus the first c use of the October (or Bolshevik) Revolution centered around the problem of war.

Failure of the Bourgeois Ministry:
The second cause of the October Revolution was the failure of the leadership during February-October, 1917. The Provisional Government was formed by the middle-class (bourgeoisie) ofRussia. This bourgeois ministry was liberal but dependent upon the support of the socialists. Since 1905, Russia had come to have a revolutionary body called “the Soviet of Workers’ deputies.”

It continued as a parallel institution to the Provisional Government after February 1917. The Soviets lost no opportunity to criticize the Government over the latter’s failure. The Provisional Government became extremely unpopular. It came to be known as a ‘Government on sufferance and invited its Overthrow.

The problem of land:
The third cause of the Revolution was the problem of land. Though the peasants had been freed from their bondage to the. land-lords since 1861, they were unhappy because they were not allowed to own any land and had to also pay a heavy amount as the price of their liberty (called redemption dues).

The peasants were unhappy because there was a shortage of land and no ownership of them over the land they cultivated. Inspired by the poem of Nekrasov, they believed that tillers of the soil must become the owners of the land. They were, therefore, for a fresh distribution of land and the dissolution of large land holdings of the big land owners.

With the fall of the Tsar, these peasants now became an important factor in rural Russia No government could ignore them. But the Provisional Government did nothing for them. The peasants ’ disaffection was exploited by the Bolsheviks to their advantage in the October Revolution.

Question 10.
What is ‘October’ or Bolshevik Revolution (7 November 1917) and state its results?
Answer:
The Bolsheviks had an armed guard, called the ‘Red guard’, numbering about 25,000. The number was too little against Government troops. The Bolsheviks won over the Petrograd garrison through its propaganda The Kerensky Government, unpopular due to the Bolshevik propaganda, was now defenseless and helpless Therefore, the Bolsheviks succeeded in over-running this government.

The Bolshevik Revolution began at 2 AM on November 7, 1917, their revolution by capturing the railways, banks, post and telegraph offices, and other government buildings. There was no resistance from the government, no opposition from any quarter to the Bolsheviks. Trotsky described the revolution as highly successful and almost bloodless.

He said, “There is no example in history of a revolutionary movement involving such gigantic masses being so bloodless.” But, without any opposition to it, the Revolution was one of the bloodiest. Yet, the Bolshevik Revolution was a signal triumph and Lenin captured power in Russia on the very day of the Revolution.

Results of the Bolshevik Revolution :
The Bolshevik Revolution is ‘great’ because of its results. These results were as significant for Russia as for the world at large. Firstly, Capitalism was overthrown in Russia. Russia became a dictatorship of the proletariat. It was the first government of its kind in the world. This dictatorship was a government of the proletariat consisting of peasants, soldiers, and industrial workers.

Secondly, all industrial establishments in Russia came to be nationalized. Their old owners were dispossessed and the Government became the owner and manager of all industrial and commercial establishments. Thirdly, all agricultural lands were nationalized. New committees of peasants came to be formed at the village level.

These were to not only allot land to farmers but look after agricultural production while protecting the interests of the farmers. Fourthly, the Soviets of workers came to be formed and these were given the charge of production and distribution. Thus a state of workers and peasants came to be formed. Marx developed his theory for an industrial society.

Lenin modified the theory to suit the agricultural and industrial set-up in Russia. Bolshevism, thus, stands for Marxism- Leninism. Fifthly, Lenin wanted no part in the 1 imperialist First World War. He wanted Russia to withdraw from the war. He had to sign a peace treaty with Germany. Germany dictated the terms of the treaty to Russia.

Though insulting to Russia, Lenin signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in 1918. Russia thereby withdrew from the First World War. Lenin could now focus all attention on the internal reorganization of Russia. Sixthly, the Bolshevik government did not forgive its enemies inside Russia. After November 1917, the government started a ‘Red Terror’.

The deposed Tsar and his family members were killed in 1918. The opponents of the Bolsheviks called upon the ‘Allied Powers’ led by Britain and France to protect their life and property from the Bolshevik’s Red j Terror’. Seventhly, the Civil War in Russia came to be fought between the opponents and supporters of Bolshevism.

The former was led by Gen. Denikin and Admiral Kolchak, with the direct support of the foreign powers. The foreign powers did not want the Bolshevik experiment to succeed in Russia, because if it succeeds, it may infect them like a contagious disease. The foreign and Russian troops fought against the Bolshevik Red Army.

The Civil War continued for three years arid ended with success for Lenin and Bolshevik Russia. After the civil war, Lenin’s Russia came to be known by the new name of the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). Lorain fondly ed that the example of the USSR would inspire the workers and peasants in other countries to start a series of national revolutions.

Eighthly, the Bolshevik Revolution came as an alarm to the world. After 1918, the countries of Europe as well as the USA came to stand as opposed to USSR. The world now witnessed a tug-of-war between Communist Russia and the capitalist countries. Communism came as a new ideology. Fear of Bolsheviks- a type of uprising in their own countries made every Government fearful.

Small countries in Europe and South America were the first to come under the spell of the Bolshevik ideas. Marx had given the slogan “Workers of the world unite you have nothing to lose except your chains.” This became the bible of poor workers everywhere throughout the world. Ninthly, Soviet Russia recovered economically within a short time. This was given as a credit to the Soviet system of nationalization of property and new methods of production and distribution there since 1918.

This came as an example to be followed by people from many countries. For them, it was a reality, though, in reality, it was an illusion. Communism was the enemy of democracy and this was highlighted by the military and economic steps of Lenin and Stalin. Hitler would describe communism as “a bluff, a comedy, a speculation, and a blackmail.” Gorbachev would realize the truth of it in the USSR in 1986.

Question 11.
What is the Treaty of Versailles?
Answer:
Retrospectively with the wisdom of hindsight, one could emphatically assert that the germs of the Second World War could already be seen in the Treaty of Versailles, signed in Paris. In their obsession to cripple Germany, the Alliance, France, and Great Britain in particular, encouraged the development of a revenge psychosis in Germany that needed an opportunity to break the shackles.

The Treaty of Versailles was a symbol of national humiliation for the Germans and it was logical that German nationalism would assert itself to free itself from the obligations of Versailles. It was evident that peace could prevail as long as the status quo of Paris was maintained but when Germany made gross violations of the status quo in 1939, war became inevitable.

Question 12.
What are the features of the Weimar Republic and the rise of Hitler’s Nazi Party?
Answer:
The Allies, by redeeming Germany of the autocracy of King Kaizer William-H, had set up a republic in Germany known as the Weimar Republic. From the outset, however, the Weimer Republic was doomed to failure since it appeared to Germans to be a pliant tool in the hands of the Allies. It was denounced by the Nazi Party as the Weimar Jewish Republic, which more than anything else was responsible for the defeat of Germany.

A feeling soon grew that the Republic not only compromised German nationalism but also symbolized the betrayal of the Fatherland. In 1933, the Weimar Republic was ousted and its place was taken by the National Socialists better known as the Nazi Party of Adolf Hitler. Hitler’s rise to power in Germany paved the way for another global crisis.

Rise of Fascism :
Of the many ominous developments during the interwar period, one that truly convulsed European civilization was the birth and growth of fascism in Italy. The frustration of Italians not being able to extract concessions in Paris after their victory in the First World War led to the collapse of the parliamentary government in Italy.

Italians in their zeal for social and economic stability party promised everything to the Italians. The Fascist Party of Benito Mussolini was against parliamentary democracy and international peace and when in its zeal, it sought to destroy the balance of power in Europe, it invited the Second World War.

Question 13.
What is the Cold war? Its origin and initial actors?
Answer:
The cold war is characterized by a situation where there is neither a direct confrontation nor a lasting peace. It is a situation marked by mutual suspicion, jealousy, hostility, and rivalry. The term ‘war’ implies that a real war was actually going on but that war was fought not by ‘hot’ or nuclear weapons, but by ‘cold’ or conventional arms.

The two superpowers avoided a direct confrontation but met each other indirectly through their respective allies. A mistaken notion that has generally been accepted as a fact is that the cold war originated between the United States and the Soviet Union. Nothing could be more fallacious. The original players in the Cold war were Great Britain and the Soviet Union with the Americans playing the role of mediators.

Such a situation remained unchanged virtually till the end of World War II and the death of American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. As long as Franklin Roosevelt was alive he thought in terms of a new world order where the Americans and Russians would cooperate for the maintenance of international peace and security.

The end of World War II saw the relegation of Great Britain to a distant background depending upon the United States for its survival and the death of Roosevelt brought Harry S. Truman as the new President of the United States. Unlike Roosevelt, Truman detested communism and the Soviet Union, just as much as British Prime Minister Winston Churchill did.

Roosevelt’s political acumen lay in pacifying both Churchill and Stalin, the Soviet Premier. But, Truman’s ascendence to the Presidency saw the Americans be the major opponents of the Russians and after 1945, the Americans replaced Great Britain as the major player in the cold war.

Different views on the cold war:
To trace the origins of the cold war, some historians believe that it started as early as 1917 when the Bolshevik party under VI Leninousted Czarist misrule from Russia after the October Revolution. The Bolshevik victory in Russia led to the establishment of communism which appeared to be a direct challenge to the capitalist world. Hence, to nip communism in the bud, a sustained effort was made by western powers, and therein lies the genesis of the cold war.

Another group of historians however believes that the cold war originated during the course of the Second World War when Churchill and Stalin met for the first time during the Teheran Conference of 1943. Whatever the timing of the cold war, it remains the most, complex political development of the 20th century. All international developments after 1945 took shape under the shadow of the cold war.

Evolving of Cold war in East Europe:
The basis of the cold war, in its initial phase undoubtedly centered on developments in East Europe. For centuries East and West had been struggling with each other for control of the huge area rich inhuman and industrial resources and one that was strategically vital to both sides, either to Russia as a buffer against the west or to Germany and France as a gateway for invasion of Russia.

Till almost 1940, East Europe had sided with the west. But when East Europe was devasted by the marauding Nazi troops, the Russians bore the brunt of the war and were finally successful in liberating East Europe. Russia after 1945 controlled East Europe and this crucial result of World War II destroyed the Grand Alliance between the United States, Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union and gave birth to the Cold War.

The American view of Friendly East European Governments:
The West, with America leading the way, was unwilling to accept Russian domination of East Europe. Although the Anglo-Americans were willing to allow Stalin a major say in the politics of the region and realized that Russian security demanded friendly governments there, they were not prepared to abandon East Europe altogether.

The Americans had a mistaken notion that it was still possible to have East European governments that were both capitalistic but friendly to Russia The Russians on the other hand forcefully put forth their plea that a ‘friendly’ government in East Europe meant only a communist government.

British intervention in Greece starts the cold war:
The first move in the cold war was, however, made by Great Britain when British Prime Minister Churchill intervened in Greece with the help of British ground forces. Though Greece had been liberated by Soviet troops and the Russian troops won the admiration of the Greeks, Churchill could never think of giving up Greece for fear of losing the entire Mediterranean zone. Stalin for the time being allowed the British to move to Greece.

Russian countermove in Poland and Rumania:
But the brazen British action in Greece had profound Churchill and far-reaching consequences and as retaliation to this action, Stalin brought Poland into the Russian fold by according to recognizing the provisional Government there. Then it was the turn of Rumania. Vyshinsky, the Soviet Foreign Minister on February 27, 1945, visited Bucharest, the Rumanian capital, and demanded the dismissal of the coalition government.

On March 6, 1945, a communist-dominated Government was sworn in. Neither the Americans nor the British could raise any objection since the Soviet action in Poland and Romania was an answer to the British action in Greece. Thus the onset of the cold war led to the formal division of Europe and it was reflected in all parts of the world.

The turning point in Soviet-American Relations :
The real turning point in Russo-American relations came during the period between December 1944 and April 1945. It was during this period that the American ambassador to the Soviet Union, Harriman, brought about a drastic changeful his attitude toward the Russians. Till very recently an ardent proponent of close Russo-American ties, Harriman, ring March- April 1945 constantly advised the American foreign office to adopt a tough attitude towards the Russians.

According to him, the Russians had violated the spirit of the Yalta Conference of February 1945 to cooperate with the west for establishing a new world order, through their action in Rumania. Hence Harriman believed that the only way of making the Russians stick to the agreements made by them was to force them to do so.

Death of Roosevelt and Ascendence of Truman:
Another major factor was the death of Roosevelt and the entry of Harry S. Truman as the President of the United States. Truman was new to international diplomacy and personally, he had an intense dislike for communism and the Soviet Union. Whereas Roosevelt always tried to act as a mediator between extreme British and Soviet positions, Truman pushed aside Great Britain to make the United States the chief antagonist of the Soviet Union in the cold war.

Common Enemy collapsed after 1945:
A basic factor that must be home in mind was that there never was any cordiality in Russo-American relations. They had merely come closer during World War II since both found a common enemy in Hitler. With Hitler gone, the Grand Alliance between the East and the West which had been forged during the war, also collapsed.

UN making exposed differences:
The process of the U.N. making also contributed to the growing suspicion between the parties. Stalin, never a proponent of having a strong United Nations, demanded certain built-in devices in the UN charter that would make Soviet participation in the world body meaningful. Russian stubbornness led to the formulation ofthe ‘Veto’ formula in the Security Council ensuring that no issue could pass through the U without the approval of all the five permanent members of the Security Council.

Hard Stance by Americans:
President Truman’s hostility towards the Soviet Union was further demonstrated When he stopped the supply of loans to the Soviet Union. These loans had been promised to the Russians for their help during the war. The Russians had been expecting a large American post-war loan for the purpose of Reconstruction and this sudden stoppage at the end of the war in Europe convinced the Russians of American betrayal.

Question 14.
What is the Truman Doctrine? States its criticism.
Answer:
The genesis of the Truman Doctrine: The American declaration of the cold war came about on March 12, 1947, when President Harry Truman went before a joint session of Congress to deliver a truly epochal speech in American history. President Truman was provoked by the British who shocked Washington by declaring that an economically burdened Britain could no longer sustain a pro-western government in Greece. Great Britain further warned that once they withdrew from Greece, communist guerillas there would receive help from their communist patrons in the Soviet Union which would probably seize control of Greece.

Greece would then gravitate within the Soviet orbit, and the position of neighboring Turkey which was already unstable would become untenable Iodine to the strategically vital eastern Mediterranean fell into Soviet hands with dangerous consequences for the western world. It was imperative, therefore, on the part of the United States as the champion of democracy to intervene in Greece and Turkey to not only save these countries from communist infiltration but also to safeguard western interests in the Mediterranean zone.

Enunciation of the Doctrine :
After hurried consultations with military and congressional leaders, President Truman outlined the situation in Greece and spelled out what was to become known as the Truman Doctrine. What he said in essence was “It must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.”

A bolder statement, far more elaborate in scope could be interpreted when he said “wherever aggression, direct or indirect, threatens the peace, the security of the United States was involved.” The President asked congress to appropriate $400 million for economic aid and military supplies for Greece and Turkey and to authorize the dispatch of American personnel to assist with reconstruction and to provide their armies with proper instruction. Thus the United States began the policy of containment and its initial implementation was to be witnessed in Greece and Turkey.

Justification of the Doctrine :
President Truman justified his position by emphasizing that Soviet expansionist efforts left the United States with no choice but to adopt a countervailing policy. It was further stated that anti-communism had never been a major American policy during the Second World War, but hostile Soviet behavior and words were the reasons for the gradual shift of American policy and public opinion from amity to enmity.

Truman declared that despite, the universalism of the Truman Doctrine, its application was intended to be specific and limited, not global. In other words, containment was to be implemented only where the Soviet state appeared to be expanding its power.

Criticism of the Doctrine :
Despite all the show of morality and democratic pretensions, the Truman Doctrine was far from being flawless. With all talk of democratic purposes, Truman Doctrine’s first application was to Greece and Turkey, neither of which was democratic. One had to shut off one’s reasoning capacity to call Greece of the day or Turkey “free” countries both had unpopular, fascist regimes against which the United States had so recently fought World War II.

Their strategic location was considered more important than their domestic nature. The doctrine had the impact of oversimplifying issues by conveniently dividing the world into two hostile camps – the one free and the other totalitarian and declared that every nation must now choose between the two. This was tantamount to drawing the battle lines.

Henceforward, American policy all over the world was geared toward defining this split – one who is not with me is against me. The United States firmly rejected the existence of a third and middle course and in its anxiety to isolate the Soviet bloc, included all reactionary, undemocratic, and unpopular regimes in the ‘free’ camp.

At home, the Trueman Doctrine came in for severe criticism. It was stated that the scheme would cost too much since communism could not be fought with dollars. Rich though America was she would bankrupt herself by helping bankrupt governments all over the world. Americans by poking their noses into the internal affairs of foreign governments might unite the world against them.

Although Truman had been careful not to mention Soviet Russia by name, there could be no doubt that he was aiming his doctrine at her, with the imminent danger of provoking her into war. Nevertheless, the Truman Doctrine was approved in the House by 297 to 107 and in the Senate by 67 to 23, on May 15, 1947.

The Truman Doctrine was of incalculable significance. Through it, the United States seized the tactical offensive in the cold war to contain communism, Although limited for the present to Greece and Turkey the new policy was actually general in scope and led by dire steps to tire vastly more important Marshall Plan and the North Atlantic Pact.

Question 15.
What is the Marshall Plan?
Answer:
The genesis of the Marshall Plan :
The commitment to Greece and Turkey was only the beginning of the first act under the American project of containing Soviet expansion; Soon, however, the United States realized that aid for only Greece and Turkey was quite inadequate. The war in Europe had devastated the economies of all the countries and western Europe particularly was not making the necessary economic recovery.

The deepest fear was that the Soviet Union would be able to exploit Europe’s post-war economic collapse and if the situation was allowed to prevail, the communists would probably seize control of Italy and France.

American and European interests were interlinked:
The collapse of Europe posed once again the basic question of whether Europe was vital to U.S. security. The answer was obvious since America’s two previous interventions had been made to protect Europe. During both world wars, the United States had been drawn by Germany and both wars had been fought to uphold democracy in Europe.

Europe’s vital importance became quite evident since it ranked second only to the United States in its potential power – in industry, productivity, skilled manpower, scientists, and technicians. If these vital assets moved toward the Soviet side the strategic military balance would swing sharply toward the Russians and U.S. security would be endangered.

Given its huge potential and its strategic geographic position, it became apparent that Europe’s security was indeed inseparable from U.S. security. Moreover, the United States could never allow the Soviet Union the control the Western approaches to the Atlantic. Hence it was imperative for the U.S. to find a way to help Europe recover.

With Europe on the verge of not only economic ruin, but also a complete social and political breakdown, everything seemed to force it into dependence upon it. America Almost every item needed for reconstruction like wheat, cotton, coal, sulfur, sugar, machinery, and trucks, could be obtained in sufficient quantities only from the United States.

Tragically enough, Europe in 1947 had lost her capacity to buy. The only cure for Europe’s sick state was a massive injection of dollars since only a tremendous program of economic aid could restore Europe’s economy and enable it to surpass its prewar agricultural and industrial production.

Enunciation of Marshall Plan :
To come to Europe’s rescue, Secretary of State George C. Marshall announced a policy in his address at Harvard University on June 5, 1947, which eclipsed the Truman Doctrine in importance. The essence of his speech was that, if the nations of Europe would get together and devise far-visioned plans for economic recovery, concentrate on self-help and mutual assistance and present to Washington a specific statement of their needs, the United States would support them with financial help so far as it may be practical.

In “other words, American aid to Europe was made conditional upon economic cooperation among the European states and it put the burden of initiative on Europe’s shoulders. However, it soon became apparent that the Marshall scheme, unlike the Truman Doctrine which aimed at military aid or temporary relief to Greece and Turkey, was an all-inclusive plan looking toward long-range rehabilitation of Europe.

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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 2 Basic Concepts Objective Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 2 Basic Concepts Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Type Questions

Question 1.
Where there is life, there is a society, who said this?
(i) Weber
(ii) Auguste Comte
(iii) Maclver and Page
(iv) Aristotle
Answer:
(iii) Maclver and Page

Question 2.
Who said the man is a social animal?
(i) Maclver
(ii) Plato
(iii) Aristotle
(iv) Comte
Answer:
(iii) Aristotle

Question 3.
Society is a consciousness of the mind is the definition of whom?
(i) Giddings
(ii) Plato
(iii) Davis
(iv) Aristotle
Answer:
(i) Giddings

Question 4.
Society determines __________ of the state.
(i) Background
(ii) Jurisprudence
(iii) Purpose
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(iii) Purpose

Question 5.
The term society in sociology is used to refer to
(i) The persons professing the same religion
(ii) The system of social relationship.
(iii) The persons living in an area.
(iv) The organised relations between individuals.
Answer:
(ii) The system of social relationship.

Question 6.
Who has defined society as a system of usage and procedure of authority and mutual aid of many groupingÿ and divisions of control of human behaviour and of liberty.
(i) Gidding
(ii) A.W. Green
(iii) Maclver
(iv) Comte
Answer:
(iii) Maclver

Question 7.
What does society exclude?
(i) Differences
(ii) Interdependence
(iii) Similarity
(iv) Time boundness
Answer:-
(iv) Time boundness

Question 8.
Origin of society was due to
(i) Evolution
(ii) God’s will
(iii) Force
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) Evolution

Question 9.
Society exists only when
(i) The members posses common interests.
(ii) The members are at the same place and same time.
(iii) The members know each other.
Answer:
(iii) The members know each other.

Question 10.
Sociology attempts an interpretative understanding of human behaviour who said this?
(i) Max Weber,
(ii) Plato
(iii) Giddings
Answer:
(i) Max Weber

Question 11.
Whoinitiatedthisideathatthegroupmind was the basis of society.
(i) A.W. Green
(ii) Comte
(iii) Max Weber
(iv) Mc Dougall
Answer:
(iv) Me Dougall

Question 12.
Which is not a characteristic society from the following?
(i) Definiteaim
(ii) Interdependence
(iii) Co-operation
(iv) Likeness
Answer:
(i) Definite aim

Question 13.
What do you mean by society?
(i) The system of usage and procedure.
(ii) The interaction of the group.
(iii) The people
(iv) The places of their residences.
Answer:
(i)The system of usage and procedure.

Question 14.
Who said society is a web of social relationships?
(i) Giddings
(ii) Cooley
(iii) Maclver
(iv) Ginsberg
Answer:
(iii) Maclver

Question 15.
Who said society is a common property?
(i) Thomas
(ii) Maclver
(iii) Colley
(iv) Giddings
Answer:
(i) Thomas

Question 16.
Which of the following is a functional prerequisite of society?
(i) Some rules
(ii) Definite area
(iii) Group of people
(iv) Provision of security
Answer:
(iv) Provision of security

Question 17.
Man is not born human, but to be made human who of the following says it.
(i) Durkheim
(ii) Prof. Park
(iii) Aristotle
(iv) Comte
Answer:
(ii) Prof Park

Question 18.
Which of the following element distinguishes animal society from human society?
(i) Physical strength
(ii) Laugh
(iii) Culture
(iv) Speech
Answer:
(iii) Culture

Question 19.
Which of the following elements of difference between society and community?
(i) A group of people
(ii) Links
(iii) Definite locality
(iv) Sentiment
Answer:
(iii) Definite locality

Question 20.
Man is a social animal because_______.
(i) His nature and necessity made him so.
(ii) His forefathers have lined in society.
(iii) Society was born with him.
Answer:
(i) His nature and necessity made him so.

Question 21.
Which of the following shows the foral cases to prove social nature of man?
(i) Aristotle
(ii) K. Davis
(iii) Maclver
(iv) Comte
Answer:
(iii) Maclver

Question 22.
A group of people organised for a particular purpose is known as :
(i) Association
(ii) Society
(iii) Community
Answer:
(i) Association

Question 23.
The theory which draws some similarities between society and human body is called is________.
(i) Group mind theory
(ii) Idealist theory
(iii) Organic theory
(iv) Natural theory
Answer:
(iii) Organic theory

Question 24.
Which of the following is an association?
(i) State
(ii) Trade Union
(iii) Tennis Club
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(iv) All of these

Question 25.
Which of the following is held to be the right of the origin of the society?
(i) Evolutionary theory
(ii) Genetic theory
(iii) Patriarchal theory
(iv) Divine right theory
Answer:
(i) Evolutionary theory

Question 26.
By which of the following an association is characterised?
(i) Customs
(ii) Folkways
(iii) Usage
(iv) Norms
Answer:
(iv) Norms

Question 27.
Which of the following is not the basic elements of a community?
(i) Communitysentiment
(ii) Legal status
(iii) Environment friendly
(iv) Definite locality
Answer:
(ii) Legal status

Question 28.
What makes a society?
(i) Place as their residence
(ii) Time boundness
(iii) The people
(iv) Reciprocity
Answer:
(iv) Reciprocity

Question 29.
Culture is man-made part of the environment who said this?
(i) Malimoshi
(ii) Taylor
(iii) Kroeber
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Kroeber

Question 30.
What distinguishes human society from animal society?
(i) Geography
(ii) Reproduction
(iii) Organisation
(iv) Culture
Answer:
(iv) Culture

Question 31.
Who called society mind unit large?
(i Pareto
(ii) McDougall
(iii) Aristotle
Answer:
(i) Pareto

Question 32.
What is the most fundamental unit of human society?
(i) Family
(ii) Individual
(iii) Religion
(iv) Economy
Answer:
(i) Family

Question 33.
Which of the following is not a characteristic of a social group?
(i) We feeling
(ii) Similar ethnic background
(iii) Reciprocal relation
(iv) Common territory
Answer:
(ii) Similar ethnic background

Question 34.
Which of the following is characteristic of the social group.
(i) Common territory
(ii) Sense of unit
(iii) Compulsory membership
(iv) Face-to-face preserve
Answer:
(iii) Compulsory membership

Question 35.
Groups are classified into the primary groups and secondary groups by
(i) Swamper
(ii) Maclver
(iii) C.H. Cooley
(iv) Karl Marx
Answer:
(iii) C.H. Cooley

Question 36.
Which of the following is characteristic of culture?
(i) Culture makes man’s life materially comfortable.
(ii) Culture is learnt.
(iii) Culture is a divine creation.
(iv) Culture is a religious system.
Answer:
(ii) Culture is learnt.

Question 37.
Culture has importance for the group because
(i) It satisfies human needs for food and shelter.
(ii) It provides stability to the goal.
(iii) It keeps social relationships in fact.
(iv) It marks off one group from the other.
Answer:
(iii) It keeps social relationships in fact.

Question 38.
To constitute culture the acquired behaviours should be________.
(i) Shared by and transmitted among the members of the group.
(ii) Believed to be ideal by the group.
(iii) Shared by the group.
(iv) Transmitted a way to the members of the group.
Answer:
(ii) Shared by and transmitted among the members of the group.

Question 39.
Material culture implies
(i) Possession of essential commodities.
(ii) Possession of material occupation.
(iii) Possession of luxurious articles.
(iv) Possession of concrete ideas of beliefs.
Answer:
(iii) Possession of luxurious articles.

Question 40.
What does culture usually reflect in modem society?
(i) Religionculture
(ii) National culture
(iii) Geographical culture
(iv) Group culture
Answer:
(ii) National culture

Question 41.
Society is co-operation and crossed by conflict was said by __________.
(i) Cooley
(ii) GillinandGillin
(iii) Maclver
Answer:
(iii) Maclver

Question 42.
Our culture is what are, our civilization is what we have who said this?
(i) Comte
(ii) C.C. North
(iii) Max Weber
(iv) Maclver
Answer:
(iv) Maclver

Question 43.
Culture may be defined as________.
(i) Sumtotalofcollective behaviour.
(ii) Unconditioned people.
(iii) Pattern of arrangements by society.
(iv) Typical habit patterns of people.
Answer:
(iv) Typical habit patterns of people.

True or False Type Questions

Question 1.
Maclver insists that sociability is the essence of society.
Answer:
False
George Simmel insists that sociability is the essence of society.
Answer:
True

Question 2.
The term sociology was coined in the year 1848.
Answer:
False
The term sociology was coined in the year 1939.
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Maclver says that society rests on consciousness kind.
Answer:
False
F.H. Giddings says that society rests on consciousness of kind.
Answer:
True

Question 4.
The term society was derived from the Greek word “socius”?
Answer:
False
The term society was derived from the Latin word socius means companions.
Answer:
True

Question 5.
Society is a web or network of human relationships.
Answer:
False
Society is a web or network of social relationships.
Answer:
True

Question 6.
The word community has been derived from the Greek word commences.
Answer:
False
The word community has been derived from the Latin word commences.
Answer:
True

Question 7.
Comte cited three cases of infant isolation from the group to prove social nature of man.
Answer:
False
Maclver cited three cases of infant isolation to prove social mature of man.
Answer:
True

Question 8.
Community sentiment means a feeling to differences.
Answer:
False
Community sentiment means a feeling of being together or a sense of we feeling.
Answer:
True

Question 9.
A community is bigger than society.
Answer:
False
Community is smaller than society.
Answer:
True

Question 10.
Community is a creation of human all.
Answer:
False
Community is grows spontaneously.
Answer:
True

Question 11.
Aristotle says society involves both likeness and differences.
Answer:
False
Maclver says society involves both likeness and differences.
Answer:
True

Question 12.
K. Davis opines community is the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of social life.
Answer:
True
Community sentiment is the most important characteristic of a community.
Answer:
True

Question 13.
Community sentiment is the most important characteristic of a community.
Answer:
True

Question 14.
A community does not possesses a definite territory.
Answer:
False
A community always possesses a definity territory.
Answer:
True

Question 15.
A community is a temporary social group.
Answer:
False
A community is a permanent social group.
Answer:
True

Question 16.
Village is an example of association.
Answer:
False
Political party is an example of association.
Answer:
True

Question 17.
Association is a group of organised people having common interest.
Answer:
True
An association may be both temporary or permanent.
Answer:
True

Question 18.
An association may be both temporary or permanent.
Answer:
True

Question 19.
Association has no aims.
Answer:
True
Association has definite aims.
Answer:
True

Question 20.
An association does not have any states.
Answer:
True

Question 21.
Association is natural formed.
Answer:
False
Association is artifical formed.
Answer:
True

Question 22.
Membership of an association is compulsory.
Answer:
False
Membership of an association is optional.
Answer:
True

Question 23.
Association is permanent in nature.
Answer:
True
Association may be both temporary and permanent.
Answer:
True

Question 24.
Ogbrum Nimkoff says that a social group is a system of social interaction.
Answer:
False
H. M. Johnson says that a social group is a system of social interaction.
Answer:
True

Question 25.
Family is an example of a secondary group.
Answer:
False
Family is an example of primary group.
Answer:
True

Question 26.
C. H. Cooley wrote the book ‘Social Organisation’.
Answer:
True

Question 27.
Playgroup is an example of primary group.
Answer:
True

Question 28.
A political party is an example of secondary group.
Answer:
True

Question 29.
Red Cross society is an example of primary group.
Answer:
True

Question 30.
Secondary relation is an end in itself,
Answer:
False
Secondary relation is a means of an end i.e. it is goal oriented.
Answer:
True

Question 31.
Cooley classifies group into in-group and out-group.
Answer:
False
Cooleyclassifies group into primary and secondary groups.
Answer:
True

Question 32.
Summer classifies groups into in-group and out-group on the basis of contract.
Answer:
True
Summer classifies groups into in-groups and out-groups on the basis of consciousness of kind.
Answer:
True

Question 33.
K. Davis has outlined the characteristics of the primary group as internal and external.
Answer:
True

Question 34.
Culture is individual behaviour.
Answer:
False
Culture is a shared behaviour.
Answer:
True

Question 35.
Maclver first used the term culture.
Answer:
False
E.B. Tylor first used the term culture.
Answer:
True

Question 36.
Culture is inborn.
Answer:
False
Culture is learned not inborn.
Answer:
True

Question 37.
Culture is not based on symbols.
Answer:
False
Culture is based on symbols.
Answer:
True

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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 History Solutions Unit 5 Long Answer Questions Part 2.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 5 Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Discuss the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (N.A.T.O.).
Answer:
The genesis of NATO :
After the initial success of the Marshall plan, it became increasingly evident that the plan by itself would not be enough. Soviet infringement in East Europe became overtly aggressive and it was well demonstrated in the Soviet-engineered coup detat in Czechoslovakia in February 1948. In June, the Soviets imposed a blockade on Berlin aimed at dislodging the western powers from there. It suddenly became too apparent that a basic necessity for Europe’s recovery was not merely economic but also military security.

An initiative by European Powers :
The first move in this direction had already been made by the Europeans themselves when in March 1947 France and Britain signed the Treaty of Dunkirk for their mutual defense against a threat to their security. An extension of this treaty was made in 1948 then through the Brussels Pact, Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg signed a collective treaty of self-defense.

The Brussels pact was established as a military counterpart to the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation, OEEC. Just as the success of the OEEC depended upon American capital the pact members expected their alliance to attract American military support too.

Question 2.
State the formation of NATO.
Answer:
The Europeans were not disappointed. The United States which sustained Europe economically and as the leader of the movement to stop the rising tide of communism was irresistibly drawn toward this new European alliance In April 41949 Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norwày, Portugal, and the United States created the historic North Atlantic Treaty Organisation.

The signatory powers stipulated that an attack by an aggressor on one was an attack on all, and that ‘each of the other nations, individually or together, would take such action as it deems necessary including and force. American justification of NATO Unquestionably, for the United States, the NATO commitment set a new precedent. For the first time in its history, the Americans had committed themselves to an âlliance in peacetime.

Europe thus became America’s ‘first line of defense’. Yet despite this drastic departure from tradition, the pact met with widespread public favor. There was a general feeling that if another world war broke out in the beginning and since this, she might be able to avert it, unlike in 1914 and 1939, by issuing a warning to potential aggressors that they would have to face American opposition from the very outset.

Thus, it was precisely intended to give a clear message to the Soviet Union that the United States would fight to preserve Europe’s freedom. Europe’s vital importance to American security had been proved beyond doubt with the American participation in the two world wars. Instead of again allowing the balance of power to be upset and once more getting drawn into war after it had started the United States now wanted to prevent such an outbreak by committing herself to the preservation of Europe in peacetime.

It was presumed that the fear of meeting stiff American resistance and fighting an all-out war with the United States would deter a potential aggressor. The North Atlantic Pact was approved by the American Senate on July 21, 1949, by a vote of 22 to 13. NATO Civil Organisation The North Atlantic Treaty provides for a directing council, to be “so organized as to be able to meet pràmptly at any time.”

Originally the council was composed of the foreign ministers of the member states, but in 1951, the participating states agreed to add the defense, economic, and finance ministers to the council wherever problems of direct interest to them were concerned. The NATO council meets at the ministerial level two or three times a year and once or twice a week at the level of permanent representatives.

Though many think of NATO as an exclusive military organization, in actual point of fact Article II of the North Atlantic Treaty calls for cooperation among member states on a wide front. The council has set up committees to direct activities in many fields like information and cultural relations, armaments, infrastructure, emergency planning, food and agriculture, industrial raw materials, and manpower planning.

There are also committees of political and economic advisers and planning boards for ocean shipping and for European inland surface transport. NATO’s secretariat has major divisions of political affairs, economics, and finance as well as an office of the scientific adviser. Most of the secretariat staff work in NATO’s permanent headquarters in Brussels.

Question 3.
What is the genesis of CENTO the Baghdad Pact?
Answer:
If NATO had its origin in the Brussels Pact, the CENTO [Central Treaty Organizatiori] too had its ancestry in the Baghdad Pact of 1955. Anti-communism being the main thrust of American Foreign Policy, it now tried to seek out ways and means to contain communism wherever it was possible.

In 1951, an Anglo-American effort for the setting up of a Middle East command misfired, largely because of its prompt rejection by Egypt. But the new Republican administration in the United States in 1953 gave another look at the idea and it encouraged the development of the “northern tier” concept.

The middle Eastern states of Asia were on the southern flank of the European continent and ran along the northern belt of the Asian continent. The Americans considered enhancing European Security by including the Middle Eastern Asian states under their security belt. Such a scheme would be advantageous to the Americans since it could give them a continuous security chain covering western Europe by NATO and the Middle East with some new regional military alliance.

The states of the “northern tier” from Turkey to Pakistan [except Afghanistan], had already come together in a series of bilateral security pacts, like the pacts between Turkey and Pakistan in August 1954, and between Turkey and Iraq in February 1955. This became the basis of the multilateral Baghdad Pact when Britain adhered to the Turkey-Iraq Pact in April, Pakistan in September, and Iraq in October 1955.

The Pact was formalized in November 1955, when five “members of the pact met in Baghdad to set up a formal organization. The organization was to have a Council of Ministers, special committees for military planning, economic cooperation, communications, and counter-subversion, and headquarters at Baghdad with a secretariat headed by a Secretary-General.

In order not to offend Egypt and Saudi Arabia, the United States did not join the pact, but it welcomed its formation, sent an observer to its original meetings and greed full participation in the Economic and counter supervision committee, and established permanent contact with the Military Committee.

Question 4.
How CENTO is formed?
Answer:
After the Iraqi revolution in 1958, a new government came to power leading to the withdrawal of Iraq from the Baghdad Pact in March 1959. The headquarters of the Baghdad Pact was promptly shifted to Ankara, and the organization was renamed Central Treaty Organisation. Unlike NATO, however, CENTO had a very development with grave consequences for the future coincided in 1979.

The Iranian Revolution of 1979, the Kampuchean crisis leading to the Sino-Vietnamese war of 1979, the US involvement in El Salvador, and finally the Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan in December 1979, gave an ominous pointer that something had gone terribly wrong somewhere.

While the Americans came to suspect the Russians of trying to impose communist dictatorship in different parts of the world the Russians were convinced of a sinister American campaign to destabilize the Soviet Union. All this and many more were a perfect recipe for the beginning of Cold War II.

Question 5.
Describe UNO and its features.
Answer:
The setting up of the United Nations Organisation thus represented a renewed attempt with new vigor to establish world peace through an international organization. The organization has been formed by an international agreement known as the ‘Charter’ of the. United Nations and the makers of the UN charter were basically the representatives of the victorious powers [Allied] of the Second World War.

It was drawn up by the representatives of fifty states at the United Nations Conference on International Organisation which met in San Francisco, United States, from April 25 to June 26, 1945. The Charter consists of articles divided into 19 chapters which are also annexed to the 70 articles with 5 chapters of the statute of the International Court of Justice.

It was unanimously passed and signed by all the representatives on June 26, 1945, that is, even while the crucial stage of the war was still being fought in Europe and the Pacific. The United Nations officially came into being on October 24, 1945, when China, France, the United Kingdom, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the United States of America and a majority of the signatories ratified the creation of the UNO in their respective legislative bodies. Each year, October 24 is universally celebrated as United Nations Day.

Organs Languages Members Head Quarters of the UNO :
The organization, competence, procedure, and functions of the United Nations are governed by the Charter which also lays down the conditions for admission, suspension, and expulsion of member states from the United Nations. The composition, functions, and powers of the six main organs – the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council [ECOSOC], the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat as well as their inter-relationship are set out in die Charter.

The official languages of the United Nations are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish. The permanent headquarters of the United Nations is in New York City, United States of America, and its European Office is in Geneva, Switzerland. From original members of 51 countries in 1945, the total membership of the UNO today has risen to 191.

Limitations of the UNO :
It is pertinent to observe that the United Nations is a comprehensive international organization that has replaced the League of Nations. As such, it is the most important of all international organizations established by States. The member states have pledged themselves to maintain international peace and security and to cooperate with one another in political, social, and economic fields. However, it is important to know that the United Nations is neither a world government nor a world federation.

Hence its member’s obligations are limited and only their cooperation can put UN functions into practice. Unlike national governments, the organization has no means of enforcing its decisions. Thus it is the moral obligation of the members that make the UN what it is rather than any contractual obligation on the part of the members towards the charter of the UN.

Question 6.
Describe the creation of the UN.
Answer:
Though the origin of the United Nations can be traced back to the days of the League of Nations, it would be an oversimplification to say that the UN, came into being all of a sudden in a single day. The making of the UN has been an arduous process that spanned a considerable period of time. It came into being after a series of meetings, conferences, and discussions. The genesis of the UN could be traced back to the following landmarks.

Stages of the UN creation :
St James Palace Declaration – June 12, 1941:

• The Allied powers resolved to continue fighting against the three Axis powers [Germany, Italy, and Japan].
• After the end of the war, an international organization for the purpose of maintaining international peace and for promoting economic collaboration among nations should be created.

The Atlantic Charter – August 14, 1941:
This is often referred to as marking the birth of the United Nations. In this document Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Great Britain and President Franklin Roosevelt of the United States, meeting on a battleship ‘USS Atlanta’, in the North Atlantic Ocean, laid down eight general principles “on which they base their hopes for a better future for the world.”

The Declaration of the United Nations – January 1, 1942:
In this declaration, using the name later adopted for the new international organization, twenty-six nations agreed to cooperate in war and peace and emphasized that there should be an international organization based on the principle of sovereign equality of all nations, both large and small, for purposes of bringing about international cooperation.

Moscow Conference, October- November 1943:
Representatives of the USSR, USA, Great Britain, and China pledged that their united action would be continued for the organization and maintenance of peace and security and declared that they recognized the necessity of establishing at the earliest practicable date a central international organization based on the principle of sovereign equality of all peace-loving states.

Teheran conference – November 1943:
This was the first meeting of the Big, Three – Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin, the Soviet Premier. In a joint statement, they promised that large and small nations would be invited to join a world organization.

The Bretton Woods Conference – July 1944:
This conference was attended by representatives of forty-four nations. As a prelude to the future economic and financial reconstruction of the world, it was decided to set up two important institutions

• the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, IBRD and
• the International Monetary Fund (IMF). It was emphasized that no peace could entire as long as economic chaos prevailed. The IBRD and the IMF are present functioning as Specialised Agencies of the United Nations.

The Dumbarton Oaks Conference – October 1944:
[Dumbarton Oaks is an estate in Washington D.C. owned by Harvard University]. Here representatives of China, Great Britain, the USA, and the USSR, worked out proposals for the world organization to be set up. They agreed upon the blueprint and the first draft of the United Nations Charter.

Yalta Conference, February 1945:
The ‘Big Three’ – Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt discussed the voting procedure of the Security Council, the most important organ of the proposed world organization. It was decided here to incorporate the ‘Veto’ formula of voting which became an accepted feature of the new United Nations voting structure. France and China were made co-sponsors along with the three members of the Yalta conference. These five states finally became the five permanent members of the Security Council.

San Francisco Conference – April 25 – June 26, 1945:
Fifty-one nations [including India] were invited to attend this conference. This was the last step in the long drawing process that led to the emergence of the United Nations. A number of proposals made by medium and small powers attending the conference were discussed and it resulted in the creation of the Economic and Social Council as one of the primary organs of the United Nations.

The powers of the General Assembly and die Security Council were clearly defined and altogether there were to be six principal organs of the United Nations. On July 28, 1945, the United States of America approved its membership in the UN. Within another three months, the charter was ratified by all of the permanent members of the Security Council and by a majority of the signatories. The launching of the United Nations marked the beginning of a New World Order.

Question 7.
Write the objectives of the UN.
Answer:
The primary objectives of the United Nations are incorporated in the charter of the United Nations. Article 1 of the charter gives an elaborate and vivid description of these objectives.

Maintenance of International Peace and Security:
The maintenance of international peace and security is the primary objective of the United Nations. In order to save succeeding generations of mankind from the curse of war, world peace is to be maintained by preventing and suppressing breaches of the peace and by promoting conditions conducive to the preservation and maintenance of peace.

Avoidance of war is to be achieved by measures known as collective security. Provision is placed in the charter for powerful sanctions against states which have violated peace. The Security Council is empowered to decide on matters of world peace. The United Nations is expected to maintain the necessary armed forces from the member nations in accordance with an agreement to be concluded between the Security Council and the members of the United Nations individually.

Thus the Peace Observation Commission and the United Nations Emergency Force were created in 1950 and 1956 respectively for the basic purpose of enforcing peace where it is violated. Preservation of the world order necessitates peaceful settlement of disputes among members of the United Nations and a variety of methods for the pacific settlement of international disputes are offered to the member states.

Self-government & Independence:
Development of friendly relations among the states based on respect for equal rights and self-determination of peoples. This is another fundamental objective of the UNO, wherein it is to promote the people of different areas of the world who are hitherto dependent, to be given the right of self-government and independence.

Cooperation Socio-economic fields & Championing of Human Rights :
Furtherance of cooperation among the members in social, economic, cultural, educational, and humanitarian problems and to promote respect for human rights. To put these goals into practice the Economic and Social Council serves as a major organ and it receives adequate support from the General Assembly and various other international specialized agencies.

The ECOSOC is empowered to establish as many commissions as it deems necessary in the area of human rights and it can recommend and prepare draft conventions on human rights and fundamental freedom for all. Encouragement of respect for human rights and fundamental freedom is also stated to be a basic objective of the trusteeship system. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was overwhelmingly adopted in the General Assembly in 1948.

Disarmament:
To work for the successful implementation of the principle of general and completed disarmament in nuclear and non-nuclear weapons.

Centre for harmonizing relations :
Another basic objective of the United Nations is to act as a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in attaining these common ends and more specific goals, e goa s as spelled out in the charter are:

• taking appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace,
• practicing tolerance and living – together in peace as good neighbors and
• establishing justice and respect for international law.

Other Objectives:
Article 2 of the Charter prescribes certain other principles upon which the United Nations acts. They are:

• The UN is based on the principle of sovereign equality of all its members.
• All members are required to fulfill in good faith their Charter obligations.
• Members are advised to settle their international disputes by peaceful means and without endangering peace, security, and justice.
• Member nations are to refrain from the threat or use of force against other states.
• Member nations are to render every possible assistance for any action the UNO takes in accordance with the Charter and shall not provide any help to the state or states against which the UN is about to take preventive or enforcement action.
• The UN shall ensure that states which are not members act in accordance with these principles in so for as is necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security.
• The Charter does not authorize the UN to intervene in matters which are entirely within the domestic jurisdiction of any state. The basic objectives and principles of the United Nations as enshrined in the charter are thus directed toward the maintenance and preservation of world peace and security.

Question 8.
Discuss the General Assembly and its compositions and functions.
Answer:
The General Assembly, one of the six main organs of the UN as specified in Article 7 of the charter is the deliberative organ of the UN and is its pivotal organ. It frames been described as a ‘world forum’ or the ‘world’s own meeting’.

Composition:
The General Assembly has the states as its members and all member nations are equally represented in this organ. Each member state is entitled to send 5 representatives and 5 alternate representatives. Irrespective of the number of its delegates present in the General Assembly, each member country is entitled to one vote only.

Functions:
The General Assembly’s functions are as under:
To consider and make recommendations on the principles of international cooperation in the maintenance of peace and security, including the principles governing disarmament. To discuss any problem affecting peace and security, except where a dispute is being currently discussed in the Security Council.

To initiate studies and make recommendations to promote international political cooperation, the development of international law, the realization of human rights and fundamental freedom for all, and international collaboration in economic, social, cultural, and educational arid health fields. To receive and consider reports from the Security Council and other organs of the UNO.

To elect the non-permanent members of the Security Council, the members of the Ecosoc, and the elective members of the Trusteeship Council. To take part with the Security Council in the election of Judges of the International Court of Justice and On the recommendation of the Security Council to appoint the Secretary-General.

To consider and approve the budget of the United Nations, and to examine the budgets of specialized agencies. The Uniting for Peace Resolution adopted in 1950 enlarged the sphere of activity of the General Assembly. As per this Resolution, if the Security Council failed to exercise its power for the maintenance of international peace and security due to the lack of unanimity among the permanent members, the General Assembly was authorized to consider the matter immediately and make appropriate recommendations for collective measures.

In case of a breach of the peace or an act of aggression, the General Assembly can authorize the use of armed forces when necessary. In theory, though the Charter maintains that the Security Council is the most important organ of the UN., in practice, particularly after the passage of the UN for Peace Resolution, the General Assembly has been transformed from mg the deliberative organ to the most effective organ of the UN.

Question 9.
Discuss the structure of the General
Assembly.
Answer:
Since the General Assembly is a very large body, it becomes very difficult to have a normal transaction of a business. Hence the General Assembly functions through its committees – seven main committees, two standing committees, two procedural committees, and a number of permanent, semi-permanent, and ad hoc committees.

Apart from the seven main committees, other important committees and commissions under the General Assembly are the Little Assembly, the International Law Commission, the Peace Observation Commission, the United Nations Emergency Force, the UNICEF [United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund], the UNCTAD [United Nations Conference of Trade and Development], UNIDO [United Nations Industrial Development Organisation].

Sessions and voting procedure:
The General Assembly meets for the annual plenary session in September every year. The session extends up to the middle of December. The General Assembly can also be convened for special sessions and emergency special sessions. Voting in the body is conducted on the basis of a simple majority of those present and voting when minor issues are concerned. But for major international issues like admission, suspension, and expulsion of a member nation, a two-thirds vote of the Assembly is required.

Jurisdiction :
Though the General Assembly can discuss any issue affecting international peace and security, it cannot discuss any matter falling within the domestic jurisdiction of any member state. Since the General Assembly is not a world parliament, its de ions are not obligatory but only recommendatory in character. Members States are free to accept or reject the decision of the General Assembly.

Question 10.
Discuss the Security Council and its composition and functions.
Answer:
The Security Council functions as the executive wing of the UNO. As long as there is unanimity among, the Big Five, this organ can function very effectively and efficiently. Article 7 of the Charter states that the Security Council like the General Assembly is a primary organ of the UNO.

Composition:
Despite all claims of equality among large and small nations made in the Chapter, there is no denying the fact that the Security Council is built along the core of Big

Powers:
Membership in the Security Council is of two kinds – permanent and elective [non-permanent]. The five permanent members are named in Article 23 of the charter. They are – the United States of America, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom, France, and China, are the big five.

It is important to observe that till 1971 the China seat in the Security Council was represented by Nationalist China based in Taiwan, but since 1971 this seat has been allotted to Communist China based in Beijing. Similarly, with the dissolution of the USSR [Soviet Union] in 1991 with the end of the cold war, the USSR seat is at present represented by Russia

Functions:
The functions of the Security Council are:

• To maintain international peace and security in accordance with the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
• To investigate any dispute which might lead to international friction.
• To formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armaments.
• To call upon members to apply economic sanctions against a potential aggressor nation so as to prevent actual aggression.
• To take military action against the aggressor.
• To recommend the admission of new members
• To recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the Secretary-General and together with the General Assembly to elect the judges of the International Court of Justice.
• To submit annual and special reports to the General Assembly.

Question 11.
Explain ECOSOC and its functions.
Answer:
The ECOSOC consists of 54 members. The General Assembly elects by a vote of two t s majority present and voting the members of the ECOSOC for three-year terms. Retiring members are eligible for immediate re-election. Eighteen members retire every year and every member state is entitled to one representative. Though there are no permanent members in the ECOSOC, in actual practice the Big Five and medium-range powers like India, Canada and Yugoslavia are frequently re-elected.

Functions:

• To be responsible under the authority of the General Assembly, for the economic and social activities of the United Nations.
• To initiate studies, reports, and recommendations on international economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and related matters.
• To promote respect for and observance
  of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all.
• To call international conferences and prepare draft conventions for submission to the General Assembly on matters within its competence.
• To negotiate agreements with the specialized agencies, defining their relationship with the U.N.
• To coordinate the activities of specialized agencies of the U.N. and to obtain reports from them.

The most significant of all its activities, however, is its persistent concern for human rights. Since 1960 ECOSOC has remained busy in solving the problems of and fulfilling the aspirations of developing nations. A structure like the General Assembly ofthe United Nations, the ECOSOC which has been authorized by the provisions of the Charter to establish as many subsidiary organs as may be necessary for the fulfillment of its functions, has set up a cobweb of commissions and committees.

Thus the ECOSOC works through commissions, committees, and various other subsidiary bodies.
There are seven functional commissions:

1. The Statistical Commission.
2. Population Commission
3. Commission For Social Development.
4. Commission on Human Rights.
5. Commission on the Status of Women.
6. Commission on Narcotic Drugs.
7. Commission on Commodity Trade.

There is also a sub-commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of minorities which works under the direction of the Commission on Human Rights.

Regional Economic Commissions:
The ECOSOC has set up five regional commissions which study the economic problems of their respective regions and recommend courses of action related to economic development, such as electric power, inland transport, and trade promotion.
These commissions are:

• Economic Commission for Europe [ECE]. This was established in 1947 with its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.
• Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. It was set up in 1947 with headquarters in Bangkok, Thailand.
• Economic Commission for Latin America. Set up in 1948, it has its headquarters in Santiago, Chile.
• Economic Commission for Africa was established in 1958 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
• Economic Commission for Western Asia was established with headquarters in Beirut, Lebanon.

Besides, there are six standing committees:

1. Programme and Coordination
2. Natural Resources.
3. Non-Governmental Organisations
4. Inter-government Agencies
5. Transnational Corporations and
6. Human Rights.

Question 12.
What are the Trusteeship Council and state its objectives?
Answer:
The Trusteeship Council evolved from the idea of the die Mandates system of the League of Nations. Article 7 of the charter states that the Trusteeship Council shall be a primary organ of the United Nations. But like the ECOSOC, the Trusteeship Council to does not have an independent jurisdiction. It is directly subordinated to two of her primary organs like the General Assembly and the Secretary Council.
There are two types of Trust territories:

• Strategic Trust Territory,
• Non-strategic Trust Territory.

The Security Council and the Trusteeship Council supervise the functioning of the Strategic Trust Territory. Till 1994 there was only one group of trust territories in the North Pacific Ocean and they are the Marshall, Mariana, and Caroline Islands. In 1994 the islands became the Republic of Belau, hence there are no strategic trust territories at present.

The General Assembly and the Trusteeship Council are the supervising authorities of the Non-strategic Trust territories. At present, there are no strategic trust territories since all such territories have attained independence The Trusteeship Council was set up to supervise and administer trust territories placed under its disposal by individual agreements.

Chapter XII of the UN charter provides for an international trusteeship system that shall apply to

1. Territories held under the mandate of the League of Nations after the First World War, like Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine have all attained independence except Palestine which is now under Israeli occupation,
2. Territories that may be detached from ex-enemy states as a result of the Second World War. The territory of Somaliland taken from Italy came under this category
3. Territories are voluntarily placed under the System by states responsible for their administration. No such territory was voluntarily brought by any of the former colonial powers under the trusteeship system.

The objectives of the Trusteeship system are:

• To further international peace and security.
• To promote political, economic, social, and educational advancement.
• To promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all the people of the trust areas.
• To provide equal treatment for all the countries in respect of social, economic, and commercial interests in the administration of justice.
• To promote the peoples of the area concerned to self-government or ‘ independence in accordance with the provisions of the Trusteeship Agreement for the territory.

Question 13.
Discuss the functions and compositions of the Trusteeship Council.
Answer:
Functions:
The function of the Trusteeship Council is to supervise the administration of Trust territories. In carrying out this function, the council is authorized:

1. To formulate a questionnaire on the political, economic, social, and educational advancement of the inhabitants of Trust territories on the basis of which the Administering Authority is to make annual reports.
2. To examine and discuss reports from Administering Authorities.
3. To examine the petition in consultation.
4. To expand the agreed upon with the Administering Authorities.

Composition:
The composition of the Trusteeship Council is based on three factors:
All the administering powers are to be represented on the Trusteeship Council. All the permanent members of the security council which is not have administering powers are also to be represented on the Trusteeship Council. The elective members of the Trusteeship Council are elected by the General Assembly.

Altogether there were 11 Trust territories of which 10 were designated as non-strategic trust territories and was designated as strategic trust territory. By January 31, 1968, all non-strategic trust territories had gained independence, leaving only the five permanent members of the Security Council as members of the Trusteeship Council.

In 1994 the only strategic trust territory too gained independence, hence the Trusteeship Council, with no business to perform, has become non-functional. Its works completed, the Trusteeship Council now consists of the five-year permanent members of the Security Council and it has amended its rules of procedure to allow it to meet as and when occasion requires.

Question 14.
Discuss the Jurisdiction of the Court of International Court of Justice.
Answer:
It is important to note that only states and not individuals can be parties before the court. But the greatest deficiency of the court lies in the fact that, unlike national legal systems, the ICJ does not have compulsory jurisdiction. In other words, its decisions are only recommendatory and not obligatory or binding in character.

Very often the Security Council may recommend that a legal dispute be referred to the court. The General Assembly and the Security Council can also ask the court for an advisory opinion on any legal question. Besides, other organs of the UN and specialized agencies can refer the court for an advisory opinion. Normally the maximum number of references to the court seeking advisory opinion is made by the General Assembly.

Guiding Principles :
The court while deciding disputes submitted to it in accordance with Article 3 8 of the statute, shall be guided by:

• International conventions establish rules recognized by the contesting states.
• International customary law.
• General Principles of law recognized by nations.
• Judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations. At times the court may decide a particular case by deviating from strict law but in a spirit of conciliation, compromise and friendliness, provided the parties concerned agree to such a method.

Decisions by the Court:
Despite several weaknesses and loopholes, the ICJ has played a significant role in the growth of the international legal system. Perhaps the most outstanding, contribution made by the ICJ is in the field of systematic codification of international, law. Important decisions of the court can be seen in the following cases, to name only a few:

1. The Asylum case.
2. The Right to Passage Over Indian Territory case.
3. Anglo-Iranian Oil Company Case.
4. The Corfu Channel case.

Question 15.
Discuss the position of the Secretary-General and its functions.
Answer:
The Secretary-General is not the co-employee of the Staff of the Secretariat and there exists a gulf between the Secretary- 5. General and other members of the Secretariat. The members of the Secretariat are appointed by the Secretary-General in accordance with the rules established by the General Assembly.

In their appointment, promotion, and separation from service, the Secretary-General has considerable powers, The Secretariat carries out the day-to-day work of the UN, and the staff members are drawn from more than 100 countries. The members of the staff being international civil servants are expected to fulfill their functions impartially.

The major functions of the Secretary-General are:

• To be the chief administrative officer of the organization.
• To act as Secretary to all the major delegate bodies of the United Nations.
• To perform functions assigned to him by the General Assembly, the Secretary Council, the ECOSOC, and the Trusteeship Council.
• To furnish annual reports to the General Assembly on the functioning of the organization.
• To appoint members of the staff of the Secretariat.
• To take initiative in bringing any matter before the Secretary Council war according to him might constitute a threat to international peace and Secretary.

In actual practice, the role of the Secretary-General has far increased in scope. And has gone much beyond the expectations of the makers of the charter Instead of being merely the chief. Administrative officer, he has become the most important political officer of the UN who constantly exerts himself for the preservation and maintenance of international peace and security.
Thus functions today may be classified under three categories

• political functions
• representative functions,
• administrative functions.

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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 2 Basic Concepts Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 2 Basic Concepts Short Answer Questions

Answer In One Sentence

Question 1.
What are the main elements of society?
Answer:
(1) Likeness
(2) A system of social relationship
(3) Difference
(4) Interdependence
(5) Co-operation and conflict
(6) Society is abstract and intangible
(7) Comprehensive culture.

Question 2.
What is society?
Answer:
Society is the main basic concept of sociology. The word society is usually to designate the members of specific in groups persons rather than the social relationship. Society means collection of individuals who are bought into social relationship with one another. The sum total of human relation can called society.

Question 3.
Mention the Latin word from which the term society is derived.
Answer:
Society has come from the Latin word Socius which means a companion. The companionship is derived from it by adding the nounsuffin-ship.

Question 4.
Write M. Ginsberg’s definition of society.
Answer:
According to M. Ginsberg, A society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or modes of behaviour which work them off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from them in behaviour.

Question 5.
Define society.
Answer:
According to Maclver and Page, society is a system of usages and procedures authority and mutual and of many groupings and divisions of controls of human behaviour and of liberties.

Question 6.
Write Cole’s definition of society.
Answer:
According to G.D.H. Cole “Society is the complex of organised associations.”

Question 7.
Write short note on society is a web or network of social relationship.
Answer:
In the words of Maclver society is a web or network of social relationships in the basis of society social relationship implies mutual awareness and reciprocity or mutual interaction and is based on understanding and fellow feelings.

Question 8.
Write Prof. Gidding’s definition of society.
Answer:
According to Prof. Gidding “Society is the union itself the organisation the sum of formal relations in which associating individuals are bound together.

Question 9.
Write short note as functional prerequisites of society.
Answer:
Society is a functioning organisation. It is socious functioning different prerequisites are necessary. Likeness is one of the important functional prerequisites of society because it consists of like minded people.

Question 10.
Write any two functional prerequisities of society.
Answer:
(1) Obdience to social norms.
(2) Re-production.

Question 11.
What is community?
Answer:
Community means a group of people living in a geographical area and having a degree of we feeling.

Question 12.
Write short note on society is co-operation crossed by conflict.
Answer:
Maclver opinions society is a cooperation crossed by conflict. Co-operation is essential to co-operate and associate for the achievement of common interest.

Question 13.
What are the characteristics of community.
Answer:
The characteristics of community are:

• Locality
• community Sentiment
• Stability
• Naturalness
• Size of the community
• Regulations of relations

Question 14.
Write two examples of community.
Answer:
(1) Urban Community
(2) Wage Community

Question 15.
What is community sentiment?
Answer:
Community sentiment means a feeling of belonging together. The members must be aware of their staying together and sharing common interests. The members develop a sense of we feeling.

Question 16.
Explain the importance of locality in community.
Answer:
Locality continues to be a basic factor or community life. However in modem times the local bond of community is weakened by the development of the means of transport and communication. In fact, the extension of communication is itself the condition of a large but still territorial community.

Question 17.
What is Association?
Answer:
A group of people organised for a particular purpose or limited member of purposes on the basis of common interests they may be said to constitute an association. An army, a political party, a music club, a trade unions, a college can be called as association.

Question 18.
Write any two association.
Answer:
(1) A group of people
(2) Voluntary and organised group.

Question 19.
What is social group?
Answer:
Social group is an organised group.

Question 20.
Define social group?
Answer:
According to Maclver and Page, a group is any collection of human beings who are brought into social relationships with one another.

Question 21.
Mention any two characteristics of social group.
Answer:
Social group means a collection of individuals without this social group cannot be formed. Thus social group means a collection of human being who are brought into social contact for a common benefit.

Question 22.
What is culture?
Answer:
Culture has two meaning one for common man and another for the social scientists. It is one of the important concepts in social science. It is commonly used in political science and economic. It is the main concepts in Anthropology. The study of human society immediately and necessary leads us to the study of its culture.

Question 23.
Define various types and culture?
Answer:
A number of sociologists classified culture into two large components.
(1) Material Culture
(2) Non-material culture.

Question 24.
What is material culture?
Answer:
Material culture consists of the products of human activitiy. Material culture have been discovered to solve the problems of human living. Books, chair and tables, pens, lamps and bubble gums are some of the items of material culture.

Question 25.
What is non-material culture?
Answer:
Non-material culture consists of intangible and abstract things, customs, beliefs, attitude, values and religion and included in non-material culture.

Question 26.
What is primary group?
Answer:
Primary group is a small group in which a small number of persons come into direct contact with one another.

Question 27.
Mention any two characteristics of primary group?
Answer:
The two characteristics of primary group are:
(1) The size of primary group is very small.
(2) The relation of the members primary group are direct, close, intimate face and personal.

Question 28.
What is secondary group?
Answer:
Secondary group is just opposite side of the primary group. It is a large group where a large number of persons come into indirect contract with one another. There is no need of face to face, intimate and personal relations in secondary group.

Question 29.
Mention any two characteristics of secondary group.
Answer:
The characteristics of secondary group are:
(1) The size of secondary group is very large.
(2) Secondary the relations of the members of secondary group are indirect, less in time, touch and go type and in personal.

Question 30.
Define reference group.
Answer:
According to Sheriff reference group as those groups to which individual relations himself as a part or to which he relates himself psychologically.

Question 31.
What is in-group?
Answer:
There are number of group to which individual belongs are called in-group.

Question 32.
What is out-group?
Answer:
Out-group is opposite of in-group. According to summer out-group is that group to which individual does not belong. The individuals does not belongs to a number of groups which are his out-group.

Question 33.
Give any two examples of social group.
Answer:
(1) A nation.
(2) Labour union.

Question 34.
Give any two examples of primary group.
Answer:
(1) Family.
(2) Children’s playground.

Question 35.
Give any two examples of secondary group.
Answer:
(1) A city.
(2) A trade union.

Question 36.
Give any two examples of in-group.
Answer:
(1) A persons own family.
(2) A persons own religion.

Question 37.
Give any two examples of out-group.
Answer:
(1) For a student other college, than his own college, are out-group.
(2) A person friends, family is out-group for that person.

Question 38.
Mention any two difference between primary and secondary group.
Answer:
(1) Primary group and secondary group differ from each other regarding the nature of relationships.
(2) Primary group is small but secondary group is large size.

Question 39.
What is reference group?
Answer:
The individual initiates other individuals and groups. He compare himself with others and begins behaving like them in order to reach their status and position. The individuals or groups whose behaviour is limited by him are known as reference group.

Question 40.
Mention any two difference between in-group and out-group.
Answer:
(1) The groups to which individual belongs are known as his in-group, but all other groups are regarded as out-groups of that individual.
(2) Both in-group and out-group differ from each other on the basis of ‘we’ and ‘they’ or other feeling.

Short Type Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Write short notes on the term Society.
Answer:
The word society has been derived from the Latin word Socius which means a Companion. The term society used to refer to the members of a specific in-group. As Gidding says that its is a number of like minded individuals, who know and enjoy their like mindedness and are therefore able to work together for common ends.

Question 2.
Explain the term Community.
Answer:
The word Community has come from the Latin root Comments means Common. A Community refers to a group of people living within a definite area with common interests and carrying on interdependent life.

Question 3.
Explain the term Community Sentiment
Answer:
Community sentiment is one of file important characteristic of community. It refer to a sense of we-feeling or a feeling of being together. It implies a kind of sentiment or emotional identification with the group.

Question 4.
Write short notes on important characteristic of Society.
Answer:
MacIver says society means likeness. In consists of like minded people who are similar in many respects society also involves differences. Interplay of likeness and differences forms society. Members of society are inter¬dependent on each other and they co-operate among themselves.

Question 5.
Distinguish between Society and Community.
Answer:
The term society has been derived from the Latin word Socius means Companion whereas the term community has been derived from the Latin word Comments means Common.

A society do not have definite locality but community has definite locality. Society rests on cooperation. But community rests on community sentiment.

Question 6.
Explain any three characteristics of Community.
Answer:

• A group of people is the primary condition for the formation of society.
• A community always exists within a definite locality. When a group of people living in a definite area they form a community.
• Community sentiment is the most important characteristic of community. It means a feeling of being together or sense of we feeling.

Question 7.
Explain any three functional pre-requisites of Society.
Answer:
As a functioning organisation society requires some functional pre-requisites. Which are as described below :

• Food, clothing and shelter is one of the most important functional pre-requisite of society which are as described below.
• Sonic provision of security for its member is another functional pre-requisite of society.
• Inter-dependence among members is another functional pre-requisite of society.

Question 8.
Explain the term Association.
Answer:
An association is a group of people organised for a particular purpose or a. limited number of purposes. According to Maclver “Association is an organisation deliberately formed for the collectives persuit of some interest or set of interests which its members share. An association is organised and guided by some rules and regulations.

Question 9.
Write in brief how man is a social animal.
Answer:
In the words of famous Greek Philosopher, man is a social animal. He who lives without society either is a God or a beast. He can’t live in isolation. He always lives in groups or society. Man is social by nature and necessity.

His needs and necessities compel him to live in society. Man’s human nature only develops in society. The different experiment of feral cases of Kasper Hauser, Amala and Kamala and the cases of Anna proves this social nature of man.

Question 10.
Explain any three characteristic of Association.
Answer:
(1) A group of people is necessary to form an association and the people who form an association must be organised.
(2) Common purpose or interest is the next important characteristic of an association. The people who form an association must have a common purpose. For the achievement of this they organise themselves.
(3) There must be co-operation among members without which association can’t be formed.

Question 11.
Explain Institution.
Answer:
Institution ordinarily refers to the rules governing the complex social relationships among people. Institutions are forms of procedures. In the words of A.W. Green An institution is the organisation of several folkways and mores into a unit which serves a number of social functions.

Question 12.
Explain any three characteristic of an Institution.
Answer:
(1) Institutions are formed to satisfy the primary needs of individuals.
(2) Institutions prescribe certain rules and regulations which are to be followed by all the members.
(3) Institutions are abstract in nature and are embodiment of values.

Question 13.
Distinguish between Association and Institution.
Answer:
Association is concrete in nature whereas institutions are abstract. Association is a group of people who organise themselves for the purpose of attaining common interest. But institutions are forms of procedures and characteristics of group activity. Association refers to a group of people whereas institution refers to some rules and regulations.

Question 14.
Explain Social Group.
Answer:
Ordinarily group refers to a number of units of anything in close proximity with one another: But social group refers to any collection of human being who are brought into social relationship, with one another. Ogburn and Nimkoff says whenever two or more individuals come together and influence one another, they may be said to constitute a social group.

Question 15.
Explain any three characteristics of Social Group.
Answer:
(1) Social group is a collection of human beings who are united by a sense of unity.
(2) Some sort of reciprocal relations exist among the members of a social group.
(3) Member of a social group show similarity of behaviour and have common interest.

Question 16.
Explain Primary Group.
Answer:
American Sociologist C.H. Cooley developed the concept of primary group and opine primary group is characterised by intimate and face-to-face association and cooperation. They are primary in several senses. Primary group is small in size and is called is ‘we group’. They are nursery of human virtues; example -family.

Question 17.
Explain Secondary Group.
Answer:
Secondary groups are almost the opposite of the primary groups. Secondary groups are large in size and are of short duration. Interaction among the members of secondary group is formal, utility oriented specialised and temporary. Political party is an example of secondary group, these groups provide experience lacking in intimacy.

Question 18.
Explain the term Culture.
Answer:
The term culture is first used by the famous English anthropologist E.B. Tylor culture is the sum total of human activities which are learnt and shared by the majority in a group and passed on from one generation to another. It is the handiwork of men and the medium through which we achieve our ends.

Question 19.
Explain any three characteristics of Culture.
Answer:
(1) Culture is learned by living in group. It is not informal.
(2) Culture is accumulative in nature. It is a product of centuries.
(3) Culture is transmissive in nature. It is transmitted from one generation to another.

Question 20.
Explain Material Culture.
Answer:
W.F. Ogbum has divided culture into material and non-material type. Material culture refers to those things to which we can •touch or can see. They are tangible and concrete in nature. Books, chairs, tables, utensils etc. are examples of material culture.

Question 21.
Explain Non-material Culture.
Answer:
W.F. Ogbum has divided culture into material and non-material type. Non-material culture refers to those things to which we can touch or see. They are intangible and abstract things. Beliefs, value, customs, ideology etc. are examples of non-material culture.

Question 22.
Distinguish between Material and Non-material Culture.
Answer:
Material culture refers to the things to which we can tough or can see whereas non-material culture refers to those things which we can’t see or touch.

Books, chairs, tables etc. are examples of material culture whereas values, ideology, customs etc. are examples of non-material culture. Material culture is also called as artifacts where of non-material culture is known, asmenti-facts.,

Question 23.
Explain Cultural Lag.
Answer:
Ogburn has divided culture into material and non-material types. He opines that these two parts of culture do not more it uniform speed. Material culture moves faster than non-material culture.

As a result a gap is seen between these two interrelated parts of culture. To this gap or generation. Ogburn called as cultural lag. Hence, culture lag refers to the gap between two-inter-related parts of culture i.e. material and non-material.

Question 24.
Distinguish between Culture and Society.
Answer:
Culture is the way of life whereas society is an interaction of group of people sharing a culture. Society is a process of living and it consists of a group of people whereas culture refers to the belief customs, traditions etc.

Culture is the handiwork of men and a medium through which he achieves his ends. But society refers to a web of network of relationship that exists between men.

Question 25.
What is in-group?
Answer:
There are number of group to which individual belongs are called in-group. The examples of if-groups are his family, caste, sex, occupation, village etc. The individual develop a sense of attachment affection and sympathy towards the numbers of his in-group all the time. There is we feeling among the members in in-groups.

Question 26.
What is out-group?
Answer:
Out group is opposite of in group. According to summer out-group is that group to which individual does not belong. The individuals does not belongs to a number of groups which are his out-group. The individuals belongs to those groups which are known as his in-groups but all other groups are called his out-groups.

Question 27.
Define Reference Group.
Answer:
According to Sheriff “Reference group as those groups to which individual relates himself as a part or to which he relates himself psychologically’’.

Question 28.
What is Reference group?
Answer:
The individual initiates other individuals and groups. He compares himself with others and begins behaving like them in order to reach their status and position. The individuals or groups whose behaviour is limited by him are known as Reference groups.