CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part 2.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Type Questions with Answers

Question 1.
Discuss the meaning and operational definition of learning?
Answer:
Meaning and operational definition of learning:
Learning has been described by some as a modification of behavior. In learning vocabulary, tennis, football, remembering a poem, learning typing, or driving modification of behavior takes place. As a result of repeated practice modification of behavior takes place whether it is sensory, motor or psychological learning starts with an absolute zero. But this definition is too wide and suffers from vagueness. All modifications of behavior cannot be called learning. Some cases of change of behavior appear like learning from the surface. Once not actually learning modification of behavior due to:

  • Sensory adaptation
  • Maturation
  • Fatigue
  • Drugs cannot be attributed to learning

Sensory adaption:
When you entered the class you got the strong smell of perfume. But after a few minutes, you are no more aware of the fragrance as the Olfactory sense organ has adapted very quickly. This insensitiveness to the smell of perfume is not because of previous learning but because of the adaptability of the Olfactory senses of the individual.

Maturation:
Two kinds of changes in behavior take place: Those changes which occur due to endogenous (internal) factors are called changes due to growth and maturation, Those changes in behavior that take place due to external factors like environment are called learning changes, called maturational changes. Thus, due to maturation birds start signing at a particular period. The human babysits, stands, walks, and babbles at a particular age. Sexual growth starts at a particular age and so on.

Changes in behavior due to maturation should not, therefore, be confused with changes in behavior due to learning. Changes due to maturation are usually stereotyped and practically identical to all members of the species. But most of the learning changes are varied, also behavior changes due to abnormal glandular secretion, brain damage, and disease should not be attributed to learning.

Fatigue:
A decrement in work performance takes place because of fatigue or tiredness. Fatigue decreases efficiency. A student who is taking down notes in the class at a fantastic speed in the early hours, may not be able to write at the same speed in the last hours. comparative change in performance is not due to learning, but due to fatigue. A person is instructed to draw two parallel lines as quickly as possible for an unlimited period.

After some time, the performance gradually decreases and a period comes when he cannot move his wrist any further. Does this work decrement take place because of practice, due to learning? No, it is not due to practice or learning. It is due to fatigue. This work decrement is also temporary and disappears after rest or change in work.

Drug:
After taking some drugs, some people may suffer from the “drug effects”. The effect of drugs brings a complete change in their behavior for a temporary period. This change in behavior of the ‘ O ’ is not due to practice and hence cannot be attributed to learning. Further temporary that it cannot be called a case of learning.

In view of these facts, learning can be described as a permanent modification of behavior as a result of past experience and practice. Practice reinforces learning firstly, the change in behavior must be more or less, permanent and secondly, it must be the effect of past experience and practice. Any modification of behavior not due to past experience and practice cannot be attributed to learning.

Learning can also be defined as a progressive improvement in performance as a function of practice. No improvement in performance would be possible if the practice does not result in cumulative retention. Secondly, the change that we refer to in learning must be a quantitative and measurable change in performance. The following table demonstrates the measurable change in the performance of a person while learning typing.

Day                 Errors Av. Performance in 30 Minutes
1 25 15Owords
2 32 180 words
3 34 190 words
4 30 190 words
5 25 200 words
6 15 230 words
7 15 230words
8 12 250words
9 06 300 words
10 00 320 words

Both reductions in error and an increase in the speed of typing day by day suggest that the output of learning can be measured by trial. A number of different learning psychologists have emphasized different aspects of learning in their definitions. Some of them are discussed below Boaz (1984) defines learning as the process by which the individual acquires various habits, knowledge, and attitudes that are necessary to meet the demands of life in general.

Learning according to Boaz is a continuous psychological activity that takes place to solve the problems, needs, and demands of the concerned person. Secondly, by learning he develops those attitudes, knowledge, and habits that are required to meet the specific needs of problems of the learner. A person leams typing and shorthand to get a paying job as a personal secretary. A student leams cycling, so as to cover the distance from his residence to school.

A housewife leams the operation of electrical gadgets for the smooth functioning of domestic work, a girl learns cooking, knitting, and signing to have better prospects in the marriage market. Thus, Boaz emphasizes the motivation behind every learning. Learning by Morgan and King (1978) is defined “as any relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of practice and experience.” thus he deals with three major elements Learning is a change in behavior.

it is a change that takes place through practice and experience. Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent; it must last a fairly long time. According to Garrett, “Learning is that activity by virtue of which we organize our response with new habits.” Thus the element of organization in learning cannot be overlooked according to Garrett. In the opinion of Woodworth, learning a new thing adds to one’s experiences. He emphasizes the role of reinforcement in learning by saying it is indispensable for learning.

Woodworth and Scholasberg have given a very comprehensive definition of learning. According to them, “Learning is a change that occurs in the ‘O ’during any kind of activity. It shows later on after the effect of activity. A later activity is different from the earlier activity. We are tempted to say that learning is demonstrated when even a later activity shows some after-effects of earlier activity.

According to Ruch (1970), Learning is a process that brings about changes in the individual s way of responding as a result of contact with aspects of the environment. Ruch views that behavioral changes induced by drugs, brain injury, and maturation are not considered to involve learning Hilgard has defined.

learning as follows Learning is the process by which an activity originates or is changed through training procedures as is distinguished from changes by factors attributable to training. According McGcoch, “Learning as we measure it is a change in performance as a function of practice. In most cases, if not in all, this change has a direction which satisfies the current motivating conditions of the individual.”

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Question 2.
What is trial and error of learning? Describe the process of trial and error learning with an experiment?
Answer:
Methods or process of Learning :
How learning takes place? This has been a major issue for many decades and various methods have been developed for learning psychologists to explain how learning takes place. Theories of learning explain the learning process. Mainly the learning theories can be classified into two groups on the basis of their approaches. Stimulus – Response Theory supported by Thorndike, Pavlov, Skinner, Hull, Guthrie, etc. Cognitive Theory is supported by Kohler, Koffka Tolman, Lewin, etc.

The S-R theorists argue that learning occurs by habit due to a chain of reflexes. The ‘ O ’ learns to perform an activity by repeating the performance which brings the correct response or which leads one to reach the goal. This sort of learning process according to them takes place purely mechanically due to habit, due to stimulus-response association.

It does not require the understanding, the brain, or the intelligence of the learner. Paradoxically, cognitive theorists stress the role of organism variables in any learning. They argue that for any learning process to continue, intelligence, understanding, cognitive structure, etc. play an important role. Thus, they stress the role of brain processes in learning. They emphasize the means and the end, and understanding of the situation as a whole.

E.L. Thorndike’S Contribution To Trial And Error Learning:
The psychology of learning owes its existence to American Psychologist E.L. Thorndike (1874¬1949) for his first scientific study of learning. A glance at the contemporary situation of learning psychology indicates that for over half a century, the whole scene of learning psychology has been dominated by one person directly or indirectly and he is E.L. Thorndike.

It is also interesting to note that Thorndike has many followers as well as haters and rivals. When he first propounded his theory of Trial and Error Learning, it produced quite a stir in psychology. Tolman has, therefore, rightly pointed out, “He may be a starting point of attack.”. So, it is said that the psychology of animal learning, not to speak that of child learning, has been or still is primarily a matter of agreeing or disagreeing with Thorndike or tiyin in minor ways to improve upon him.

Prior to Thorndike, nobody did deal with the problem of motivation, not even Wundt or Ebbinghaus. But Thorndike brought a radical change in the history of psychology by bringing motivation into the picture. He conducted a large number of experiments on animal learning, and contemporary psychology and came to the conclusion that animals have no rational faculty in learning. They do not leam by reasoning but by trial and error.

Trial And Error Learning:
Animals go on hitting the target by impulse or leam out of a blunder of hit and miss. This is called Trial and Error Learning. Among the random hits, the correct response which is rewarded is ‘ Stamped in’. The wrong response which is not rewarded is ‘ Stamped out’. Thus; stamping incorrect responses and stamping out wrong ones is the core of learning according to Thorndike.

Trial and error is the simplest form of learning. It came into existence by means of animal experimentation. The trial and error method means trying one way to escape, reach the food or solve a problem, becoming unsuccessful and so trying another way. In this manner, the animal tries and tries until the correct solution is achieved until the goal is reached. The correct response is then repeated to strengthen the S-R connection.

What is trial and error of learning Describe the process of trial and error learning with an experiment q2

This sort of hit-and-miss learning proceeds slowly, and gradually. The errors fall slowly. The process of selecting and rejecting consists of this gradualness. On the basis of his vast amount of findings on animal experimentation. Thorndike viewed that animals come to leam things quite by chance rather than by anything like understanding. They learn blindly, mechanically, and randomly.

The solution comes by chance, accidentally. To study animal learning by Trial and Error method. Thorndike conducted a classic experiment on a hungry cat, which is described below A hungry cat was put inside a puzzle box. A piece of food (motivation) was kept outside the box at a little distance so that the cat cannot reach it unless she opens the door of the puzzle box. The cat had to press the lever by pulling the loop of the chord to open the door and to get the fish.

At first, the cat tried a number of ways and made lots of unnecessary movements to open the door. The random movements included clawing, biting, pulling, pushing, thrusting, and paws through any opening and the like. In this way after trying several hit-and-miss random acts, making enough struggle, accidentally, the loop was pulled and the door opened.

Finally, the animal reached its goal. Time taken for reaching the food was recorded. After several trials like this, the cat learned to go straight to the lever, press it, open the door and reach the food. A comparison of the time and unnecessary movements from the first to the last trial showed a gradual decrement in the time taken to reach the food.

Also, the unnecessary movements gradually decreased. This type of random hit-or-miss, exploratory activity is called Trial and Error. When these data are plotted into a curve, the irregular slopes at places indicate that animals do things accidentally without understanding. In this case, the cat leams through errors.

Question 3.
Discuss the stages of trial and error learning?
Answer:
Stages of Trial and Error Learning:
Need or Drive:
For any learning to operate need or drive is essential. It goals or motivates the organism to action. In Thorndike’s experiment, the cat was hungry. Hunger was the drive and the need was to get food. In certain cases when the cat is not hungry, the drive for exploration may serve as the need in learning the maze. The motivation should be goal oriented.

For instance, the cat is hungry. But there is no food outside the puzzle box. In this case, the animal will not try at all to open the door, unless, of course, the need to escape from the box operates as a goal. There must be some goal whatsoever, otherwise learning will not be effective.

Block or Resistance:
By preventing the direct release of tension blocks are created so that the animal would make attempts to learn. Without blocks, there cannot be any learning. Thorndike made many T & Y mazes and artificial blocks.

Random Movement:
Rigidity on the part of the ‘O’ does not help to learn quickly. Accidentally the rat heats so many paths; shows random, variable hit-and-miss kinds of activities that are blind, mechanical, and lack understanding and meaning.

Chance Success:
When the cat was trying to get the fish, it made many random unsuccessful activities. Out of these random attempts, by chance, accidentally, the ‘O’ succeeds in reaching the goal. So in .trial and error learning, success comes by chance.

Selection:
The successful movements or the correct responses which lead to the goal are reinforced and hence selected for further practice. The unsuccessful activities are discarded and the successful ones are encountered. This is called selection.

Repetition of the Successful Movements:
Repetition of successful movements leads to the establishment of a habit for a definite movement. When the cat found that certain selected movements led him to food, it attempted only those movements that enabled him to get out of the box and reach the food.

Fixation:
Fixation takes place due to habit, due to the repetition of the successful movements. The habit leads to a definite S-R connection. In fixation, certain essential factors like a decrease in time taken to reach the goal, no random movement, and anticipation of behavior observed. All the above principles are found generally, in any type of trial and Error learning.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Question 4.
Discuss briefly the curve of trial and error learning and maze learning?
Answer:
The curve of Trial and Error:
A curve can be drawn by taking the learning trial, a number of errors, etc. into consideration. The trial and error learning curve has the usual characteristics of a gradual decrease in time and error.

Discuss briefly the curve of trial and error learning and maze learningq4

The blind and random activities, at last, come to an end. Errors become zero when the learning becomes perfect. But the time period never comes to zero because some time is necessary to reach the food object. It will vary from organism to organism according to its physiological limit A Japanese experimenter, Kuo did an experiment, on Maze. Shock chambers and confined chambers were allowed.

The shock was given in the earlier path but no food, he went in the short path but got shocked. So he went on another path but again got shocked. Finally, he went on another path and took more time to run. He learned the last path because it gave him reward and pleasure. In this case frequency with reward was found to be the effective answer. Kuo thus disapproved. Thorndike’s Frequency Theory by finding that frequency followed by motivation results in learning.

Kuo’s experiment concludes that practice always depends upon the consequence of reward. The rewarded learning is only fixated. Adam repeated Trial and Error Learning and formulated certain principles which opposed Thorndike’s. He conducted an experiment on discrimination learning where the monkey was trained to select a particular circle that brought him food.

There are two circles, one is big and the other is small. Food is always reinforced to the small circle. After some training, this big circle was substituted by a small circle which was smaller than the second one. In spite of this change in the size of the first circle, the monkey discriminated between the two circles and also learned to always respond to the circle which accompanied the food.

Here, Adam says, the monkey did not learn quite blindly but tried to perceive the relationship between the circles and discriminate one from the other. So he retorted, animals always do not learn by chance. Their activities are not always random or unsuccessful. Sometimes the animal tries to understand the situation and gives a response accordingly.

Thorndike counteracted this criticism by the argument that trial and error learning occurs in the case of lower animals only. Monkeys, chimpanzees, and human beings do not learn by trial and error. Adam conducted another experiment where even after 21 trials, the animal did not learn to open the latch because there was no reinforcement (food) outside the box. But when the smell of fish was noticed by the animal, it tried to open the latch.

Thus, Adam proved that motivation followed by practice strengthens learning. He proved that without motivation learning cannot be specific. This data also went against Throndike’s assumption and emphasized more practice for effective learning. The findings of several such studies led to severe criticism of the Law of Exercise of Thorndike. Thus after 1933 of Effect was included along with the Law of Exercise.

Maze Learning:
Several maze methods were used extensively to demonstrate trial-and-error learning. Maze refers to a number of complicated ways in which the ‘O’ tries to escape or to seek food. In such learning, time and errors are taken as criteria of learning. As the time and errors, reduce the ‘O’ is said to proceed toward learning. The number of unnecessary movements taken to reach the goal is counted as error. By making suitable readjustments, each time the ‘O’ attempts to improve his performance.

Discuss briefly the curve of trial and error learning and maze learning q4 picture 2

Question 5.
What is human learning define the meaning of the law of learning and explain different laws of learning?
Answer:
Human Learning:
Human beings also learn by trial and error method. A human ‘O’ is given to learning a complicated maze blindfolded. In the beginning, he makes several wrong movements though less in degree than, the animal. Gradually in a few trials, he learns the maze. Besides simple mazes, hand stylus and complicated mazes are also used in human learning. Trial and learning also take place in our everyday life.

Opening a lock by selecting from a bunch of keys without knowing the actual key, solving a sum by different formulas, sensory-motor learning like tracing star papers with the help of mirror drawing, typing, cycling, and other motor skills are all cases of trial and error learning. Though simple by nature, the trial and error method is said to be one of the most important methods of learning.

In some conditioning and insightful learning trial and error, the method is also involved. Trial and error learning can be overt and covert. Thinking is said to be covert or mental trial and error. However, the trial and error method does not take into account the importance of the whole situation in learning. It has always emphasized part learning, i.e., learning part by part.

Laws of Learning:
on the basis of several experimental findings on animal learning. Thorndike formulated certain laws to explain, the fundamental process of learning. Learning can be explained as an operation of these laws or principles. These laws explain the how and why of learning, a) Law, of Readiness It refers to the physical or psychological (mental) preparedness of a person to do a job or to attend to a stimulus.

If one is prepared to learn; or acquire something, he welcomes it and gets a satisfying feeling while doing it. Conversely, if one is not ready to receive a stimulus, he regrets it and demonstrates dissatisfaction while making a response. Thus, in the opinion of Thorndike, readiness for doing work makes learning smooth, pleasant, and economical.

The Law of readiness has three parts:
If there is, a conduction unit that is ready to conduct an impulse, the act of conducting is satisfying or pleasing. This unit is nothing but a neural pathway or a relay of neural. If there is a conduction unit that is ready to conduct, not doing so is annoying. You are all prepared to/run a race. You are in attendance. If this race is canceled suddenly you are annoyed.

You are all dressed for a film show. Your spouse or friend does not reach in time to accompany you to the show. So it is canceled and you are deeply annoyed. If there is a conduction unit not ready to conduct and if you force one to conduct that creates annoyance. For instance, when you are not ready to sing a song but are forced to do so, it creates annoyance.

Some critics of Thorndike argue that Thorndike in three formulations speaks entirely in terms of physiology, only neural readiness. But looking at these laws, it seems that no legitimate physiological meaning can be attached to them. Later students of Thorndike attempted to attach a more legitimate meaning to these principles.

They say that though Thorndike speaks in the language of physiology, he actually meant psychology. Thus they interpret the conduction unit as a readiness, a set, a preparedness for making a response tendency which is more a psychological readiness.

Law of Exercise:
It is the principle of repetition or the frequency principle. This law states that if an S-R connection is used repeatedly, the strength of that connection is increased and if an S-R connection is not used, the strength of that connection is weakened. Repetition, therefore, increases the strength of response and lack of repetition weakens it. Hence, the law of exercise is based on the principle “Practice makes one perfect. A person who has repeated a poem several times will remember it more than one who has not.

The Law of exercise comprises two short laws:
Law of use and law of disuse. The S-R connection is strengthened by using it and weakened by not using it. This law of exercise is defined in terms probability of response strengthening and weakening. This suggests that the response acquires proficiency when it is repeated. Proficiency decreases when it is not repeated.

Criticism – Other behaviorists Thorndike took the law of exercise as the sole principle of learning. They argued that it leads to the fixation of certain definite S-R responses, a tendency leading to specific learning. But many experiments including Adam proved that learning is net-specific as Thorndike thought. It is rather a general orientation. Adam and others found that the same animal used different methods to achieve the same goal.

Thus, considerable doubt is focused on the specific nature of learning. Secondly, subsequent learning psychologists did not find the law of exercise as effective as Thorndike thought. Mere repetition without motivation does hot achieves anything. The person must have some reinforcement or incentive to learn a skill. Otherwise, practice proves ineffective.

Several experiments on knowledge of results show that repetition without reinforcement does not bring learning. Japanese psychologist Kuo has also found the same thing. That learning becomes ineffective without an intention to learn is proven in most of our daily activities. In view of this criticism, Thorndike decided to Supplement the Law exercise with the law of effect.

Law of Effect:
It follows from the Law of Exercise. The Law of effect refers to Some kind of reward or reinforcement. It stresses the role of motivation in learning. It is the cornerstone, the cardinal principle of Thorndike’s theory of learning. Thorndike viewed that in all situations involving learning, be its sensory or motor or both, the principle of effect is exemplified. conditioning learning, insightful learning, and in trial and or learning, the law of effect is indispensable. This law is responsible for the selection of some goals and the rejection of others. The whole system of Thorndike, in fact, falls or rises with this law.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Question 6.
What is learning of performance and discuss the maturation of learning?
Answer:
Learning and Performance:
Sometimes learning is confused performance. But learning is different from performance. Learning cannot be directly observed, but it is inferred from performance. So learning contributes to performance, but it is only one ingredient of performance. Performance is affected by many factors other than learning. Performance refers to observed behavior while learning can only be observed through performance.

The several factors which influence performance are – need, motivation, attitude, past experience, and learning. Thus, among several factors influencing performance, learning is only one factor.

Learning and Maturation:
Learning basically depends upon the psychological system, i.e. the sensory organs and the cerebral cortex. The growth of organs, therefore, helps in learning. Whatever training we may give to a baby of 5 months, he cannot walk or speak a language. Similarly, a five-year-old boy cannot solve complex mathematical problems, because the solution to mathematical problems depends upon the development of intelligence and the cerebral cortex.

If the brain is not ready enough to grasp a thing, learning will not be possible. Thus it seems apparent that maturation of that organ is necessary, which is to be used for particular learning. What is Maturation? If simply refers to growth, both physically arid and mental. Munn (1954) opines that maturation in man depends upon the existence of human genes and human intracellular, intercellular, and external preconditions.

Those changes which take place due to endogenous or internal factors are called changes due to the influence of growth and maturation. Changes due to the influence of external factors are due to learning. Maturation mostly depends upon prenatal conditions and genes and partly upon the environment. Maturation can be accelerated or retarded by the postnatal environment because feedback from the early environment has also something to do with growth and maturation.

Maturation occurs after birth as well as before. Maturation greatly depends upon heredity. But since the early environmental conditions play a role in development, it would be incorrect to say that any structure or function which matures is purely inherited. Due to the major influence of heredity and genes upon maturation, birds start singing at a particular age, and children start walking and babbling at a particular age. Sexual growth also begins at a particular period of life, even though no training is given.

Hence maturation does not depend upon learning maturation can be accelerated by training, by the factors of the external environment. Maturation can take place without learning, within the four walls. A person can sit, stand, walk and babble without getting special training. A lot of research on maturation has been conducted on animals and some on human infants. Evidence of maturation is found in experiments on birds, rats, monkey,s and human infants.

Arnold Gesell (1946) conducted a study to examine the importance of maturation over learning. She took two twin girls, say A and B. At 46 weeks A was trained to climb stairs and she took several weeks to leam the skill. At 53 weeks B, her sister, was taught to climb the same stairs. She only took 2 weeks to leam it. This difference in learning can be well attributed to better maturation in the case of who was taught to climb stairs seven weeks after her sister A was taught.

The findings of this study make it clear that maturation helps one to leam much more quickly. It also suggests that maturation may not necessarily depend upon learning, but learning definitely depends upon maturation. Why? According to Boaz (1984) “for the learning of complex tasks, particularly for the symbolic learning, maturation of the cerebral cortex and its association areas is an absolute necessity.

Lashley’s experimental findings also show that learning ability directly depends upon the size of the cerebral cortex. That is why, when the child is not ready to leam, no amount of teaching or training will make any good. This is what everyone, including the parents and the teachers, should realize.

Kellog and Kellog (1933) conducted a classic experiment on “The Ape and the Child.” A human child Donald and a Chimpanzee baby Gua were brought up in the same environment and treated identically. Gua, who was two months younger than Donald was humanized earlier than Donald. Munn in this connection describes.

In learning to skip, cooperate with her foster parent, obey requests, kiss to makeup, open doors, anticipate her bowel and bladder needs, eat with a spoon, drink from a glass, and understand such expressions as “Kiss, Kiss” “Come here” Shake hands” and “Bad girl”. Gua was ahead of Donald. She learned faster than Donald because she was more mature.

The conclusions of this study are:
Though the Chimpanzee was of an inferior race and was superior to the child in certain respects due to greater early maturation, Donald could leam certain things like speaking, which Gua without special training could not leam, even though she was more mature. It is because men are more mature than apes.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Question 7.
Define (aw of learning). Describe the law of effect?
Answer:
On the basis of several experimental findings on animal learning. Thorndike formulated certain laws to explain the fundamental process of learning. Learning can be explained as an operation of these laws or principles.

Law of Effect:
It follows from the law of exercise. The Law of effect refers to some kind of reward or reinforcement. It stresses the role of motivation in learning. It is the consumer stone, the cardinal principle of Thorndike’s theory of learning. Thorndike viewed that in all situations involving learning. Law of effect in Thorndike’s opinion refers to the strengthening and weakening of connection as a result of its consequences.

When a modifiable connection is made and is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the connection is increased. If a connection is made and is followed by an annoying state of affairs, the strength is decreased. If the hungry rat gets food after running the maze, it again runs the maze when hungry. But if it fails to get food, it will no more run.

Similarly, if the dog in the conditioned response method gets food, after salivating to bell it will again salivate to below. The learning which gives satisfaction is repeated over and over again. Conversely, failure and dissatisfaction will create an aversion to that learning. If several runs in a particular pathway do not lead to food, but to shock, the rat with a feeling of failure leaves that path and takes another, which leads to a reward.

If the animal is rewarded, next time it expects food and so learns quickly. Thorndike talks about the effect in operational terms. A connection is strengthened and associated with fulfillment of drive, weakened in the case of the opposite. The strength of connection takes place in terms of result i.e., it depends upon the result. The law of effect, therefore, can be called the law of consequence of results from this angle.

The satisfying consequences or results are retained and the dissatisfying ones are eliminated. Thorndike said, “By a satisfying state of affairs is meant one which the animal does nothing to avoid, often doing things which maintain or renew it. It is something that the animal always tried to maintain. An annoying state of affairs is meant one in which the animal does nothing to preserve often doing things that put an end to it.

Objections against the Law of Effect:
Some have argued that Thorndike’s reasoning is circular. Thorndike had to define satisfaction and annoyance in the manner of annoyance. In the pretension of defining a problem, he again comes back to the same problem. Another objection comes from Watson himself. He said that it has a subjective tinge. So he stated that satisfaction and annoyance are connected with some mental state and as such is inappropriate for the description of animal behavior.

Thirdly, the “backward effect” of the Law of Effect has been certified, because the effect going backward is not logical according to them. In Thorndike’s view learning consists of a series of S-R units like S -S2-S3-S4-S5 and so on. The effect comes only at 5. However, it not only influences S. but all the back stimuli like S, S, S3, and S4. But since learning is discreet, how can it be connected with other stimuli, and how the correct response at the 5th’ stage can again go back to the first one?

This idea of Thorndike is very legitimately doubted. To meet this criticism Thorndike argued that the effect of going backward is a matter of empirical observation and reality and hence should not be challenged. The Geslaltists rejected the law of effect. Their objections were based upon experiments and hence more troublesome for Thorndike, the Law of effect, in spite of this criticism is central not only to Thorndike but to all who believe in some sort of reinforcement in learning.

This was the position of Thorndike up to 1929. From 1929 onwards, a very great change took place in his theory, i.e., he modified it. The necessity of modification arose due to severe criticism from various contemporaries like behaviorists and Gestalt Psychologists. Thorndike was so much perturbed by the criticism coming from the Gestalt School and from Iris’s own experimental findings at the meeting of International Congress in Psychology (1927).

he confessed “I am wrong” With this statement, he suggested some radical modifications to his theory of trial and error. He completely gave up the law of exercise and so the law of effect after 1930 was called the “Truncated Law of Effect.” The weakening effect of punishment was also given up or renounced. Thus, he substituted only half of the original law of effect.

The other half dealing with punishment was given up as the negative side appeared to be unimportant for learning. He stated that mere occurrence was enough to counterbalance the eliminating force of punishment. This he did on the basis of his famous experiment on chicks. In a simple maze, the choice of three correct pathways was given such as:

  • Freedom,
  • Company,
  • Food.

The wrong responses led to a punishment of confinement for 30 seconds. A careful record of the data was kept in regard to the times the chicks followed a path when it led to rewarding and it led to punishment. The aim was to examine if a particular pathway led to food or freedom or company or electric shock, and how often the different paths are repeated.

The findings of this study led Thorndike to conclude that rewarding a connection always strengthened it substantially, and punishing it weakened, it a little or not at all. Thorndike found that there was almost a universal view that reward was more efficacious than punishment. Contemporary psychologists called this the law reinforcement. Thorndike also discovered another important phenomenon in the law of effect.

It is known as The Spread of Effect. He noticed that the effect of reward was not only upon the connection with which the reward associated but also upon the neighborhood connections. Effect strengthens these connections which have preceded and followed reward. In short, reward not only strengthens the right connections but also the adjacent connections.

This Thomdike said is a kind of gradient effect. Subsequent experiments on the spread of the effect have yielded similar findings. Tiffin and Nuttin, for instance, got extensive results. However, this phenomenon of the spread of effect has been denied on experimental and statistical grounds. People said on the basis of empirical findings that the spread of effect is not real but conditional.

Thorndike’s theory after 1930 can be summarized as follows:
Reward is extremely urgent for learning. It minimizes the effect of punishment. In matters of potency, the reward is so potent counterbalances the effect of punishment. Rewarding connection always strengthens it substantially. Punishment weakens the connection little or not at all. Thorndike’s law of learning after 1930had a lot of social implications. The modification of this law is at the root of all social changes. It is more practical in classroom teaching, in jails, and in juvenile reform centers.

Spare the rod, spoil the child is based on this principle of learning. Canning has been banned in educational institutions. Physical punishment also is not in much use today. Thus, prisoners in jail, school students, and for juvenile delinquents laws of effect tremendous importance. The three important views about the law of effect are as follows Law of effect is essential to learning – Thorndike, Hull.

Question 8.
Discuss the few other laws of the theory of Thorndike and critical evaluation?
Answer:
Thorndike’s theory:
Thorndike has a number of subsidiary laws. They are The law of multiple responses, i.e. there are a number of responses at the disposal of the ‘O’. when one fails, one other is tried by the law of prepotency; and the law of associative setting. A few other laws of learning have also been referred to by Thorndike, which are discussed below:

Law of Contiguity:
Contiguity refers to nearness. Nearness can be two types, nearness of space and nearness of time. If two things are experienced together, either due to the nearness of space or time, when one is experienced, the other immediately comes to our mind. Blackboard and chalk, library and librarian are related by contiguity of space. When is face one, the other immediately comes focus of our consciousness? An example of the contiguity of time is thunder and lightning. When we see the lightning, immediately we anticipate the thunder which follows the lightning at once.

Law of Frequency:
It is a frequent occurrence that gives an advantage. When nerve connections are frequently used, they leave a particular mark on memory. This is suggested by Thorndike physiological change. It is very much related to the law of exercise. The Law of frequency and the law of exercise are sometimes considered as having equal functions.

Law of Recency:
Any act which has been performed recently has the advantage of being learned and remembered more quickly than the older, far-off, and distant experiences. The recent experiences are better remembered because Neural pathways involved in recent experiences are the last to be activated and the impression in the nerves is fresh. they were the acts nearer to the solution and satisfaction of the need.

The last attempt is the recent attempt and it is a nearer goal that gives a satisfying experience. So it is learned and remembered quickly. While learning the maze box, the rat remembers the last path move vividly as it brought food and satisfied its hunger need. Psychologists who have criticized the law of recency and the law of exercise believe that it is an atomic or molecular approach.

Law of Primacy:
First impressions last long. Other things being equal, all first-learned things are better remembered. The first time one meets a person, the first day of joining college, the first night of I marriage, and the first, time one joins a job or receives his pay packet are examples. Similarly, the first line of a song and the first syllable from a list of nonsense syllables are quickly learned.

Due to the operation of a law of primacy and recency, the first and last nonsense syllables of a list are more easily remembered than the materials in the middle of the list. The first things get enough time to be consolidated and there is no proactive inhibition in this case while in the middle series, both proactive inhibition and retroactive inhibition operate.

Law of Intensity:
If the experience is very intense and emotional, it is easily remembered and further learning may not be necessary to remember it. Certain childhood experiences which are extremely pleasant or deeply shocking like getting a gold medal as a reward, the sudden death of parents and failure in an examination may be remembered for the entire life because of their intense nature.

Intense experiences need not be repeated. One single experience will be enough to be remembered for one entire life. However, according to the theory of repression, if the experience is too shocking or unpleasant, it may be forgotten due to the operation of the mechanism of repression.

Law of Belongingness:
The Law of belongingness by its recognition of an organizing principle is foreign to the structure of Thorndike’s theory of specificity and mechanical action. Rather it gives some recognition to the Gestalt principles in learning. Attacked by Kohler, Koffka, and other Gestaltists for his neglect of organizational principles, Thorndike developed this law of belongingness. It states that the effect is stronger if it belongs to the stimulus-response connection.

Following this line, Thorndike said that if there is an S R connection and the effect belongs to it, the influence is weaker. When one is hungry, food belongs to the situation and so the hunger-food connection makes learning more efficient. When one is hungry, water does not belong to it, only food belongs to it, and only food can satisfy the need of hunger. The belongingness of reward and punishment depends upon the appropriateness of satisfying an arousal motive or want in the learner.

The concession to the principle of belongingness is a concession to the field psychologists who stress the field factor in every learning. Introducing this principle, Thorndike says that effect is more efficacious when it is an effect with belongingness. Belongingness of reward and punishment depends upon its appropriateness is satisfying.

An aroused motive or want in the learner and in its logical and informative relationship to the activities rewarded and punished. To be rewarded with a glass of water when one is thirsty is a reward with belongingness. Without belongingness, though the aftereffect cannot be denied, with belongingness they are more effective.

Critical Evaluation of Thorndike’s Theory:
Thorndike for the first time made a systematic and scientific study of the problems of learning. He developed methods of animal experimentation and gave such genetic and comparative psychology which provided the impetus for a tremendous amount of research on animal psychology. Looking at the theory of Thorndike, we find, it is one man who has created regular stomachs in the whole field of learning.

Though several decades have passed, still we find Thorndike at the root of all kinds of discussions in learning. Some of his ideas, though have been modified and improved, but the law of effect still continues to have a very significant place in learning. Chiefly two kinds of criticisms have been leveled against Thorndike. His stress on reaction performance, on parts rather than on whole has been criticized.

These are criticisms that result from differences in outlook and temperament. The second type of criticism is very fundamental and specific mainly against the law of effect. It was argued that the law of effect is subjective in nature and the backward nature of the law of effect was also criticized. There are also some important experimental criticisms like renunciations of punishment in the law of effect. While Mouren and others have viewed that punishment is very significant in the acquisition of behavior, taking the help of latent learning.

Tolman of the Gestalt School argued that learning can take place with simplicity without reward. The attacks by the Gestalt School in the 20s were more telling and Thorndike began to later meet some of these criticisms. But it was before the International Congress of Psychology Newttaven in September 1929, he came out with the statement “I am Wrong.”

Transfer of Training:
The theory of transfer of training refers to the popular concept that man should be given training in a general way which includes language, mathematics, and classics. They thought that training in these areas positively transferred to various walks of life. It was found that formal education is transferred to various life situations and vocations. The pattern of education at that time in England was, therefore, mainly restricted to classics, language, and mathematics.

Subsequently, there was a lot of discussion on the generalization of the transfer of training and transfer of mathematics to another subject. Thorndike was the first person to raise his voice against the unscientific character of this presupposition and said, it would be illusory to support that there is a transfer from mathematics to other subjects, He viewed that training in one subject helps the other subject only to the extent they have elements or aspects in common.

The identity may be in substance or in the procedure. Thus there can be a transfer from mathematics to statistics or knowledge of addition helps in multiplication; because both have necessary similarities. 11 hence, it is also called the “theory of identical elements”. Thorndike’s theory of transfer began to take shape in an experimental study done in collaboration with Woodworth (1903).

This study presupposes that transfer depends upon the presence of identical elements between the original and subsequent learning. What is implied by the transfer of training? When previous training or knowledge influences the acquisition of subsequent learning it is called a transfer of training. There are three types of transfer of training positive transfer, negative transfer, and zero transfer.

Positive Transfer:
In the positive transfer of training acquisition of skill in one situation facilitates the training in subsequent situations. For instance, knowledge of physics facilitates training in electronics. knowledge of mathematics accelerates the training in statistics or computer science; knowledge of language facilitates the study of classics and literature.

Positive transfer of training occurs due to the similarity of content, the similarity of technique, and the similarity of principle. Thorndike was of opinion that one activity influences another to the extent that they have common or identical elements. Contrary to the popular belief that transfer is general in nature, Thorndike put forth the idea that transfer is a matter of specific connections.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Question 9.
What is insightful learning? Discuss its characteristics and types?
Answer:
Insightful learning owes its existence to the Gestalt School of Psychology, particularly to its founders Kohler and Koffka. The theory of insightful learning developed as a revolt against Titchener’s structuralism, Thorndike’s trial and error learning, and part-whole relationship. As opposed to Thorndike, Gestalt developed and theory of whole part position in learning and perception.

Gestalt is a German word with no exact English translation. It more or less refers to the form organized whole and configuration. Objects and things are perceived and learned as a whole, in complete form. This is the salient point of the Gestalt School. According to Crow and Crow, Gestalt is a pattern a configuration of a form of apprehending a stimulus situation.

Characteristics of Insightful Learning:
Insightful learning, the ‘ O ’ reacts to the whole situation and not to some details only. The ‘ O ’ finds out the relationship between the various stimuli within the situation as a whole. The relationship that the ‘O’ perceives is mostly between a means and the end or goal. While learning by the insight the ‘ O’ modifies and restructures the perceptual field. A sudden change in the behavior of the ‘O’ is frequently observed.

The solution to the problem comes all of a sudden, in a sudden flash. The capacity for insightful learning is restricted by age and individual differences. Older children give a better response to learning by insight than younger ones. Similarly, higher animals like monkeys and chimpanzees solve problems by insight than guinea pigs. Insight depends upon past experience. However, the Gestaltists do not agree with this. They instead emphasize the present experiences of the learner.

But one must accept that a child cannot get into the heart of a mathematical problem unless the symbols stated therein are understood. For this, past knowledge of the subject is required. Even. when the problem is at the capacity level since he does not know the signs and symbols, he cannot solve the problem. Generally, it has been found that once one gets the idea for the solution to the problem in subsequent situations, that idea helps in solving the problem.

Insightful leaming needs experimental arrangement. The problem situation must be properly arranged and the tools must be kept systematically so that the necessary aspects are amendable to observation. If the required tool is out of the field of perception, solving the problem becomes difficult. Certain cases of insightful learning may be preceded by trial and error or a period for search or preparation.

In the stick and banana experiment, the first half was trial and error learning. Once achieved, insight can be used in a new situation. The same method can be repeated over and over again to solve new problems. The idea is thus transferred or carried over from previous to subsequent learning situations. In the case of human subjects, insight is often accompanied by verbal cues which help in subsequent learning. A solution of insightful learning can be readily repeated.

This has been proved in the case of the Sultan. When Sultan was again placed in the box with a bunch of bananas the next day, it repeated the same idea of joining the two sticks and getting the banana. Only it did not show any trial and error behavior as on the first day. In insightful learning we observe an integrating and reintegrating of part processes into a new total pattern, these part processes having been provided by experience, though the Gestalt School gives emphasis on the present situational factors.

Insightful learning can be of two types :

  • Learning by Foresight.
  • Learning by Hindsight Foresight

When the solution to the problem comes at once in the first attempt without actually trying the situation, it is called foresight. When a person solves a mathematical problem suddenly without using trial and method error it is a case of foresight. Hindsight Solution comes after trying with the elements.

Question 10.
Define observational learning?
Answer:
At the time there were rarely computer monitors in the airports of India showing the time of arrival and departure of planes indicated by their flight numbers. Only there were occasional announcements. I was waiting for a security check-up along with so many other passengers who were waiting for different flights with boarding cards of different colors kept in their shirt (front) pockets. I was a little nervous and worried because I was not very sure if I could be able to go to the right gate for a security check-up and board the right plane.

My boarding card was pink in color. Immediately I got the intrusion to follow the passengers who had also pink-colored boarding cards. I observed them and found four, or five passengers with pink colored cards, and I gave a sigh of relief. When there was a call for a security check-up, occupants of the pink-colored card got up to proceed and I quietly followed them and arrived at the right gate for the security check-up.

Subsequently, things became easy for me. I observed and imitated the activities of my co-passengers and followed them till I reached the plane. When the plane was about to take off, the air hostess announced that every one should fasten their seat belts. I tried with the seat belt but could not fasten it around my waist. Then I observed my co-passenger silently and learned the technique.

These are examples of observational learning. Observational learnings are most common in our day-to-day life. Observational learning in most cases is a simple type of learning whereby watching others in activities we learn a lot. Even we leam abstract rules, concepts, and ideas by observing others’ behavior either in reality or from cinema or T.V. Thus while watching T.V. people also learn to do things.

People leam social customs, rules, regulations, traditions, rituals, and cultural heritages of the society by observing others so that many embarrassments are avoided. When a child sees his mother showing respect to another person, the child also does the same. The child also does the same. ‘In society we leam from other people’s experiences by observing them, watching them. In fact, people leam both positive and negative behavior patterns like sociability and aggressiveness through observation of models.

Bandura, the pioneer of observational learning opines that it is a third major way by which we leam next to trial and error and conditioning. Several research findings suggest that observational learning places some role in every aspect of human behavior and we cannot manage without this method of learning. We leam cooking, stitching, washing clothes, toilet habits, knitting, making art and drawings, decorations by watching other people doing the same.

Even we leam a lot of necessities of day-to-day life by watching the T.V. Most of the household activities and various exercises are learned through observation. Many experiments on children prove this point. The famous Bobo doll experiment of Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) indicate how children leam to be aggressive by observing an adult aggressive model. They took two groups of nursery school children as samples. The control group was exposed to a non-aggressive amiable adult model.

But the experimental group was exposed to an aggressive adult model who kicked a big doll, scolded and insulted it. Then the children of both groups were allowed to play in a room with several toys. Children of the experimental group showed more aggressive behavior towards their toys and dolls compared to the children of the control group. This may also be called “Imitation Learning”.

Social scientists explain the indisciplined, aggressive, unruly violent, and ruthless behavior of many modem youths as a consequence of imitating the same from T.V. Cinema and video films. The ability to learn by observing others’ activities is due to the cognitive influence of learning. Even Toman’s experiment on rats learning to run mazes substantiates the fact that simple creatures can learn from experience to form internal models to guide later behavior.

Basic Principle of Observational:
The principles of observational learning explain what factors and conditions determine whether and to what extent we learn information skills, concepts, and ideas from others’ behaviors. Following are four basic principles of observational learning as suggested by Bandura.

The direction of attention to appropriate models performing a particular activity:
People generally imitate such people’s behavior which seems appropriate to serve their purpose or aim. Intelligent, pretty, attractive people demonstrating cognitive ability, having unique status, and success come under this category.

Remembering the actions, behaviors and skills shown by the model:
In order to be successful in observational learning, the person must retain what he has observed from his model so that he can behave in a similar way when required.

Production process or conversion of the retained behavior of the model into appropriate action at the time of requirement:
According to Bandura production processes depend upon one’s own physical abilities which can give a clear representation of its memory at the appropriate time, and the capability to monitor one’s own performance and manipulate it till it matches the behavior of the model.

Motivation:
In Bandura’s view, one may observe another person’s behavior but he may not convert it to action unless he is motivated to do so. Only those behavior that is required and useful for a person, he is motivated to practice them, so motivation is required to observe actively other’s activities and put them into practice.

Observational learning may not always be as simple as it appears. It is more complex than mere learning by imitation. It plays an important role in modifying our behaviors through observation. Observational learning leads to aggressive behavior (Baron and Richardson, 1994, Central wails 989, Synder, 1991, Wood, Wrong, and Chachese (1997). Children are found to show aggressive behavior after imitating their age mates.

It can also be used as a technique to train workers for the improvement of interpersonal relationships. Sociability, courteousness, and amiability can be developed by observing these qualities regularly in other people. Culture shock can also be avoided through observational learning. Asian and Western cultures differ contrastingly. It becomes difficult for people of both cultures to adjust and interact normally with each other. Similarly, with the globalization of the world economy, people of different cultures have to interact with each other when they meet.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Question 11.
Define the stage of insightful learning. Differentiate between insightful learning and trial, and error learing?
Answer:
Stages of insightful learning:
Need:
Like any learning, the need to leam is essential in insightful learning. The need may be biological like hunger, sex, or thirst or social like gregariousness, or personal like the desire for power, prestige, and recognition.

Preparation:
Preparation is a basic precondition before insightful learning starts. In Kohler’s experiment on the Sultan with problems involving the use of readymade implements, there were preliminary preparations for the learning. The leader makes various surveys, inspections, and acute examinations of the problem and its field.

Incubation:
It refers to the stage of clearness or dormant period when all overt activities are suspended. It is a period of progress when the ‘O’ silently thinks over the problem.

Inspiration:
In this stage, the idea for the solution to the problem comes suddenly. It flashes in the mind at once. The bright ideal, the “brain wave” comes to the mind during this stage. This stage is sometimes characterized by shouting and jumping in joy, as the ‘O’ is enlightened by the bright idea which came in a flash.

Verification:
It is the last stage of insightful learning in which the ‘O’ makes practical application of his bright new idea. In the case of the Sultan, it joined both the sticks, placed the boxes one after another, and got upon the third box, and brought the bunch of bananas hanging on the roof.

Critical Analysis of Insightful Learning Theory:
Kohler, Koffka, and other advocates of insightful learning have stated that perception of the relationship between different parts of the visual field and the goal plays a significant part in learning. They have also said that learning by insight takes a single attempt to solve a problem. But this is not the fact in reality. In most cases, we find that learning is a gradual process and the errors reduce gradually which the insight theory is not ready to accept.

So insight is not the only method of learning. It is nevertheless one of the methods of learning. Practice is also essential for learning. But practice is totally unacceptable to Gestalt psychologists. However, it can be said that in every difficult and complicated situation the only type of learning that is involved is insightful learning. Munn (1953) thus comments, “Insight is rare in animals, not quite so rare in children and quite common in human adults!”.

While American psychologists have mostly used mazes and puzzle boxes, German psychologists, used situations where all relevant aspects of the problem are visible. Thus Bertrand Russel remarked “Animals studied by Americans run about frantically, with an incredible display of hustle and pep, and at last achieve the desired result by chance. Animals observed by Germans still and think and at last evolve the solution out of their inner consciousness.”

Difference between Insightful and Trial and Error Learning:
Trial and error are more often found in lower animals and children while insightful learning is rare in animals, not so rare in children, and commonly found in human adults. Trial and error learning depends upon practice and repetition while insightful learning does not require much practice. Trial and error learning is mechanical, random, blind, a hit-and-miss type of learning where a solution comes by chance, accidentally.

Insightful learning depends upon intelligence, understanding, grasping, and perception of the whole field of the organization. Trial and error is a simple type of learning mostly found in the acquisition of skills, particularly motor skills. Insight is a complex method of learning. It is more effective in cognitive and verbal learning. Trial and error learning is gradual and slow. Several trials are required to lead.

Insightful learning is sudden and comes abruptly at once in a flash. One trial is necessary for learning. Trial and error learning is more or less temporary. When practice is given up, the acquisition of skill fades up. Insightful learning is permanent as it grows out of understanding the relationship between the tools and the goals. In trial-error learning, a reaction to a part and specific stimulus is made.

In insightful learning, the situation is perceived as a whole to bring the solution. Trial and error learning does not involve insight. Learning by the insight in many cases involves some amount of trial and error. Trial and error depend upon practice and past experience. Gestalt School argues that it does not depend upon past experience which is a controversial view. Learning is transferred from one situation to another on the basis of transposition. In insightful learning transfer of training takes place in the form of identical elements,

Question 12.
What is classical conditioning? Describe determinants and basic processes in classical conditioning?
Answer:
This type of learning was first investigated by Ivan R Parlov (1849 -1936). He was an eminent Russain Psychologist and a Nobel prize winner for his work on the physiology of digestion. During his studies, he observed that dogs started secreting saliva as soon as they did. Sighted the empty plate in which food was served. As we are aware, saliva secretion i.e. reflexive response to food or something in the mouth.

This observation led to the famous conditioned response of learning. Pavlov designed an experiment to understand this process in detail. In the first phase, a dog was left in a box and harnessed. The dog was left in the box for some time. This was repeated a number of times on different days. Then a simple surgery was made and one end of the tube was inserted in the dog’s jaw and the other end of the tube was put in a measuring glass.

Then, in the second phase of the experiment, the dog was deprived of food and was kept hungry. Again, the dog was placed in a harness with one end of the tube in the jaw and the other end of the glass jar. Now a bell was sounded and then meat powder (food) was served. The dog was allowed to eat it. This exercise was repeated for a few days. After a number of trials, a test trial was introduced in which the set up was the same except for the presentation of food.

In the first phase, the dog was secreting saliva in response to the Unconditioned Stimuli (US). But after conditioning, salivation started to occur in the presence of the sound of the bell (CS). Here, the bell becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and saliva secretion, a Conditioned Response (CR). Here, it is obvious that the learning situation in classical conditioning is one of the S-S learning, in which one stimulus (i.e. bell sound) becomes a signal of another stimulus (i.e. food).

So one stimulus signifies the possible occurrence of another stimulus. Examples of classical conditioning are many. Suppose someone has finished lunch and was satisfied with his food. But suddenly he saw some sweet dish served on the adjoining table. Then the secretion of saliva in his mouth became automatic. He felt like eating it. This is a conditioned response (CR).

Stages of Condition big Operations
(a) Before Sound of Bell -Alertness (No specific response)
(b) During Sound of the Bell (CS) + Food (US) – Salivation (UCR)
(c) After Sound of the Bell – Salivation (CS) (CR)

Determinants of Classical Conditioning:
Practically, the acquisition of a response occurs very quickly and strongly in classical conditioning. But how it occurs depends upon several factors. Some of the major factors influencing learning a CR are enumerated below.

Time relations between Stimuli:
Basically, there are four types of classical conditioning procedures. These procedures are based on the time relations between the onset of conditioned (CS) and, unconditioned stimuli (US). The first three are called ‘Forward Conditioning’ procedures and the fourth one is called the ‘Backward conditioning’ procedure.

The basic experimental arrangements of these procedures are as follows When the onset of CS and US are concurrent, it is called simultaneous conditioning. In delayed conditioning, the onset of CS precedes the onset of the US. The CS ends before the end of the US. In trace conditioning, the onset and end of the CS precede the onset of the US with some blank time between the two.

In backward conditioning, the US precedes the onset of CS. Now it is obvious that the delayed conditioning procedure is the most directive way of acquiring a CR. Again, simultaneous and trace conditioning procedures require a greater number of acquisition trials in comparison to the delayed conditioning procedure. But the acquisition of response under a backward conditioning procedure is very rare.

Type of Unconditioned Stimuli:
I.P. Pavlov used two types of unconditioned stimuli in classical conditioning – appetitive and aversive. Appetitive unconditioned stimuli automatically elicit approach responses, such as eating, drinking, caressing, etc. But the aversive US is painful, and harmful and elicits avoidance and escape responses. Examples are noise, bitter taste, electric shock, painful injecting, etc.

The observation indicated that appetitive classical conditioning is slower and requires a greater number of acquisition trials. But depending on the intensity of the aversive US, aversive classical conditioning can be established in one or two trials.

The intensity of Conditioned Stimuli:
The intensity of CS influences the course of both appetitive and aversive classical conditioning. It observed that more intense conditioned stimuli are more effective in accelerating the acquisition of conditioned responses. In other words, the more intense the CS, the fewer the number of acquisition trials required for conditioning.

Basic Process in Classical Conditioning Parlov’s classical conditioning is an extremely simple form of learning. Truly speaking, it is regarded as the building block of all forms of learning from simple to more complex. The basic processes involved in Pavlovian conditioning are enumerated below.

Acquisition:
In the classical conditioning experiment, the paired presentation of CS and UCS is called a trial. The period in which the organism learns the association between the CS and UCS is the acquisition phase. As the trials continue, the CS becomes gradually stronger to elicit the CR. Presenting UCS with CS during the acquisition phase is a critical operation in classical conditioning.

Here the UCS serves as a reinforcer because it reinforces the connection. Again, the trials on which UCS occurs are called reinforced trials and the trials on which the UCS is omitted are called unreinforced trials. At the beginning trials of the acquisition phase, the strength of CR increases rapidly.

What is classical conditioning Describe determinants and basic process in classical conditioningQ12

The rate of acquisition during the reinforced trials depends on several factors. The important factors are the time – interval between the CS and the UCS. the intensity of the CS. the intensity of the UCS and the reliability of the CS in predicting the onset of UCS. As the reinforced trials continue, the strength of CR increases but not as rapidly as it used to be in the beginning trials.

Extinction:
When the CS is repeated without UCS then the CR gradually weakens and finally disappears. The disappearance of the CR due to non reinforcement is called extinction or experimental extinction. In the classical conditioning experiments, if a bell is presented time and again without food (reinforcement).

the amount of salivation gradually decreases and finally disappears. In short, when the reinforcement is withdrawn, the CR fails to appear. But extinction is not forgetting. The CR is only temporarily suppressed and after a brief rest period, a part of CR appears.

Spontaneous Recovery:
According to Pavlov, complete or permanent extinction of conditioned response is not possible. The reappearance of an extinguished CR after a Rest period is known as spontaneous recovery. Here the CR is partially recovered after a Rest period. hr classical conditioning experiment, after the salivation response, was given a rest period for thirty minutes.

After this span of rest, the bell was presented without food (UCS), following it. Then the salivation to bell suddenly reappeared. Very often, the response is successively extinguished when it reappears, then the spontaneous recovery diminishes. As a result, the CR fails to be shown even following the rest period. This is known as permanent extinction.

Stimulus Generalization:
In conditioning, generalization occurs to a certain class of stimuli rather than to a specific stimulus. In short, it is a tendency for the CR to be aroused by a similar stimulus.

What is classical conditioning Describe determinants and basic process in classical conditioningQ12

In Pavlovian conditioning, the dog was conditioned to salivate to a specific tone. Then the CR is generalized to a second tone similar in characteristics to the first tone. As a result, a new procedure began. The first tone (CS) and the second tone (new stimulus) were presented on alternate trials. The first tone was followed by food (reinforcement) and the second was never followed by food (no reinforcement).

Consequently, the CR to the first tone was maintained and the generalized response to the second tone invited extinction. The dog learned to salivate to the first tone and to withhold salivate to the second tone. Finally, the dog was able to discriminate between the two stimuli because of differential reinforcement.

Like generalization, discrimination has also an adaptive significance, too much generalization is over-responsive, whereas, too much discrimination is over-selective. In a sophisticated manner, conditioning is a process in which discrimination ultimately wins over-generalization. Salivation to light by frequently associating it will bell but without presenting the food is called second-order conditioning.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Question 13.
Define operant conditioning?
Answer:
There are two main forms of simple learning. One is Classical and the other is Instrumental, Instrumental conditioning is also known as operant Conditioning. You can take a simple example here to describe instrumental behavior. When a dog responds to the commands of its master to get some biscuits, the dog has learned an instrumental response. The dog is rewarded for a particular response.

In nutshell, the dog’s response was instrumental in fetching a sought-after reward. That is why it is called instrumental conditioning. This type of conditioning was first investigated by B.F. Skinner. He studied conditioning of voluntary responses found when an organism operates on the environment. He called them operants. Operants are that behavior or responses, which are emitted by animals and human beings voluntarily and are under their control.

Here the very term ‘Operant’ is used because any organism operates on the environment. Skinner conducted His experiments on rats and pigeons in specially designed boxes, known as Skinner boxes. A skinner box usually contains a mechanism for delivering a consequence whenever the animal in the box makes a readily identifiable response that the experimenter has decided to reinforce or punish.

In experiments that involve rewards, the delivery mechanism is often a small lever or bar on the side of the box. Whenever the animal inside presses it, the response is rewarded (B.F. Skinner, 1938,1956). In his experiment, Skinner put a hungry rat in the chamber, which was so built that the rat could move inside but could not come out. In the chamber, there was a lever, which was connected to a good container kept on the plate placed close to the lever.

The hungry rat accidentally pressed the lever while moving around and pawing the walls (exploratory behavior). The hungry rat ate the food and in the next trial, after a while, the exploratory behavior again starts. As the trials increase, the rat takes lesser and lesser time to press the lever for food. However, conditioning is complete when the rat pressed the lever immediately after it is placed in the chamber.

It is obvious that lever pressing is an operant response and getting food is its consequence. In this situation, the response is instrumental in getting the food. That is why this type of learning is also called instrumental conditioning. Examples of instrumental conditioning are around in our everyday life. Flumen beings leam shortcuts to attain desired goals through instrumental conditioning. Through this process, children learn to be polite and say please to get favors from their parents and others.

Here the response is changed according to the need and the demand of the individual. The response is made and determined by the organism himself. This is the most distinguishing feature of operant behavior. The organism is capable of making varied types of responses according to the demand of the environment.

Recently biofeedback technique is being used in instrumental conditioning which informs the individual about his unknown physiological function. But if is still unknown whether biofeedback provides direct control over involuntary responses or whether this control is mediated by voluntary processes.

Determinants of Operant Conditioning:
No doubt, operant or instrumental conditioning is a form of learning in which behavior is learned, maintained, or changed through its consequences. Such consequences are known as reinforcers. A reinforcer is defined as any stimulus or event, which increases the probability of the occurrence of a (desired) response. In other words, the stimulus event which increases the probability that behavior will reoccur is called a reinforcer (Or reward).

The impact or consequence generated by a reinforcer is called reinforcement. By contrast, a publisher is a stimulus event that decreases the probability that the behavior will reoccur. The impact of punisher punishment. Punishment is more likely to be confused with negative refreshment since both involve an aversive stimulus that the individual likes to avoid or escape from Always remember that the negative refreshment increases the response probability whereas punishment decreases the response probability.

On the whole, positive and negative reinforcements are procedures that increase or strengthen behaviors. An organism obtains reinforcement in two ways by obtaining a pleasant stimulus and by avoiding a painful stimulus. There are two types of reinforcement – Positive and Negative. In positive reinforcement, the probability of a response increases, because it is followed by a pleasant stimulus. In negative reinforcement, the response probability also increases, because the response removes an unpleasant stimulus.

Schedules of Reinforcement:
The reinforcement schedule refers to the arrangement delivery of reinforcement during conditioning trials. Each schedule reinforcement influences the course of conditioning in its own way. In our life instances, reinforcement comes on and goes off unpredictably. In many instances, reinforcements are delivered according to rules. For example, we receive a salary every month according to the rules. When the reinforcement is continuous, every occurrence of behavior is reinforced.

This simplest form of reinforcement delivery is termed a “continuous reinforcement schedule If the pigeon receives a food pellet every time it presses the tire lever, it is on a continuous reinforcement schedule. The other type is partial reinforcement (intermittent reinforcement). In partial reinforcement, the response is not rewarded every time it occurs. This type of reinforcement is conducive to maintaining learned behaviors. Once a response is learned under this schedule, it takes a longer span of time to be extinguished.

Four types of partial reinforcement schedules are:

  • Fixed-interval
  • Variable-interval
  • Fixed ratio and
  • Variable-ratio.

In the fixed-interval schedule, the organism is rewarded for the first response occurring after a fixed interval of time. Students increase their study hours as the examination approaches. The pigeon is rewarded for the first lever-pressing response occurring after one minute interval.

Define operant conditioningQ13

In a variable-interval schedule, the organism is rewarded after a variable amount of time has elapsed. The hungry rat gets the food pallet after 2 minutes, the next one after 5 minutes, the third one after 3 minutes, and so on. 1 Here, the organism responds at a steady rate in the variable interval schedule as reinforcement may come any time. Gambling behavior is the best example here.

Schedules of Partial Reinforcement Time Interval (Interval) No. of Responses(Ratio)
Predictable Fixed-Interval (low response) rate after each  reinforcement Fixed-Ratio (high) response rate with brief pauses after each reinforcement
Unpredictable                 (Variable) Variable-Interval Steady response rate Variable-Ratio (high and steady response rate)

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Question 14.
What is cognitive learning? Describe insightful learning and its stages or features?
Answer:
The process of acquiring knowledge about the environment which has an internal mental representation is called cognition. But learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency. The two terms are put together to generate the term ‘cognitive learning.
Two forms of cognitive learning:

  • Insightful learning.
  • Observational learning.

We first discussed the:
Insightful Learning:
I. P. Pavlov, S.L. thorndike and B.F. Skinner was all behaviorist. Obviously, they have ignored the study of learning based on reason and intelligence thinks when it learns. The chimpanzee evaluates the information in the learning situation and learns to reach a goal by developing insight. Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1968) arrived at Tenerife, the small island of the West Coast of Africa, to take charge of an institute for the study of the anthropoid apes, he was a German psychologist.

He was forced to stay on the island during World War-I. He engaged himself in an intensive study of how chimpanzees perceive, think, and learn. The results were translated into English in 1925 with the little ‘The Mentality of Apes’. Kohler used five types of problems to study how Chimpanzees solve complex problems. The two most fascinating and important problems were the ‘stick’ problem and the ‘box’ problem. Both these problems involved insightful solutions.

Besides chimpanzees, he also used dogs, hens, and little girls as subjects in his experiments. Kohler placed a hungry chimpanzee named Sultan inside a cage in the ‘stick problem. A bunch of bananas was kept outside the cage beyond the direct reach of the Chimpanzee. Two hollow bamboo sticks were kept inside the cage. One of them is very short and the other one is long. Since the sticks were hollow, one stick could be pushed into one end of the other to form a longer stick.

The bananas were kept at such a distance that neither of these sticks alone would be sufficiently long enough to reach the banana. But the Chimpanzee could get the banana if the two sticks were joined. The goal of the Sultan was to fetch the banana since he was hungry. Initially, he has shown all types of reactions that, generally, a Chimpanzee shows inside a cage. First, he used one of the sticks to draw the banana towards him but did not succeed. Then he tried the other sticks but in vain.

After some unsuccessful attempts, Sultan gave up the idea of getting food and sat in one corner of the cage. Then, after a short span of rest, he started playing with the sticks. He pushed one stick out as far as it could go and then pushed the first stick with the other until the first touched the banana. He started playing with the sticks again and accidentally one of the sticks went into the hollow end of the other. A sudden insight dawned upon Sultan and he solved the problem mentally.

Then he used two sticks to form longer sticks and with the help of this long stick, he pulled the banana inside the cage. When he faced the same problem on the next day, he solved it immediately. In another situation, Kohler demonstrated insightful learning in the ‘box’ problem. Here a bunch of bananas was kept on the tire ceiling of a cage, which Sultan could not reach. There were some empty boxes inside the cage. After some trials and errors, the animal could be able to snatch bananas by stacking several boxes.

Stages of Insightful Learning:
Here, the organism needs to reach a goal by solving a problem. The subject (learner) makes inspections, surveys, and examinations of the problem and the stimulus field. The ‘incubation period’ begins after an initial period of trial and error, all overt activities are withdrawn at this stage. The organism sits silently and thinks over the problem. Suddenly the organism develops insight into the problem after the incubation period.

The subject (learner) makes an attempt to make practical verification of his idea or insight about the problem. Once the subject achieves insight and solves the problem, the organism repeats the same method of solution without any hesitation. The organism attends to the relevant aspects and ignores the irrelevant ones when it attempts to solve similar problems in the future.

Common features of Insightful Learning:
Very often, the question arises – what does Kohler mean by ‘insight’ According to him, the common features of insightful learning are as follows The experimental situation is very important in insightful learning. The organism must be able to perceive the relationship among all relevant parts of the problem before insight can occur.

In this type of learning, the organism reacts to the whole situation, not to its component parts. Perceiving the relationship between the means and goal is very important in insightful learning. He also restructures the perceptual field during experimentation. Insight is followed by a period of trial and error behavior. During this span, the organism does not exhibit blind and random attacks as shown by Thomndike’s cat.

On the contrary, he tests behavioral hypotheses in the form of accepting some and rejecting others. The insight solution comes all of a sudden. Once the insight is reached, the organism shows a high degree of retention and transfer to similar problems. There is a correlation between insight and the capacity of the organism. This capacity depends upon age, experience, and individual differences.

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CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Type Questions

Question 1.
Experiments on remembering and forgetting were started for the first time by ______?
(a) Ailgard
(b) McGeoch
(c) Guthrie
(d) Ebbinghaus
Answer:
(b) McGeoch

Question 2.
Ebbinghaus’s method of measuring memory is called?
(a) Qualitative method
(b) Quantitative method
(c) Exact method
(d) All the above
Answer:
(c) Exact method

Question 3.
Ebbinghaus used the ______ method for the measurement of memory?
(a) Recall
(b) Recognition
(c) Relearning
(d) Reconstruction
Answer:
(a) Recall

Question 4.
The first verbal materials used for measuring memory case?
(a) Meaningful words
(b) Story
(c) Diagram
(d) Nonsense syllables
Answer:
(d) Nonsense syllables

Question 5.
Forgetting pictures with the passage of line can be due to?
(a) Proactive inhibition
(b) Retroactive inhibition
(c) decay through discuss
(d) All the above
Answer:
(d) All the above

Question 6.
Memory is measured in the laboratory by the instrument named?
(a) Tachistoscope
(b) Memory drum
(c) Aesthesio meter index
Answer:
(b) Memory drum

Question 7.
Pleasant and interesting materials are better remembered than?
(a) Nonsense syllables
(b) Meaningful words
(c) Unpleasant materials
Answer:
(c) Unpleasant materials

Question 8.
Both the recall and recognition methods can be measured?
(a) Learning
(b) Perception
(c) Memory
(d) Imagination
Answer:
(c) Memory

Question 9.
Memory is the mental power by which past experiences are?
(a) relearned
(b) retained
(c) recalled
(d) recalled and recognized
Answer:
(b) retained

Question 10.
The degree of retention depends upon the?
(a) Meaningfulness of the material
(b) Degree of learning
(c) Noninterference and judicious rest
(d) None of them
Answer:
(d) None of them

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 11.
Zeigamik effect is evident in the continuous tension over a task that is _________?
(a) Unpleasant and incomplete
(b) Pleasant and unfinished
(c) Pleasant and completed
(d) None of them
Answer:
(a) Unpleasant and incomplete

Question 12.
Ebbinghaus was a ________ psychologist.
(a) American
(b) British
(c) German
(d) Swiss
(e) None of these
Answer:
(c)German

Question 13.
Amount of retention does not depend on one of the following?
(a) Meaningfulness
(b) Amount ofintereference during original learning and retention interval
(c) Amount of practice
(d) Emotional factors affecting learning
(e) Interest in learning
(f) Defects in motor capacity
Answer:
f) Defects in motor capacity

Question 14.
Ebbinghaus conducted memory experiments on?
(a) rats
(b)dogs
(c) monkeys
(d) human beings
(e) himself
Answer:
(c) monkeys

Question 15.
For the first time, Ebbinghaus conducted an experiment on memory using?
(a) Meaningful words
(b) Nonsense syllables
(c) drawings
(d) all these
Answer:
(b) Nonsense syllables

Question 16.
Do nonsense syllables consist of ______?
(a) two consonants and one vowel
(b) three consonants
(c) one consonant and two vowel
(d) all the above
Answer:
(a) two consonants and one vowel

Question 17.
Does a trigram consist of one vowel and two consonants?
(a) three consonants
(b) three vowels
(c) all the above
Answer:
(b) three vowels

Question 18.
Does a nonsense syllable consist of _____?
(a) three letters
(b) four letters
(c) five letters
Answer:
(a) three letters

Question 19.
When materials memorized afterward stand in the way of recall of materials memorized earlier, it is called?
(a) Proactive inhibition
(b) retroactive inhibition
(c) retrograde amnesia
(d) proactive facilitation
Answer:
(b) retroactive inhibition

Question 20.
When materials memorized afterward are interfered with by the materials learned earlier it is called?
(a) retroactive inhibition
(b) proactive inhibition
(c) simple inhibition
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(b) proactive inhibition

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 21.
That method which shows earlier learning not discovered by other usual methods in?
(a) whole learning
(b) distributed learning
(c) recall
(d) saving recognition
Answer:
(c) recall

Question 22.
Distortion in day-to-day learning along with forgetting is called?
(a) trace theory
(b) motivated forgetting theory
(c) qualitative change theory
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) qualitative change theory

Question 23.
Which of the following psychologists can be associated with the psychoanalytic theory of forgetting?
(a) Ebbinghaus
(b) McGeoch
(c) Ereud
(d) Bartlett
Answer:
(c) Ereud

Question 24.
Which of the following psychologists can be associated with the theory of constructive changes in memory?
(a) Meltzer
(b) Ebbinghaus
(c) Sears
(d) Bbartlett
Answer:
(d) Bartlett

Question 25.
The use of nonsense syllables in the Laboratory was first introduced by?
(a) William James
(b) Osgood
(c) Ebbinghaus
(d) Muller
Answer:
(c) Ebbinghaus

Question 26.
The curve of forgetting was developed?
(a) Thorndike
(b) Kohler
(c) Ebbinghaus
(d) McGeoch
Answer:
(c) Ebbinghaus

Question 27.
When new learning is disturbed by old learning it is called _________?
(a) Proactive inhibition
(b) Retroactive inhibition
(c) Conditioned inhibition
(d) disinhibition
Answer:
(a) Proactive inhibition

Question 28.
Recognition thresholds are higher for _______ words?
(a) Taboo
(b) Neutral
(c) Pleasant
(d) All the above
Answer:
(c) Pleasant

Question 29.
That sense modality through which learning produces better retention is ________?
(a) Visual
(b) Auditory
(c) Olfactory
(d) Kinesthetic
Answer:
(a) Visual

Question 30.
Retention in comparison to learning is a?
(a) Passive process
(b) Active process
(c) Moderately passive and moderately active
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Passive process

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 31.
Forgetting is at first rapid but gradually the rate of forgetting becomes?
(a) Speedy
(b) Slow
(c) Moderate
Answer:
(b)Slow

Question 32.
The basic law that tine rate of forgetting is rapid in the beginning and then slows down with the passage of time holds good, for?
(a) Nonsense Syl labels alone
(b) Meaningful words alone
(c) Digits alone
(d) All types of materials
Answer:
(d) All types of materials

Question 33.
Ebbinghaus mostly used methods to study remembering and forgetting?
(a) Recall method
(b) Recognition method
(c) Saving method
(d) All the above
Answer:
(a) Recall method

Question 34.
The recall is of types?
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
Answer:
(a) Two

Question 35.
Forgetting due to sudden shock and emotional blocking is called?
(a) Primary forgetting
(b) Secondary forgetting
(c) Retrograde amnetia
(d) All the above
Answer:
(c) Retrograde amnetia

Question 36.
The easiest method of measuring retention or memory is _______ method?
(a) Recall
(b) Recognition
(c) Saving
(d) Reconstruction
Answer:
(b) Recognition

Question 37.
When two items or stimuli appear similar to each other percentage of recognition is from when they are dissimilar?
(a) more
(b) less
(c) moderate
Answer:
(b) less

Question 38.
The relearning method is also known as?
(a) Reconstruction method
(b) Anticipation
(c) Prompting method
(d) Saving method
Answer:
(a) Reconstruction method

Question 39.
Do digits have a better memory span than?
(a) Nonsense syllables
(b) Meaningful words
(c) Trigrams
Answer:
(a) Nonsense syllables

Question 40.
There is usually no increase in memory span after the age of?
(a) 4-5 years
(b) 6-8 years
(c) 12-15 years
Answer:
(c) 12-15 years

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 41.
Do meaningful and rhythmic materials have an effect on retention?
(a) beneficial
(b) harmful
(c) neutral
(d) all of the above.
Answer:
(a) beneficial

Question 42.
Remembering is greatly aided by?
(a) disassociation
(b) association.
(c) negative transfer
(d) zero transfer
Answer:
(b) association.

Question 43.
Words are quickly less than nonsense syllables because of their value?
(a) associative
(b) transfer value
(c) meaningfulness
(d) none of these
Answer:
(a) associative

Question 44.
Not the retention interval as such, but what happens during the retention interval is very important for?
(a) remembering
(b) reminiscence
(c) disuse
Answer:
(a) remembering

Question 45.
When the two stimuli and responses are identical in original learning and interpolated activity there occurs?
(a) maximum inhibition
(b) maximum facilitation
(c) no visible effect
Answer:
(b) maximum facilitation

Question 46.
Interpolated activity nearer to the original learning and subsequent recall the influence of retroactive inhibition?
(a) heightens
(b) decreases
(c) no influence
(d) non of the these
Answer:
(a) heightens

Question 47.
When the retention interval is free from activity, there is almost no loss of retention. This has been held by?
(a) Muller and Pilzecker
(b) MimaniandDallenbach
(c) McGeoch and Underwood
Answer:
(b)MimaniandDallenbach

Question 48.
To study whether cockroaches can remember what they have learned an experiment was conducted by?
(a) Underwood
(b) McGeoch
(c) Hunter
(d) Duncan
Answer:
(c) Hunter

Question 49.
Minami and Dallenbach have got empirical support for the fact that when the retention interval is free from activity there is almost no?
(a) learning
(b) retention
(c) forgetting
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) forgetting

Question 50
also, occurs when the new learning is disturbed by old learning?
(a) proactive inhibition
(b) retroactive inhibition
(c) retrograde amnesia
Answer:
(a) proactive inhibition

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 51.
The decrement in the retention of a task as a consequence of other learning coming prior to the learning of the task is known as?
(a) Associative interferences
(b) Retroaction
(c) Proactive inhibition
Answer:
(c) Proactive inhibition

Question 53.
When the degree of prior learning increases, proactive ve inhibition?
(a) decreases
(b) increases
(c) remains constant
(d) none of these
Answer:
(b) increases

Question 54.
According to point of view, forgetting is due to the repression of the learned material?
(a) Freudian
(b) Gestalt
(c) Neo Freudians
(d) All these
Answer:
(a) Freudian

Question 55.
The mechanism of repression explains many men in everyday life?
(a) Learning
(b) retention
(c) forgetting
(d) all these
Answer:
(c) forgetting

Question 56.
The unacceptable shocking, antisocial, unpleasant, and ego-dissatisfying experiences are pressed back into the deep chamber of the unconscious by the mechanism of?
(a) Suppression
(b) Repression
(c) Dissociation
(d) All these
Answer:
(b) Repression

Question 57.
Pleasant experiences are recalled better than unpleasant ones. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 58.
The repressed urges are recalled back through hypnosis, dream analysis, and psychoanalysis. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 59.
Emotion-provoking situations immediately before or immediately after learning, have got no obliterating effect on memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 60.
Retroactive inhibition is the cause of forgetting?
(a) one of the
(b) only
(c) important
Answer:
(a) one of the

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 61.
Memory traces fade either due to biological factors or external factors like Retroactive inhibition. This has been held by?
(a) Freudians
(b) Gestalts
(c) Trace Psychologists
Answer:
(b) Gestalts

Question 62.
Sometimes retention curves show a period of increased retention immediately after the practice is stopped. This concept is known as?
(a) long term memory
(b) short term memory
(c) reminiscence
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) reminiscence

Question 63.
In the earlier stage reminiscence was called?
(a) Ballard-William Phenomena
(b) Mimani-Dallenbach Phenomena
(c) Skagg-Robinson Hypothesis
(d) McGeoch-Irrion Hypothesis
Answer:
(a) Ballard-William Phenomena

Question 64.
The phenomenon of reminiscence while studying verbal discrimination learning was found by?
(a) McClelland
(b) McGeoch
(c) Hunter
(d) all these
Answer:
(a) McClelland

Question 65.
The classic experiment on short-term memory was conducted by?
(a) English and Well-borne
(b) McGeoch and Irrion
(c) Peterson and Peterson
Answer:
(c) Peterson and Peterson

Question 66.
Words processed at a deeper level are better retained than processed at a superficial level. These is the findings of the study conducted by?
(a) Nonnen and Rumehert
(b) CraikandTullving
(c) Muller and Pilzecker
Answer:
(b) CraikandTullving

Question 67.
The interference theory was propounded by?
(a) Muller and Pilzecker
(b) Melton and Irriwin
(c) McGeoch and McDonald
Answer:
(a) Muller and Pilzecker

Question 68.
The theory of forgetting advanced by Ebbinghaus is known as?
(a) Memory Trace theory
(b) Disuse theory
(c) 1ntcrfcrcncc theory
(d) None of the these
Answer:
(b) Disuse theory

Question 69.
Optimum retention occurs when the interpolated learning is introduced in the middle of a long retention interval. This view has been advocated by the?
(a) memory trace theory
(b) disuse theory
(c) interference theory
Answer:
(c) interference theory

Question 70.
Trace theory of forgetting has been advanced by?
(a) Behaviourists
(b) Gestalts
(c) Freudians
(d) All these
Answer:
(b) Gestalts

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 71.
When the ego is threatened by certain situations, in order to defend itself, the ego represses them?
(a) Bartlett
(b) Freudians
(c) Gestalts
Answer:
(b) Freudians

Question 72.
came forward with his qualitative approach to remembering?
(a) Freud
(b) Ebbinghaus
(c) Bartlett
(d) Irwin
Answer:
(c) Bartlett

Question 73.
The method of repeated reproduction is also known as the method of?
(a) Social Reproduction
(b) Successive reproduction
(c) Associative reproduction
Answer:
(b) Successive reproduction

Question 74.
Pleasant materials are quickly remembered and retained for a long time compared to unpleasant materials keeping other factors constant. This is obvious from the experiment of?
(a) McGeoch and irrion
(b) Skaggs and Robinson
(c) Jersild and Meltzer
Answer:
(c) Jersild and Meltzer

Question 75.
The view that perceptual motor skills are retained relatively well over a considerable period of time than verbal materials has been supported by?
(a) Irrion
(b) Hamilton
(c) Katona
(d) Ebbinghaus
Answer:
(c) Katona

Question 76.
A principle of learning that is involved in training is?
(a) a period of no learning
(b) a period of instruction
(c) a period of boredom
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) a period of instruction

Question 77.
The approach to the study of the biology of learning is?
(a) the capacity approach
(b) the research approach
(c) the structural approach
(d) the functional approach
Answer:
(d) the functional approach

Question 78.
The first person to conduct experiments of trial and error learning was?
(a) Pavlov
(b) Kohler
(c) Titchener
(d) Thorndike
Answer:
(d) the functional approach

Question 79.
The first person to conduct- experiments in classical conditioning was?
(a) Watson
(b) Bechtervev
(c) Pavlov
(d) James
Answer:
(c) Pavlov

Question 80.
The school first conducted experiments on insightful learning is?
(a) Gestalt
(b) Functional
(c) Structural
(d) Psychoanalysis
Answer:
(c) Structural

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 81.
Operant conditioning is also known as?
(a) Escape conditioning
(b) Backward conditioning
(c) Avoidance conditioning
(d) Instrumental conditioning
Answer:
(d) Instrumental conditioning

Question 82.
A stimulus that reinforces behavior, which terminates it is called?
(a) conflict
(b) reflex
(c) positive stimulus
(d) negative reinforcer
(e) Unconditional stimulus
Answer:
(c) positive stimulus

Question 83.
The process b.y which a C.R. can be weakened and finally eliminated is known as?
(a) Spontaneous recovery
(b) Deconditioning
(c) Experimental Neuroses
(d) Experimental Extinction
Answer:
(b) Deconditioning

Question 84.
A response may be more resistant to experimental extinction if reinforcement in conditioning trial has been?
(a) periodic
(b) continuous
(c) never provided
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(a) periodic

Question 85.
The process through which a CR is elicited by a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus it is called?
(a) Stimulus generalisation
(b) Response generalisation
(c) Differentiation
(d) Internal Inhibition
Answer:
(a) Stimulus generalization

Question 86.
The ability of the organism to respond to the reinforcing stimulus and not to the neutral or noil reinforcing one is called?
(a) Stimulus generalization
(b) Stimulus discrimination
(c) Response discrimination
Answer:
(c) Response discrimination

Question 87.
Operant conditioning is usually studied in the laboratory using a?
(a) Problem box
(b) Maze
(c) Skinner box
(d) Activity case
Answer:
(c) Skinner box

Question 88.
When the experimentally extinguished response reappears again after a period it is called?
(a) Hxperimental neuroses
(b) Spontaneous recovery
(c) Internal inhabitation
Answer:
(b) Spontaneous recovery

Question 89.
Spontaneous recovery will grow weaker and weaker if no reinforcement is provided after?
(a) The U.S.
(b) C.S.
(c) C.R
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(b) C.S.

Question 90.
Once conditioning is firmly established for further conditioning the C.S. can be used as?
(a) Unconditioned Reflex
(b) Unconditioned stimulus
(c) Unconditioned Response
Answer:
(b) Unconditioned stimulus

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 91.
Negative conditioning is also known as?
(a) forward conditioning
(b) Backward conditioning
(c) Reconditioning
Answer:
(b) Backward conditioning

Question 92.
Experiments on withdrawal conditioning were first conducted by Russian physiologist?
(a) Freud
(b) Pavlov
(c) Bechterev
(d) Watson
Answer:
(c) Bechterev

Question 93.
If differentiation is pushed too far the organism fails to discriminate between two stimuli becomes very nonadoptive and develops?
(a) Negative attitude
(b) Withdrawal symptoms
(c) Experimental Neuroses
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Experimental Neuroses

Question 94.
Many of our bad habits of day to day life can be removed by?
(a) Positive conditioning
(b) Classical conditioning
(c) Negative conditioning
(d) Generalisation
Answer:
(c) Negative conditioning

Question 95.
Irrelevant fear is removed by?
(a) Conditioning
(b) Negative conditioning
(c) Spontaneous recovery
(d) Backward conditioning
Answer:
(b) Negative conditioning

Question 96.
The concept of experimental neuroses which threw light on various aspects of abnormal behaviour has been studied in depth by?
(a) llilgard
(b) Meyer
(c) Pavlov
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Meyer

Question 97.
has remarked that establishment conditioning is not simply a matter of diverting nerve impulses from one channel to another?
(a) Tolman
(b) Hilgard
(c) Hull
(d) Bechterev
Answer:
(d) B echterev

Question 98.
has remarked that the whole situation under which conditioning is established is a specific one and we can hardly establish it in actual life?
(a) Koffka
(b) Sears
(c) Janguill
(d) Hull
Answer:
(b) Sears

Question 99.
Differentiation develops out of?
(a) Extinction
(b) Generalisation
(c) lighter order conditioning
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Generalisation

Question 100.
When the stimulus becomes too small for the organism to discriminate nervous breakdown?
(a) Obvious
(b) Reduced
(c) Extinguished
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Obvious

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 101.
Internal inhibition is a kind of negative learning not to salivate and can be applied to the curve of?
(a) Learning
(b) Retention
(c) Forgetting
Answer:
(c) Forgetting

Question 102.
Pavlov for the first time conducted experiments on conditioning?
(a) Classical
(b) Operant
(c) Instrumental
Answer:
(a) Classical

Question 103.
In conditioning U.S. is always presented after the C.S.?
(a) Classical
(b) Operant
(c) Backward
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Classical

Question 104.
Pavlov was the founder of the most important theory of learning called?
(a) Conditioning
(b) Classical conditioning
(c) Instrumental conditioning
Answer:
(b) Classical conditioning

Question 105.
Pavlov was a?
(a) Physiologist
(b) Psychologist
(c) Neurologist
(d) Biologist
Answer:
(a) Physiologist

Question 106.
Bechterev was a coworker of?
(a) Hilgard
(b) Sears
(c) Meyers
(d) Pavlov
Answer:
(d) Pavlov

Question 107.
Wertheimer is famous as the founder of?
(a) Behaviourism
(b) Associationism
(c) First laboratory in Psychology
(b) Associationism
Answer:
(b)Associationism

Question 108.
Watson is remembered for his contribution to?
(a) Learning
(b) Associationism
(c) Thinking
(d) Structuralism
Answer:
(a) Learning

Question 109.
Thorndike is remembered for his famous contribution to?
(a) Insightful learning
(b) Conditioning
(c) Trial and Error
(b) Conditioning
Answer:
(c) Trial and Error

Question 110.
The Gestalt school of psychology is well known for its?
(a) Conditioning theory of learning
(b) Trial and error theory of learning
(c) insight theory of learning
(d) All the above
Answer:
(c) insight theory of learning

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 111.
It is easier to conduct experiments on learning in the laboratory taking?
(a) Human subject
(b) Animal subjects
(c) Insects
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Animal subjects

Question 112.
More and more learning experiments have been conducted with the help of?
(a) cats
(b) dogs
(c) rats
(d) human beings
Answer:
(c) rats

Question 113.
Learning is a kind of behavior?
(a) Change
(b) Continuation
(c) Extension
(d) Inhibition
Answer:
(a) Change

Question 114.
Learning is a sort of modification of behavior is the light of?
(a) Present experience
(b) Past experience
(c) Future experience
Answer:
(b) Past experience

Question 115.
All modification of behavior is not?
(a) Performance
(b) Learning
(c) Thinking
(d) Activity
Answer:
(b) Learning

Question 116.
Law of the exercise was introduced by?
(a) I Iilgard
(b) Thorndike
(c) I lull
(d) Tolman
Answer:
(b) Thorndike

Question 117.
The Law of effect was advanced by?
(a) Freud
(b) William James
(c) Gvthrie
(d) Thorndike
Answer:
(d) Thorndike

Question 118.
Learning is an association between a stimulus and?
(a) Response
(b) Present experience
(c) Past Experience
(d) Behaviour
Answer:
(a) Response

Question 119.
Learning and performance are?
(a) Same
(b) Different
(c) None of these
Answer:
(b) Different.

Question 120.
Learning is a modified behavior that is mostly the outcome of?
(a) Intimation
(b) Inheritance
(c) Effort
(d) Practice
Answer:
(d) Practice

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 121.
The experiment on Chimpanzee Sultan was conducted by Kohler and Kottke to demonstrate?
(a) Trial and Error I.earning
(b) Insightful Learning
(c) Stimulus-Response Learning
(d) Instrumental Conditioning Learning
Answer:
(b) Insightful Learning

Question 122.
Gestalt is a – word?
(a) German
(b) English
(c) French
(d) American
(e) None of these
Answer:
(d) American

Question 123.
developed a theory of whole part position in learning and perception?
(a) Structuralists
(b) Functionalists
(c) Behaviourists
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Structuralists

Question 124.
Insightful learning is mostly limited to?
(a) Higher Animals
(b) Lower Animals
(c) Insects
Answer:
(a) Higher Animals

Question 125.
Insightful learning is basically learning by?
(a) Intelligence
(b) Practice
(c) Conditioning
(d) imitation
Answer:
(b) Practice

Question 126.
Learning is a type of acquisition of new behavior which is relative?
(a) Temporary
(b) Permanent
(c) Sudden
(d) Quick
Answer:
(a) Temporary

Question 127.
Knowledge of result is?
(a) Advantageous to learning
(b) Adverse to learning
(c) Stops learning
(d) Retards learning
Answer:
(a) Advantageous to learning

Question 128.
Knowledge of the result is a type of?
(a) Positive reinforcement
(b) Negative reinforcement
(c) Reinforcement
(d) Secondary reinforcement
Answer:
(a) Positive reinforcement

Question 129.
Strong punishment?
(a) Retards learning
(b) Promotes learning
(c) Creates fear psychoses
(d) has no effect on learning
Answer:
(a) Retards learning

Question 130.
Watson viewed conditioning as the only method to?
(a) Learn
(b) Remember
(c) Imitate
(d) Unlearn
Answer:
(d) Unlearn

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 131.
The Law of effect was introduced by?
(a) Pavlov
(b) Bechterev
(c) Kohler
(d) Thorndike
Answer:
(c) Kohler

Question 132.
Similarity, contrast, and contiguity are the laws of?
(a) Association
(b) Learning
(c) Action
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(b) Learning

Question 133.
Law of belongingness, readiness, and contiguity are laws of?
(a) Perception
(b) Learning
(c) Action
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Action

Question 134.
One who can drive a fiat car can also drive a Maruti car without difficulty. The above phenomenon is due to?
(a) Overlearning
(b) Relearning
(c) Transfer of training
Answer:
(a) Overlearning

Question 135.
A material is learned quickly because of the use of?
(a) Economical methods of learning
(b) Emotion
(c) Thinking
(d) Imagination
Answer:
(b) Emotion

Question 136.
Practice in the right hand interferes with learning in the left hand. This is due to the?
(a) Unilateral transfer
(b) Negative transfer
(c) Zero transfer
Answer:
(c) Zero transfer

Question 137.
When learning of one material does not facilitate or interfere with learning of another material, it is called?
(a) Negative transfer
(b) Bilateral transfer
(c) Zero transfer
Answer:
(c) Zero transfer

Question 138.
Habit interference is also known as _________?
(a) Unilateral transfer of training
(b) Bilateral transfer of training
(c) Negative transfer of learning
Answer:
(c) Negative transfer of learning

Question 139.
When the acquisition of a skill in one situation inhibits the acquisition of a skill in the subsequent situation it is called?
(a) Zero transfer
(b) positive transfer
(c) Negative transfer
Answer:
(a) Zero transfer

Question 140.
The bilateral transfer is also called _______?
(a) Cross education
(b) Associative education
(c) Acquisition of education
Answer:
(b) Associative education

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 141.
Zero transfer is also known as _______?
(a) Negative transfer
(b) Neutral transfer
(c) Unilateral transfer
Answer:
(b) Neutral transfer

Question 142.
The theory of transfer of training was introduced for the first time by ________?
(a) Ililgard
(b) Hull
(c) James
(d) Thorndike
Answer:
(c) James

Question 143.
Does positive transfer greatly depend upon the presence of identical elements between the original and subsequent?
(a) Perception
(b) Attention
(c) Learning
Answer:
(b) Attention

Question 144.
There are types of transfer of training?
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
Answer:
(b) Three

Question 145.
A student who more often than not performs better in a simple learning situations belongs to the group have?
(a) High Anxiety
(b) No anxiety
(c) Middle-level anxiety
(d) low anxiety
Answer:
(d) low anxiety

Question 146.
Amount of learning depends upon?
(a) Meaningfulness
(b) Association
(c) Repetition
(d) Motivation
(e) All the above
Answer:
(d) Motivation

Question 147.
The amount of acquisition in verbal learning does not depend on one of the following?
(a) Meaningfulness of the material
(b) similarity
(c) Low Anxiety
(d) Defects in muscles
Answer:
(d) Defects in muscles

Question 148.
Does learning take place through _______?
(a) Problem-solving along
(b) Practice alone
(c) Conditioning alone
(d) All the three
Answer:
(d) All the three

Question 149.
When an organism learns something by observing stimulus in the environment and makes the response accordingly, it is?
(a) Discrimination learning.
(b) Problem-solving learning
(c) Signal learning
(d) Stimulus-response learning
(e) All the above
Answer:
(a) Discrimination learning.

Question 150.
An infant can develop an acquisition fear of a stimulus except for loud noise through?
(a) Conditioning learning
(b) Insightful learning
(c) Unconditioning
(d) All the above
Answer:
(d) All the above

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 151.
Does much learning take place through _________?
(a) Problem-solving alone
(b) Imitation alonge
(c) All the above
Answer:
(b) Imitation alonge

Question 152.
In classical conditioning, the stimuli are presented in the following order?
(a) C.S. and US at the same time
(b) C.S. first C.S. again
(c) C.S. first US next
(d) CS first CS again
Answer:
(c)C.S. first US next

Question 153.
In instrumental conditioning, the reward or reinforcement depends upon the animals?
(a) Activity
(b) Response
(c) Correct response
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Correct response

Question 154.
Instrument conditioning is a happy union of classical conditioning and the law of _______?
(a) Exercise
(b) Contiguity
(c) Effect
(d) Association
Answer:
(c) Effect

Question 155.
B.F. Skinner, was a psychologist?
(a) German
(b) British
(c) American
(d) Swiss
Answer:
(d) Swiss

Question 156.
The procedure by which the withdrawal of reinforcement decreases gradually the occurrence of an acquired response is known as ___?
(a) Intentional reinforcement
(b) Secondary reinforcement
(c) Inhibition
(d) Extinction
Answer:
(d) Extinction

Question 157.
The process by which the desire to check a response becomes stronger and stronger is called?
(a) Extinction
(b) Withdrawal
(c) Negative conditioning
(d) Internal inhibition
Answer:
(c) Negative conditioning

Question 158.
The process by which the experimentally extinguished response reappears again after a period is called?
(a) Conditioned response
(b) Unconditioned response
(c) Spontaneous recovery
(d) Generalised response
Answer:
(c) Spontaneous recovery

Question 159.
The procedure by which a firmly established conditioning is further used as an unconditional stimulus for the establishment of further conditioning is called?
(a) Low-order conditioning
(b) Spontaneous recovery
(c) Higher-order conditioning
Answer:
(a) Low-order conditioning

Question 160.
The process through which a person learns not to make a response to a particular stimulus and make a response to another stimulus is called?
(a) Differentiation
(b) Generalisation
(c) Positive transfer
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Differentiation

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 161.
When some 1 variety in content, technique and principle is found in two different learning materials transfer of training takes place?
(a) Positive transfer
(b) Negative transfer
(c) Zero transfer
Answer:
(c) Zero transfer

Question 162.
When a previous experience too much obstructs learning in a new situation, obviously there is?
(a) Zero transfer
(b) High positive transfer
(c) High negative transfer
(d) Low negative transfer
Answer:
(b) High positive transfer

Question 163.
In the conditioning technique introduced by Pavlov?
(a) Both stimulus and response change
(b) The same response is made to a different stimulus
(c) To the same stimulus a different response is made
(d) None of the above.
Answer:
(b) The same response is made to a different stimulus

Question 164.
When a particular response becomes in turn a stimulus for a further response this stimulus is called _____?
(a) Unconditioned stimulus
(b) Conditioned stimulus
(c) Dependent stimulus
Answer:
(b) Conditioned stimulus

Question 165.
In a situation where one is conditioned to show fear to while rabbit and this makes him show fear to any type of white animal like a white cat, or white dog, it is called?
(a) Discrimination
(b) Generalisation
(c) Substitution
(d) Distortion
Answer:
(a) Discrimination

Question 166.
A response is weakened through punishment and strengthened through ________?
(a) Reward
(b) Response
(c) Emotion
Answer:
(c) Emotion

Question 167.
The organization and coordination of different sequential habit patterns and acquisitions are called?
(a) A response
(b) A reflex
(c) A skill
(d) An act
Answer:
(a) A response

Question 168.
The concept among the following that is most kin to negative transfer is ________?
(a) Similarity
(b) Habit strength
(c) Massed practice
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Similarity

Question 169.
Generalization is the most important factor in ________?
(a) Positive transfer
(b) Negative transfer
(c) Habit strength
(d) Part and the whole learning
Answer:
(d) Part and the whole learning

Question 170.
strength Over learning occurs because of _______?
(a) Practice
(b) Speed
(c) Resistance to forgetting
(d) Allofthesee
(e) None of these
Answer:
(b) Speed

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 171.
When one behaves differently in a slightly different situation it is called?
(a) Stimulus genralisation
(b) Stimulus discrimination
(c) Response discrimination
Answer:
(b) Stimulus discrimination

Question 172.
In withdrawal learning the ‘O’ learns to withdraw from ________?
(a) Positive Reinforcement
(b) Negative reinforcement
(c) Full avoidance of any reinforcement
Answer:
(b) Negative reinforcement

Question 173.
Any learning based on maturation and understanding is more or less?
(a) Permanent
(b) Temporary
(c) Efficient
(d) Inefficient
Answer:
(c) Efficient

Question 174.
Which of the following psychologists can be remembered for their contribution to learning theory?
(a) Titchener
(b) Anna Freud
(c) IIull
(d) Ebbinghaus
Answer:
(c)IIull

Question 175.
Better recall after a period of no practice is called?
(a) Retention
(b) Reconstruction
(c) Reminiscence
(d) Recall
Answer:
(c) Reminiscence

Question 176.
Punishing a child for his misbehavior is _______?
(a) Ineffective behavior reinforcement
(b) Positive reinforcement
(c) Negative social reinforcement
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) Negative social reinforcement

Question 177.
Which one of the following procedures is used in verbal learning?
(a) Paired associate learning
(b) Serial learning
(c) Cognitive learning
(d) Free recall
Answer:
(a) Paired associate learning

Question 178.
Learning is the outcome of _______?
(a) Practice
(b) Imitation
(c) Inheritance
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Imitation

Question 179.
Mi n or Drawing apparatus is used in ________?
(a) Verbal learning
(b) Sensory motor learning
(c) Serial learning
Answer:
(b) Sensory motor learning

Question 180.
Classical conditioning is associated with ________?
(a) Bechterev
(b) Pavlov
(c) Koffka
(d) Skinner
Answer:
(a) Bechterev

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 181.
The gradual decrease in errors in a typing test is attributed to _______?
(a) Trial and error learning
(b) Memory
(c) Intelligence
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Intelligence

Question 182.
Any change in behavior through physiological growth is due to _____?
(a) Practice
(b) Leaming
(c) Maturation
(d) Environment
Answer:
(a) Practice

Question 183.
Avoidance learning is also called ________?
(a) Withdrawal learning
(b) Discrimination learning
(c) Forced learning
(d) Substitute learning
Answer:
(a) Withdrawal learning

Question 184.
Learning can not be possible without ________?
(a) Perception
(b) Imagination
(c) Emotion
Answer:
(c) Emotion

Question 185.
Learning cycling is a type of ________?
(a) Classical conditioning learning
(b) Insightful learning
(c) Trial and error learning
Answer:
(b) Insightful learning

Question 186.
Mirror drawing experiment is ________?
(a) Instrumental conditioning learning
(b) Trial and Error Learning
(c) Association learning ‘
Answer:
(b) Trial and Error Learning

Question 187.
Typing is a ________?
(a) Sensory learning
(b) Sensory motor learning
(c) Motor learning
(d) All the above
Answer:
(a) Sensory learning

Question 188.
Working out mathematical problems is ________?
(a) Problem-solving learning
(b) T & E-learning
(c) Conditioning learning
Answer:
(a) Problem-solving learning

Question 189.
The fear response is acquired through ______?
(a) Conditioning
(b) Trial and Error
(c) Insight
Answer:
(c) Insight

Question 190.
Repetition without motivation ________?
(a) Very much helps to learn
(b) Hinders learning
(c) Is not of much help
Answer:
(a) Very much helps to learn

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

True & False Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
The strength of recall is a measurement of creativity. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 2.
The memory trace of items entering short-term memory is liable to rapid decay. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Due to the mechanism of repression, a lot of forgetting related to personal matters takes place. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 4.
Efficient memory does not depend upon efficient learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 5.
Forgetting raises the probability of a wrong response. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 6.
The more similar the two materials are, the more the chance of confusion while recalling them. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 7.
Knowledge of results improves memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 8.
The incorrect responses are forgotten more quickly when it is pointed out that they are incorrect. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Ebbinghaus used meaningful materials for his experiments on memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 10.
Nonsense syllables were coined first by Irrion. (True/False)
Answer:
False

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 11.
The curve of forgetting is based on the theory of Ebbinghaus. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 12.
Memory is always better for meaningful materials than for nonsense syllables. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 13.
Remembering depends upon learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 14.
Interference is minimum when the materials are extremely similar or dissimilar. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 15.
It is difficult to remember tilings in terms of theoretical concepts. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 16.
Examples and illustrations help in better remembering. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 17.
Forgetting is a decay of old impressions and associations because of atrophy through disuse. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 18.
There is a high degree of relationship between the R.I. and RI. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 19.
Newman found that forgetting is almost the same after the activity as memory before the activity. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 20.
The effects of retroactive inhibition are transitory in all amounts of interpolated learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 21.
The unpleasant, ego-dissatisfying materials are quickly forgotten because of repression. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 22.
Jenkins and Dallenbach conducted an experiment on the effect of sleep on retention. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 23.
During sleep there is a complete Psychological vacuum and forgetting is nil. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 24.
In the sleeping condition, some activity is present as the ‘ S ’ does not always go to sleep immediately after the learning is complete. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 25.
McGeoch for the first time studied the problem of reminiscence. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 26.
There exists some relationship between the Gestalt theory of forgetting and Bartlett’s constructive change theory of forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 27.
McClelland found the phenomenon of reminiscence while studying verbal discrimination learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 28.
During the retentional interval there is scope for rehearsal of the original learning, and reminiscence may occur. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 29.
In the case of nonsense syllables, verbatim and trigrams reminiscence is high. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 30.
Reminiscence may be noticed because of positive transfer. (True /False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 31.
In our daily life, we meet more short-term memory cases than long-term ones. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 32.
STM is more often experienced in nonverbal materials. (True /False)
Answer:
False

Question 33.
Ordinarily, the capacity of STM is limited to 6 to 7 items. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 34.
With organization of materials, the length of short-term memory becomes higher. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 35.
Short-term memory is also known as secondary memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 36.
Long term memory is also called primary memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 37.
LTM has limited storage capacity. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 38.
New information must undergo a period of consolidation to enter long-term storage. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 39.
Immediate and short-term memory supplies the code that we use to store materials in more lasting memory and later on to retrieve them. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 40.
The materials Of short-term memory are made ready for long-term memory through rehearsal. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 41.
Elaborate rehearsal is more effective for STM. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 42.
Words learned with meaning and association is better remembered than processed at a superficial level. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 43.
Nonsense materials are better remembered than digits. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 44.
Trigrams are better remembered than nonsense syllables. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 45.
For the first time, nonsense syllables were prepared by Bartlett. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 46.
A nonsense syllable consists of two vowels and one consonant. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 47.
In a trigram there is consonant. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 48.
Nonsense syllables have zero associative value. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 49.
Retention interval as such is not the cause of forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 50.
The interference theory of forgetting was propounded by Muller and Pilzecker. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 51.
Interference theory holds that forgetting takes place because of proactive inhibition and Retroactive inhibition. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 52.
Atrophy through disuse and the theory of disuse are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 53.
According to the interference theory, optimum retention occurs when interpolated learning is introduced in the middle of a long retention interval. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 54.
Interference explains most of our forgetting in day to day life. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question55.
Trace theory has been advanced by the behaviouristic school of psychology. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 56.
Gestalt have approached the study of memory from the side of perception. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 57.
According to Ebbinghaus our memory is more or less organized. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 58.
The unorganized and less structured materials have stable memory traces. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 59.
The unpleasant experiences associated with shame and guilt are forgotten because of the operation of repression. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 60.
The controversy between Bartlett and Ebbinghaus mainly arises due to the methods they use as models. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 61.
According to Ebbinghaus transformation is the chief characteristic of remembering. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 62.
Differences in transformation in remembering takes place because of the difference in the meaning of the materials. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 63.
Bartlett used three methods for measuring memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 64.
The method of repeated reproduction is also known as the method of successive reproduction. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 65.
The conditions necessary for efficient learning also determine efficient remembering. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 66.
An organized learning always produces better remembering as it leads to the development of patterns. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 67.
A need to learn is essential to make memory better and permanent. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 68.
Need is not essential for memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 69.
Practice is a better reinforcer than a need for remembering. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 70.
Pleasant materials are better remembered than unpleasant ones. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 71.
Under the prompting and anticipation method, paired associated learning and serial learning are performed. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 72.
Those factors which influence learning do not necessarily influence retention. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 73.
Different retention cur\ cs lut\ c by and large similar characteristics. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 74.
Ebbinghaus conducted a classic experiment to determine the rate of forgetting with the passage of time. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 75.
At first, forgetting is slow but as time passes, the rate of forgetting becomes rapid. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 76.
There is almost no loss in the number of materials after a good deal of interval. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 77.
Ebbing a conducted experiments on himself using nonsense syllables. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 78.
The experiments conducted by Ebbinghaus on the measurement of memory were based on qualitative methods. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 79.
The speed of forgetting is the same for all the materials. (True/ False)
Answer:
False

Question 80.
Retention curves on the whole indicate that forgetting is never complete. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 81.
The result of various studies shows that the rate of forgetting is slower with meaningful material. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 82.
Perceptual motor skills appear to be retained quite well in comparison to verbal skills. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 83.
Mirror Drawing learning is a type of perceptual-motor skill which is retained through practice. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 84.
Recognition is the easiest method of measuring retention. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 85.
As similarity between interpolated activity and original learning is reduced to a near identity, retention rises and then falls to a minimum again but with an increase in similarity, it never reaches the level obtained with maximum similarity. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 86.
The formula to calculate the percentage of savings is Xj 100. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 87.
The factors responsible for forgetting may be divided into
(a) the factors operating the time of learning
(b) the factors operating afterward. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 88.
Associated pairs of words are better remembered than unassociated pairs of words. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 89.
completed tasks are more rapidly forgotten than an incomplete one. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 90.
Isolated materials are forgotten more quickly than crowded materials. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 91.
Intra serial interference leads to more forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 92.
Learned helplessness affects the retrieval of unpleasant memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 93.
The disuse theory was challenged by Muller and Pilzecker. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 94.
Disuse and not the interpolated activity are the cause of forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 95.
The intensity of the interpolated activity causes more inhibition. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 96.
Maximum facilitation occurs when the learned materials are identical in the original learning and interpolated activity. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 97.
Any stimulus which is discriminated in a series by virtue of its quality is definitely favored in retention. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 98.
More forgetting occurs because of similarity in the method of learning during the original learning and retention interval. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 99.
Inhibition Is greater when the original learning and the interpolated learning are learned through the same sense modality than through different sensory modalities. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 100.
The longer the rest and relaxation between original learning and subsequent recall, the less is forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 101.
Proactive inhibition is the decrement in retention of a task as a result of other learning coming prior to the learning of the task on which the retention test is made. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 102.
Underwood has conducted quite a number of useful studies on proactive inhibition. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 103.
In the serial reproduction method, one person is involved while in the repeated reproduction method several persons are involved. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 104.
In our day to day life hardly any reproductive method of memory is found. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 105.
In immediate memory the processing capacity of the individual is limited. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 106.
Ebbinghaus method is called reproductive while Bartlett’s method is called constructive. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 107.
In part learning the material of learning is divided into different parts. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 108.
Iconic memory is an immediate sensory memory that lasts for a long period. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 109.
Deliberate use of reconditioning increases greatly immediate memory span. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 110.
Both echoic memory and iconic memory are examples of immediate sensory memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 111.
Grouping makes remembering easier. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 112.
The transfer of new information from short-term memory to long-term is promoted by processing it for meaning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 113.
Short-term memory holds verbal materials primarily in acoustic form. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 114.
Episodic memory is a memory for the temporarily dated autobiographical experiences. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 115.
Remembering one item in a category usually means that the majority of the other items in the category will come to mind. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 116.
Organization helps memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 117.
The ability to recognize an item seems to depend on a lesser degree of learning than the ability to reproduce an item actively. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 118.
Retention can not be measured by the speed with which an ‘ S ’ can relearn a task. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 119.
The method of relearning measures retention independently of the availability of specific responses. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 120.
The method of reconstruction is related to the method of saving but puts its main emphasis on the retention of serial position. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 121.
The method of reconstruction can be used only with materials that can be readily broken down into separate units. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 122.
The temporal characteristics of the responses of the subject in particular are sensitive indices of the degree of retention. (True /False)
Answer:
False

Question 123.
The most striking feature of the curve of forgetting Ebbinghaus is its decelerated drop. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 124.
The amount of retention increases indefinitely as a function of the degree of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 125
A whole, method of learning is always superior to the part method of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 126
The operant conditioning technique is not the same as the classical conditioning technique of Pavlov. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 127.
Aversive conditioning and classical conditioning are similar techniques in learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 128.
Thorndike made experiments on the conditioning method of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 129.
Interest is not a necessary determinant of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 130.
Intentional learning is always better than incidental learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 131.
Learning by insight simply means learning by habit. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 132.
Conditioning responses are nothing but a chain of habit patterns. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 133.
Insightful learning is gradual in nature. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 134.
Whole and part learning are equally beneficial. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 135.
Learning and Maturation are related concepts. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 136.
When we leam to ride a bicycle conditioning learning is involved. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 137.
Flilgard experimented on sultan to demonstrate insightful learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 138.
The Law of effect was introduced by Thorndike. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 139.
In trial-and-error learning emphasis is put on practice. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 140.
The Mirror Drawing apparatus is used to demonstrate insightful learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 141.
Maze learning is a type of trial-and-error learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 142.
Operant conditioning is otherwise known as instrumental conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 143.
Trial and error learning was introduced by Bechterev. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 144.
Leamingis are dependent upon practice.(True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 145
The Gestalt school for the first time conducted experiments on the laws of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 146.
Backward conditioning and escape conditioning are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 147.
Positive stimulus reinforces behavior while negative stimulus inhibits it. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 148.
The process by which a CR can be eliminated is known as unconditing. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 149.
Experimental extinction and experimental neuroses are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 150
The procedure through which a CR is excited by a stimulus that has similarity with the original stimulus is called response generalization. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 151.
A response may be more resistant to extinction if the reinforcement in the conditioning trial has been continuous. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 152.
Once conditioning is finally established the C.S. can be used as an unconditioned stimulus for further conditioning.(True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 153.
Negative conditioning is also known as backward conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 154.
Pavlov was a swiss physiologist. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 155.
The Gestalt School of Psychology mainly aims at finding the whole-part relationship. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 156.
Nail biting habits can be eliminated by trial and error method. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 157.
the concept of experimental neuroses has been studied intensively by Hilgard. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 158.
Delay in reinforcement stands in the way of strengthing S-R connections and habits. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 159.
There is a high positive relationship between immediate reward and amount of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 160.
Rein forcement is the motivating force behind all eating. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 161.
Thorndike’s concept of spread of effect provides the reinforcement theorists strong support. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 162.
In learning, through the error can be zero time can never the zero. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 163.
In all learning curves, there need not necessarily be a plateau. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 164.
Perception of the relationship between different parts of the visual field and the goal plays a significant role in learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 165.
Learning by insight takes a single attempt to solve a problem. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 166.
Learning and performance are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 167.
Kohler and Koffka conducted an experiment on chimpanzees Sultan to demonstrate learning by conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 168.
Gestalt is a German word.(True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 169.
The behaviorist school of psychology developed a theory of whole part position in learning and perception. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 170.
The unconditioned stimulus is always presented after the conditioned stimulus to classical conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 171.
Ebbinghaus is remembered for his contribution to learning psychology. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 172.
Learning is a process that starts from the delivery table. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 173.
When the stimulus becomes too small for the organism to discriminate a nervous breakdown is obvious. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 174.
Operant conditioning is usually studied in a laboratory using a Skinner box. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 175.
Behavior therapy is based on operant conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 176.
Spontaneous recovery will grow weaker and weaker if no reinforcement is provided. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 177.
Many of our bad habits can be removed by trial and error method. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 178.
Any learning based on maturation is more or less temporary. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 179.
Overlearning occurs because of practice. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 180.
Trial and Error learning is demonstrated experimentally in the laboratory by Tachistoscope. (True/False)
Answer:
False

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 181.
In withdrawal learning the ‘ O’ learns to withdraw from negative reinforcement. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 182.
Titchener is remembered for his contribution to learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 183.
Punishing a child for his misbehavior is negative social reinforcement. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 184.
Cycling is a sensory-motor learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 185.
Typing is sensory learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 186.
Transfer of learning from the right hand to the right leg is called unilateral transfer of training. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 187.
Fear for dogs is acquired through trial and error, and learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 188.
Repetition without motivation is not of much help to improve learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 189.
Generalization and discrimination are opposite concepts.(True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 190.
Discrimination develops out of generalization. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 191.
Spontaneous recovery has lots of similarities with reminiscence. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 192.
The similarity in content, technique, and principle leads to zero transfer. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 193.
Spread up effect is an extension of the law of exercise. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 194.
Learning establishes a new relationship between the stimulus and the response. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 195.
Learning is defined as the modification of behavior. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 196.
Reinforcement is indispensable for learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 197.
Behavioral changes induced by drugs, brain injury, and maturation are not considered to involve learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 198.
Maturation occurs before birth as well as afterward while learning occurs after birth. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 199.
E.L. Thorndike was German Psychologist. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 200.
Animals mostly do not leam by reasoning but by trial and error. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 201.
In the conditioning technique as the number of trials increases, unnecessary irrelevant and random activities reduce. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 202
After 1933 law of effect was included by Thomidke along with the law of exercise. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 203.
Law “of readiness refers to the physical or psychological preparedness of a person to attend to a stimulus. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 204.
The Law of readiness has three parts. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 205.
Law ofçxcrcisc comprises the law of use and law of disuse. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 206.
The Law of effect is the cardinal principle of Thorndike’s theory of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 207.
The spread of effect was discovered by Guthrie. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 208.
In classical conditioning, reinforcement is used in a restricted sense. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 209.
Before ‘insight’ can occur the learner should be able to see the relationship among all the parts of the problem. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 210.
In insightful learning, integrating and reintegrating part processes into a new total pattern is observed. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 211.
When the solution comes after trying the elements present in the learning field, it is known as foresight. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 212.
When the solution to the problem occurs in the first attempt without actually trying the situation, it is called hindsight. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 213.
The non-reinforcement theorists are the advocates of latent learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 214.
The whole part phenomenon of learning and perception was developed by the Gestalt school of Psychology. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 215.
There are two types of transfer of training. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 216.
Low anxiety is necessary for efficient learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 217.
When a previous experience obstructs learning in a new situation it is called a positive transfer of training. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 218.
Insightful learning was advocated by Pavlov. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 219.
In insightful learning solution to the problem comes gradually. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 220.
For human learning, the first verbal material used was meaningful words. (True/False)
Answer:
False

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 221.
Pavlov s studies on conditioning come under instrumental conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 222.
When we intentionally attend to something it is called habitual attention. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 223.
One of the most important characteristics of learning is change. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 224.
Learning is most effective if the learner is interested in participating in the learning experience. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 225.
Each and every learning direction is not necessary. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 226.
All learning can be possible by the conditioned response. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 227.
Watson believed that environmental influences have a secondary role in learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 228.
In learning past experience is not necessary. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 229.
Kohler developed insightful learning techniques. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 230.
Trial and error is the simplest form of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Question 231.
Pavlov was a Russian Psychologist. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 232.
Extinction means an increase in the probability of response. (True/False)
Answer:
True

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CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Unit 3 Education and Society Long Answer Questions

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 3 Education and Society Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Unit 3 Education and Society Long Answer Questions

Long Type Question With Answers

Question 1.
Discuss the interrelationship between society and education. Discuss the scope of education in society.
Answer:
The world itself and everything are dynamic. Society is dynamic Man is a social being and he needs and formed a society in a democratic way. Education is an activity, which goes on in the society in which it takes place. The Republic of Plato, Politics of Aristotle, and Democracy of Education by John Dewey prove that education is a dimension of politics.

Hence society and education are intimately related to society and education. People living together are said to live in a society or a community. The two words community and society are used same sense they differ from each other. the words of R.G Collingwood, A community is everybody, adult and children, social and non-social persons living in a certain territory where all share a mode of life, but not all are conscious of its organization or purpose.

A society is a kind of community or a part of a community whose members have become socially conscious of their mode of life, and are united by a common set of aims and values. This distinction between community and society relates education to society. Children are members of the community.’ It is education that prepares them for full membership in society.

They remain as members of the non-social community, during student life. When they develop social consciousness through the impact of education, they, become a potential member of society. This study of relations between education and society is known as the sociology of education. The Scope of Education Every society has some set of aims and values.

In order to achieve these aims and values, education plays a double role. First, it attempts to develop the personality of the child and then prepares him for membership in society. Thus a person plays a dual role in his life as an individual and as a member of society. So we can not think of an individual without society and vice versa.

He needs education for the development of his personality and for the adjustment to the human environment Throughout this life, a man tries to make an adjustment to his physical universe and the social world around it. He also creates his own environment in order to feel at home and fries to master them. The situation calls for creative adjustment.

That is why the change in society goes on in a never-ending way. So education and society are interrelated and education is aimed at building a modem society. Society is dynamic because education is dynamic to the growth in science and. technology.

Question 2.
What is social change? Discuss the factors affecting social change?
Answer:
As social change refers to the movement of social progress, social interaction and social organization. To K. Device, social change alteration occurs in social organization, the structure and function of the society. To us, social change means a change in the culture and in its chief factors, material and non-material culture. Factors that determine social change are a continuous process. Change in one aspect of society affects to other aspects for example change in the political system affects religious and economic aspects of the society.

The factors that affect social change are as follows:
The action of the exceptional individuals :
History recalls the personal influences of exceptional individuals have brought about changes in political, economic, social, and religious fields. For example, scientists like Galileo, religious reformers like Shankaracharya, Lord Budha and Jesus Christ and Social reforms like Gandhi, Gopabandhu and Lenin had a profound influence on society.

The personal Qualities of those personalities affect society and brought a change in the social traditions, and customs and brought a change in society such customs are Sati rights, the early marriage system and untouchables etc. During the period Lord Bentick, Raja Rammohan Ray brought a change in Sati Right.

The widow has not have to sacrifice in the burning fire of his husband and can have the right to marry for a second time. The social reformer Gandhi brought a change in Untouchables in India. He claimed the South Africa equal rights of Black people with white. The slavery system in South Africa was abolished.

Impact of Ideas and Ideologies :
In the energy age ideas and ideologies proved to be a powerful instrument of social change. The world-famous revolution of France resulted in liberty equality and fraternity. Besides, the ideologies of socialization, communism, fascism, democracy, secularism, humanism etc. have a very powerful influence on the change of society.

Effects of cultural diffusion :
A society isolated from other contacts remains static. So relations with other countries bring cultural diffusion. With the coming of British rule, India was influenced Western Technology and Western culture and there is cultural diffusion. For example, English language and literature and science and technology etc.

Impact of changes in the physical environment :
Changes in the physical environment bring a change in society. For example, food, drought, earthquakes can bring about radical changes in food, clothing, houses and ways of learning, living style of the people. Geographical and environmental factors like climate, topography, means of communication, and availability and non-availability of resources affect the people. If the physical environment wholesome people lead a hopeful life and if there is obstruction, the life patterns differ from country to country

Impact of Science and Technology:
Social change occurs through the interaction of technological techniques and social values. All those two factors change society. Techniques  means by which members of society satisfy their basic human needs for food, shelter, clothing, communication, social organizations, reproduction etc.

The development of these factors and techniques depends on inventions and discoveries. Social inventions and the development of social techniques satisfy, to needs of living together in a group. Values are concerned with the religion, philosophy, and ideology of the people aimed at truth, beauty and goodness. All these things make human life dynamic successful and purposive.

Change through collective actions:
These can be rapid social change through planned group action. The legislators can change the society by majority rate in the parliament and state legislative assemblies.

Role of war in social change :
World war twice has brought a change in the political, economic, and ideologies of the people. An agency of social change it brings new values and problems. The enemies never hesitate to destroy hospitals, schools, temples, churches and mosques. They also go against traditions and customs. The population also transfer from one place to another. Transfer and migration cause a lot of economic and political problems which leads to social change.

Contribution of Heredity and environment to social change :
Humanity is the result of heredity. Both heredity and environment influence man’s behaviour. Heredity theory is supported by Galton, and Freud, whereas environmentalists like Karl Marx. Opined social change brought in two ways. The relationship like painter and brush, Heredity has potentialities and the environment offers a change a bringing them out. the interplay of both Heredity and environment contributes to social change.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Unit 3 Education and Society Long Answer Questions

Question 3.
Discuss the characteristics of social change?
Answer:
The phenomenon of social change is complex and the characteristics of such social factors are as follows :
Social change is a continuous process:
Social change is a continuous process. Society is ever-changing phenomenon, undergoing endless changes, an ongoing process. Recall the past ancient civilization and cultures and compare them with the modem civilization and cultures. There is a radical change of science and technology. The social relationship is not permanent and there is no museum to save it from the ravages of time.

Social change is universal :
The social structure of social organization change is the law of nature and social institutions are all dynamic. Social change occurs in all societies and at all times. Society remains static.

Social change is social :
Society is a ‘web of social relationships’ and social change means a change in the social system of social relationships, and it is the social process and social change, which influence the community.

Social change occurs as an essential law :
Change is the law of nature. Social change also natural change is an unavoidable and unchangeable laws of nature. By nature we desire change and to satisfy these needs social change becomes a necessity.

The rate and tempo of social change are uneven :
Though social change is a must and every society the rate, tempo speed and extent of change are not uniform. It differs society to society. In some society its speed is rapid, in another, it may be slow, for example in modem industrial society its speed and extent of changes is faster than in traditional agriculture and rural society.

Social change is bound by time factors :
Social change is tempered in nature. The caste system is a pillar of stability in traditional Indian society is now undergoing considerable changes in the modem India. In the 19th century, India become more industrialized and the speed of social changes increased.

Social change due to multi factors:
Social change is due to a multinumber of factors such as war, conquest, natural calamities, like earthquakes, Sunami, industrial development and political ideologies etc.

Social change may be violent or peaceful:
The social change may be violent, rapid or peaceful. The term violence frequently refers to the threat or use of physical forms that violently affect emotions, values and expectations.

Social changes involve non-value judgement:
Social change does not attach any value judgement. It is neither moral nor immoral. The study of social change involves no judgement but is ethical.

Social change may be planned or unplanned :
Social change may occur in the natural course unplanned change refers to change resulting from natural calamities such as Famine, and floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions etc. It is known as the unchangeable law of nature.

Social change may be endogeneous or Exogeneous :
Endogeneous social change refers to the change caused by the factors that are generated by society or a given subsystem of society. Conflict, communication regionalism etc. are some examples of endogenous social change. On the other hand, exogenous social change is the impact of forces externally such as technology transfer and brain drain, political and cultural, imperialism and diffusion of cultural traits etc.

Question 4.
What is social change? Discuss the factors affecting social change?
Answer:
Social change refers to the movement social progress, social interaction, social organization. To K. Device, By social change alteration that occurs in social organizations, the Structure and function of the society. To obtain, social change means a change With cultural good in its chief factors, material and no material cultures.

Factors that determine social changes :
Social change is a continuous process of change in one aspect of to society, that affects other aspects for example change in the political system affects religious change are as follows.

The action of the exceptional Individuals :
History recalls the personal influences of exceptional individuals has brought about changes in the political, economic, social, and religious field. For example scientists like Galileo, religious reformers like Shankaracharya, Lord Buddha and Jesus Christ and social reformers like Gandi, Gopabandu and Lenin had a profound influence on society.

The personal Qualities of those personalities affect society and brought a change in the social traditions, customs and brought a change in social traditions, customs and brought a change in the society such customs are Sati rights early marriage system and untouchables etc.

Impact of ideas and ideologies :
A powerful instrument of social change. The world-famous revolutions of France resulted in liberty, ability and fraternity. Besides ideologies of socialization, communism, Fascism, democracy, secularism, Humanism etc. have a very powerful influence on the change of society.

Effect of cultural diffusion :
A society isolated from other contacts remains static. So die relationship with other countries brings cultural diffusion. With the coming of British Rule, India was influenced by western technology and western culture and there is cultural diffusion. For example, English language and literature, science and technology etc.

Impact of changes in the Physical environment :
Changes in the physical environment bring a change in society. For example, Food, drought, earthquakes can bring about radical changes in food, clothing, houses and ways of learning, living style of the people. Geographical and environmental factors like climate, topography, means of communication, and availability and non-availability of resources affect the people. If the physical environment is wholesome people lead a happy life and if there is obstruction, the life patterns differ from country to country.

Impact of science and technology:
Social change occurs through the interaction of technological techniques and social values. All these two factors change society. Techniques means by which members of society satisfy their basic human needs for food, shelter, clothing, communication, social organization, reproduction etc.

The development of these techniques depends on inventions and discoveries. Social inventions and the development of social techniques satisfy the need of living together in a group. Values are concerned with religious philosophy and ideology of the people aimed at truth, beauty and goodness. All these things make human life dynamic, successful and purposive.

Change through collective actions:
There can be rapid social change through planned group action. The legislators can change the society by majority rate in the parliament and state legislative assemblies.

Role of war in Social Change :
World war twice has fought a change in the political, and economic ideologies of the people. As an agency of social change, it brings new values and problems. The enemies never hesitate to destroy hospitals, schools, temples, churches and mosques. They also against traditions and customs. The population also transfer from one place to another transfer and migration cause a lot of economic and political problems which leads to social change.

Contribution of Heredity and environment to social change :
Humanity is the result of heredity. Both heredity and environment influence man’s behaviours. Heredity theory is supported by Galton, and Freud, whereas,-environmentalists like Karl Marx opined social change is brought by two ways. The relationship is like painter and brush. Heredity has potentialities and the environment offers a change bringing them out. Thus, the interplay of both heredity and the environment contributes to social change.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Unit 3 Education and Society Long Answer Questions

Question 5.
Discuss the role of education in social change?
Answer:
Education is a strong and powerful device to change human nature in a desirable way. The process of education helps an individual to know himself and others and recognizes and intensifies the feeling of others.
The main role of education is social change are as follows:

Conservative role of Education :
The supporters of conservation claim that education should conserve the existing social culture and transfer it to the next generation. The conservative role of education in respect of social change should be creative in nature to maintain stability to instability, and security to insecurity. Building new institutions out of old ones and opening new institutions is a problem. So education should take the lead to solve the problem.

Progressive Role of Education:
Progressives oppose conservation. To them, education must be a source of new ideas for school programmes that are constantly undergoing reconstruction. One group progressives opined that education should act as an independent critic of states and others agree that the role of education should be direct purposive and progressive. It should form a definite conception of a better social order.

In a mature society education and politics should be one and something. It will help us to manage public affairs effectively and intelligently. So in learning all of social programmes should be studied. In a totalitarian state, the people are subordinate to the state authority. In a pluralistic state, it is also desirable. So education should play an independent role to bring about desirable social change.

Neutral Role of Education :
For social change education also play a neutral role, remains aloof from politics and devotes time to pursuing external values and mastering universal truth. Individuals be compelled to follow a particular ideology. Neutrality leads to academic paralysis. Neutrality in education is not desirable. So education should remain all of from controversial issues and it should be responsible for social progress.

Education for Revolutionary changes:
Social progress should take place through evolution rather than revolution. Sometimes our students should take part in agitation to fulfil their demands. The government remains adamant and opposes their agitation and when Govt, becomes callous and indifferent situation becomes worst.

The tension between the students and the teacher goes against the orderly process of social change. There is social change when capitalism to communalism and firm democracy to fascism etc. The Marxist wants social revolution through physical force to bring about desirable social change.

Education is a tool for social control:
Education plays an important role in social control. As a tool of social control, it plays a dual role. The first role of education is to assimilate, preservation and transmission of useful elements of the patterns of folkway move the institutions. The second role includes the development and promotion of non-cultural patterns. Through the process of teaching and learning, education tries to modify society as a whole, it acts as an important agency for socializing human beings.

The effects of social change in the emerging Indian society:
Mass communication :
Education suffers a lot from a lack of communication. Schools are scattered, at far distances as a result the deserving and desirous students could not be benefited. Some are these populated regions and others are thickly populated. Communication facilities the expansion of transport, telegraph and telephonic services, ideas, the beliefs, undergo revolutionary change. The educationally backward areas have become very close to educationally advanced areas.

Growth of cities and changing population :
The growth of cities and the role of population growth helps in social change. People from rural areas migrate to the urban areas, being attached by the new industries, for employment business and economic needs. Social interaction has a tremendous influence on education of the people.

Social legislation and social awakening :
The development of new social legislation to bring a change in the attitude of the people. The Indian laws and customs religious sanctions. But the new laws have been enacted according to the existing social practice and humanistic philosophy of life. The social, and economic need is determined by the new emerging humanism. By legislation, the minimum age for marriage is fixed.

Question 6.
What do you mean by social satisfaction? Give its nature and characteristics?
Answer:
Human society is heterogeneous in nature in that there are rich, poor and industrialists, rulers and ruled. The term ‘stratification’ refers to a process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status. It refers to division of the population into strata. With certain characteristics like qualities, material possessions and performances.

To Raymond W. Murray, “Social stratification is a hierarchical division of society into higher and lower social traits. To Melvia M. Tumin, social stratification refers arrangement of any social group or society unequal with regard to power, and proper social evaluation. To Landry, A stratified society is one marked by inequality by differences among people that are evaluated as being lower and higher.

Society becomes a hierarchy, that is a society which is organized in successive grades. Sociologists have been able to establish several strata in a society. Society is composed of social classes. The social structure looks like a pyramid.

The stratification involves two phenomena such as:

  • Differences of individuals or groups, higher rank
  • The ranking of individuals according to some basis of valuation

Every society is divided into more and less distinct groups with the scale of value. Such distinction is based on age, sex and kinship and there is economic social and political inequality.

Characteristics :
It is universal:
Social stratification is universal. The difference between rich and poor, they have and have not is evident everywhere. Even in non-literate societies, stratification is very much present.

It is in diverse forms :
Social stratification has never been uniform in all societies. Ancient Roman society was stratified into strata – the patricians and Plebicians Any society was divided into four varnas The Brahman, Kshetriya, Vaishyas and the Sudras, the ancient greek society into freeman and slaves, the ancient Chinese society into mandarins, merchants.

It is consequential :
To stratification system has its own consequences. The most important searches things in human life are distributed unequally because of stratification. The system leads to two kinds of consequences such as life changes and lifestyle changes referring to such things as infant mortality, longevity, physical and mental illness, marital housing, residential area, education, means of recreation, the relation between parent and children, modes of conveyance and so on.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Unit 3 Education and Society Long Answer Questions

Question 7.
Explain the principles or forms of stratification?
Answer:
Social stratification may be based on a variety of forms or interpenetrating principles such as free and unfree, class, caste, estate, occupation, administrative hierarchy or income level.

Free and unfree:
The population of a society may be divided into free men and slaves. In certain communities, the slaves do not enjoy rights and privileges. The slave is practically at the disposal of his master. He is the property of his master. The slave can always be bought and sold, through his treatment and the degree of protection accorded him very from place to place and from time to time he comes from various sources like war, slave capture, purchase, birth or seizure for debt.

Class :
It is a principal basis of social stratification found especially in the modem civilized countries. In a society where Sellman is free before the law, stratification may be based upon accepted and self-estimation of superiority or inferiority. Social classes may be described as partitions of community or collections of individuals standing to each other in relation to Quality and marked from other persons by standards superiority and inferiority.

Caste :
Social stratification is also based on caste. In an open society, individuals can move from one class or status level to another and equality of opportunity in virtually absent. The Indian class system provides a classic example in that a class system is one in which an individual’s rank, rights and obligations are ascribed in the basis of birth into a particular group.

Hindu society is having five main strata :
four castes and a fifth group, the outcaste whose members were known as untouchables. Each caste is subdivided sub-casts. Untouchables are defined as unclean and impure status affects other social relationships. They must be segregated from members of other castes and live on the outskirts of the village. The Brahmins were custodians of law and the legal system.

Estate :
the estate provides another system of stratification. The feudal estates were legally defined. Each estate had a status, for example, in the state system of France and Japan, differences in legal status, and civil, and political rights, were not equal, or identical. The feudal estates include political groups. An assembly of estates is an organized collection of several orders, and conditions of man.

Occupation and Income :
Occupation is an aspect of economic stems which influences social class structure. Social stratification in France and United States stressed that for all the criteria mentioned in determining class position, the occupational position is the most which indicates the various strata in both societies occupational achievement and prestige attached to the occupation gives strata. Society is also stratified on the basis of income and difference in income leads to a very unequal standard of life.

Administrative Hierarchy :
There is a system of stratification based on the administrative position. Variations in rank with services and graded hierarchy of the church is the example, of it. In civil services, various grades are distinguished from each other.

Question 8.
What is social mobility? Give its types and sources. Explain the role of education in social mobility?
Answer:
Social mobility refers to the passage of persons from one social class to another. This is a status movement of persons. Man makes endless efforts to enhance their status in society, moving from lower position to higher position. Sometimes the higher status is also forced to go to a lower status. In this way, the people in society continue to move up and down the social ladder.

This movement is called social mobility. By social mobility, sociologists mean, the movement of persons or groups up or down the making order of a social stratification system which means a change in social status. Sometimes group mobility also takes place. Group mobility is seen when the oppressed group improves its collective social status move. Such mobility may occur, through such structural changes as revolution, modernization and social reforms.

Types of social mobility:
There are two types of social mobility such as:

  • Horizontal mobility and
  • Vertical mobility

Horizontal mobility:
Horizontal social mobility means the movement of an individual from one social group to another movement of the individual, citizenship to another, from one family to another by divorce or marriage, and from one factory to another in the same occupational position.

Vertical mobility :
Vertical social mobility refers to the movement of an individual from one social status to another. There are two types of vertical mobility. Upward and downward. A motor driver’s son when joined as a Bank officer achieved upward mobility. If one loses a job and becomes labour it becomes downward vertical mobility.

Sources of Mobility :
Social mobility may take place through changes in the social structure brought about by industrialization, urbanization and modernization. It may be fostered by struggles, for collective gains by political reforms or by revolution. Modernisation creates mobility a country industrialises.

there is the conversion of labourers and the size of the middle class has increased Urbanisationalso contributes to the degree of mobility. In such cases, mobility seems from lower-class and working-class occupations to middle-class occupations. Mobility also be fostered by struggle for collective gains through organizations like a labour unions.

Role of education in social mobility :
Through education, one is capable of occupying a better job which implies better income and enhance standard of living and social status changed. The social origins of undergraduate women students and students in medical technological management and other professional courses demonstrated that they are predominantly drawn from higher-status families characterized by high educational, occupational and income backgrounds.

The mean family income becomes high and influences admission to urban higher and professional education. The persons acquire skills to improve and imbibe values like national integration, unity, women eQuestion equality, environment conservation and small family norm, are to examples of social mobility. The revised policy of education of 1992 also resolved to assure that free compulsory education of satisfactory.

Quality is provided to all children up to 14 years of age before we enter the 21st century. Education is a major tool for economic education employable by providing them with various skills. It will also help when there is increased investment in agriculture and the setting up of sma|l industries etc.

Question 9.
Explain education for socialization. Or Discuss education for cohesion and social efficiency?
Answer:
Education for socialization means social cohesion and social interaction which otherwise means the cohesion of education between man and society. John Dewey, the advocate of socialism of education says “He is a citizen – growing and thinking’ in vast, complex of relation and interaction. Socialization is a Quality of man which evokes the Quality of social awareness and social potentiality to become an ideal citizen. Ideal citizenship training is needed for socialization. The home and school is the socializing agency which socializes the child with social potential like cooperation, fellow feeling and social service attitude etc.

It is through active interaction with social experiences and participation in ‘Common activities or life that children develop in him a social consciousness. The social consciousness in education for by providing on social lines. Knowledge is, therefore, acquired through social participation which develops social efficiency and cohesion and enables the individual to join freely and fully in common activities of life. The new educational approach speaks that social efficiency is supposed for national development.

Education must aim at developing the .national powers or efficiency of the man but the real value of efficiency lies in the good that it brings to his social group. The child through the social agencies participates in social agencies like SUPW activities and community work, NSS, social service, NCC, Boy scouts, and Girls Guide and there is social cohesion.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Unit 3 Education and Society Long Answer Questions

Question 10.
Discuss the globalization tendency in Education?
Answer:
In most countries, there is a National system of education. Under this system of education, national character and national integration is being emphasized. Nationalism is a narrow concept. There is a trend of humanisation along with nationalism UNESCO has been established for encouraging and organizing educational cultural and scientific programmes at the international level. Internationalisation is one aspect of globalization. It is a broader concept.

Definition of globalization :
Globalization as internationalization :
Globalization describes the growth in international exchange and interdependence. With growing flows of trade and capital investment, there is the possibility of moving beyond an inter-national economy.

Globalization as liberalization :
Globalization refers to a process of removing Govt, imposed restrictions on movements between countries in order to create open borderless world economy.

Globalization as Universalization:
Global is used in the sense of being worldwide and globalization is the process of spreading various objects and experiences to people at all comers of the earth. A classic example of this would be the spread of computers, television etc.

Globalization as westernization or Modernization :
Here globalization is understood as a dynamic by the social structures of modernity capitalism, rationalism, industrialism, bureaucratism etc. are spread the world- over, normally destroying the pre-existent cultures and local self determinded in the process.

5. Globalization of Deterritorialization (or spread of super territoriality) :
It means the social spot of globalization is no longer mapped in terms of territorial places territorial distances and territorial borders. So globalization is the intensification of worldwide social relations. To David Held, globalization is a process which embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations transactions.

Question 11.
What is Globalization? Give its characteristics and features?
Answer:
Globalization is commonly used as a short-hand way describing the spread and connectedness of production, communication technologies across the world. That spread has involved the interlacing of economic and cultural activity. IMF and world bank is to create a global free market for goods and services. Globalization involves the diffusion of ideas, practices and technologies. It is something internationalization universalization. It is not simply modernization or westernization.  Globalization is thus, has powerful economic political, cultural and social dimensions. It focuses on four things.

  • De-localization and supraterritoriality
  • The speed of technological innovation.
  • The rise of multinational corporations
  • The creation of global free markets lead to instability and division.

Globalization :
Delocalization and supra territoriality It means the significant de-localization in social and economic exchange activities and relationships has been uprooted from local origins and cultures. Businesses are organized around a network of production, management and distribution, sophisticated information systems are essential in such globalization.

Globalization and the decline in the power of national government :
The major casualty of the process has been a decline in the power of the national government to direct and influence their economies. the process of the shift in economic activity of Japan and the USA is felt in countries all over the globe. The internationalization of the financial market of technology and of some manufacturing and services brings with them a new set of limitations upon the freedom of action nation-states. It creates the conditions for effective international governance. In short, globalization adopts policies in shaping and reshaping social relations within all countries.

Risk, technological innovation and globalization :
A particular feature of globalization is the momentum and power of the change involved in the interaction of extraordinary technological innovation. Development in life science and in digital technology opened up new possibilities for production and exchange innovations of the internet have made it possible to access information end resources across to the world and to coordinate activities.

Globalization and the knowledge economy :
Because of globalization’s success knowledge economies have to take a democratic approach to the spread Of knowledge. We must breed an ambitious society. There is significant growth by large corporations to claim intellectual rights over new discoveries. For example, in genetic research.

Globalization and the impact of multinational local communities:
Multinational corporations establish production sales and services in countries and regions where they can exploit cheaper labour resources. Multinationals constantly seek out new or under-exploited markets. They look to increase sales by creating new needs among different target groups.

Example The activities of tobacco companies in southern countries. Multinational companies have significant influences on policy formation in many national governments. The World Bank has also profited from privatization and the opening up of services.

Globalization and multinationals :
In globalization, there is growth in the scale and scope of multinational corporations. Multinationals have played a very significant role in the growth of globalization. capitalism is essentially disruptive and ever-changing and takes very different forms across the world while produces wealth for significant numbers of people, many others have suffered.

There is a difference in income per head between the richest nation and the poorest non-industrial country. The development of markets, and the expression of economic activity is experienced by populations as a whole. Education, land reform and legal framework for activity deeply influenced by public policies.

Question 12.
Discuss the role of globalization in Education?
Answer:
The role of globalization in education is as follows.
The educational policy must be efficiently diversified must be so designed as not to become another contributory cause of social exclusion. The socialization of individuals must not conflict with personal development. It is therefore necessary to work towards a system that strives to combine the virtues of integration with respect of individual rights. Education can not solve the problems raised by social ties.

It can, however, be expected to help to foster the desire, to live, together, which is a basic component of social cohesion and national identity. Schools cannot succeed in the task unless they make their own contribution to the advancement, integration of minority groups mobilizing loosely concerned while snowing due regard for their personality. Democracy appears to be progressing, taking forms and passing through stages that fit the situation in each country.

Education for conscious and active citizenship must begin at school. Democratic participation, a matter of good citizenship, but it can be encouraged and stimulated by instruction and practices adopted to the media and information society. It is the role of education to provide children and adults with the cultural background that will enable them, as far as possible, to make sense of the changes taking place.

Role of international education commission (1993-96) :
UNESCO appointed an international commission in 1993 and the commission submitted its. the report in 1996 entitled. “Learning the treasure within”. It seeks to answer “How to plan for education for the 21st century. Jacques Delores was the chairman of this commission. The commission included 15 members. The commission report was four pillars, such as:

  • Learning to learn or to know
  • Learning to do or perform
  • Learning to live together and
  • Learning to be

The commission has used the term Teaming’ both as a process and product which in education and teaching is an activity and action and learning is its product.

A brief discussion of the pillars is given below:
Learning to know:
Combining sufficiently formatted general knowledge with the opportunity to work in-depth and a small number of subjects means learning to learn, so as to benefit from the opportunities education provides throughout life.

Learning to do:
In order to acquire notarially occupational skills but also, more broadly, the competence to local with many situations and work in teams means learning to do in the context of young people. Various social and work experiences may be informal as a result of the local or national context, and formal, involving courses, alternating study and, work.

Learning to live together:
Developing an understanding of other people and an appreciation of interdependence – carrying out joint projects and learning to manage conflicts – in a spirit of respect for the values of pluralism, mutual understanding and peace mean learning to live together.

Learning to ‘be’:
To develop one’s personality and be able to act with even greater autonomy, judgement and personal responsibility education must riot disregard any aspect of & a person’s potential memory, reasoning aesthetics & senses physical capacities and communication skills. The aims of education can be achieved by generating. the following situations for learning.

If means all-around development.

  • There should be full freedom for working or learning
  • There should be autonomy for taking decisions.
  • There should be training for performing their role and responsibility.
  • Some situations should be given for developing values and feelings of commitment.

The following abilities are to be developed.

  • Communication competency
  • Reasoning abilities
  • Memory abilities
  • Physical capacities
  • Social and cultural efficiency and
  • Moral and aesthetic values.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Unit 3 Education and Society Long Answer Questions

Question 13.
Discuss and explain the new trend in education in advanced countries?
Answer:
There is a rapid change in the education system of different countries due to nationalism and globalization. A brief description of new trends in education has been provided in following ways. USA – For many years the education service has been characterized by change. Much of the post-II war period was in independent nations and the post-independence period.

India has been marked by tremendous growth, a large increase in the number of pupils, the expansion of higher education and increased expenditure. Recent years have been increasing easement, consolidation and curricular changes. U.K. – In the UK, the Govts. Policies for raising standards in schools were set out in a white paper titled “Better schools published in March 1985. In 199:1, the Govt, published three white papers to transform education.

USSR – The public discussion on the integration of education science and production began in the USSR in 1984. Humanization and democratization education was emphasized. After the disintegration of the USSR, liberalism in education is the dominant factor in India – The National Education Policy 1986 and the programme of Action (POA) 1986 were emphasized.

Question 14.
Discuss the International education programme in globalization?
Answer:
After the second world war, every country wanted international peace, For this UNO was established in 1945 at the international level. It has formed other sub-organizations related to different areas. UNESCO was established in 1946 for educational, cultural and scientific programmes. The committees and council were established some of them are as follows.

  • National Education Association
  • Fulbright Scheme
  • Exchange in International Education

National Education Association:
The association was formed by the teachers and education offers in 1920. The purpose of this committee was to establish international relations. This committee was undertaken by UNO in the form of UNESCO. It is the international body for educational, cultural and scientific programmes.

The 110 countries were members of UNESCO in 1994 and 2500 branches in the whole world 34,000 Indian students were studying in the USA, UK,- Canada, China and France. A world conference was organized in 1951 in Paris on the curriculum of teacher education programmes for developing international cooperation and understanding.

It was 12 years scheme 6 regional countries were established and 2 years training programme was developed. Textbooks and educational materials were also published. The programme UNESCO for teacher training was organized by the USA. These programmes were financed by the UK, USA had given full cooperation to UNESCO in achieving the objectives.

The teachers were invited from different countries of the world. After training, were assigned the responsibility of developing international cooperation feelings -among the students of their own countries. this way, UNESCO has been attempting5 to develop feelings international cooperation and understanding.

Fulbright Scheme (1946):
According to this scheme, some programmes were organized on international education. It was realized that American students should go to other countries to study and understand culture, civilization, knowledge and science. The students of other countries should understand the culture civilization, knowledge and science of America. The state departments should provide financial assistance to students other countries.

Exchanges in international education:
This type of programme is organized by UNESCO. Students and teachers from other countries should come to America for knowledge and training. The technician mechanics and scientists and Govt, employees should come.to America. They should be exchange programmes for the interaction among different fields. Their type of exchange programme will improve vocational and industrial efficiency for the economic growth of the countries.

There are 12800 foreign institutions for extending educational facilities. Scholarships are given to scholars. In USA two lac. Students are studying from other countries. Now the main emphasis is on international cooperation and understanding. Thirty thousand students from America and studying in other countries. A country can go and develops through interaction and interchange programmes with other progressive countries of the world.

Question 15.
How can integration be set up between Nationalism and globalization? Explain?
Answer:
Nowadays great educationists and great thinkers object to the use of education for fostering national sentiment because they have come across many bad effects of narrow nationalism in many countries of the world and have seen that education for nationalism has stood in the way of the growth of internationalism. The education for nationalism that was given in Italy and Germany, for example, was completely opposed to internationalism.

It is in connection with this one-sided education. Bertrand Russell pointed out that children are taught to exhibit complete devotion worship to the state in which they are citizens. The lesson taught to them is that the workshop of the state consists of as directed by the state. For this, they are taught distorted, versions of history, politics and economics so that they should not be critical of the blind national faith expected of them.

They are acquainted with the evil actions of other nations but not of their own, although the truth is that each nation has been unjust to other nations. It is unquestionably true that the facts of history are distorted in order to propagate the sentiment of nationalism alone. It is true of most human beings and that they impede the growth of any liberal latitude.

If for example, an individual has an intense love for his family this may come in the way of his loving his nation, but this does not imply that love for the nation can exist only at the cost of love for family. A proper and healthy love for family does not impede love for the nation, it helps it to grow. In the same way, healthy nationalism also does not preclude the possibility of internationalism.

As Louise, has said that it is essential to strengthening one’s love for one’s motherland, but it does not make it proper to violate the canons of humanity, for the external benefit of one’s own nation. It is obvious, therefore, that education must not only propagate nationalism but must also encourage internationalism. The plan for national education was prevented by such eminent educationists as Mahatma Gandhi, Sri Aurobindo, Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore etc.

have kept this in view nationalism and internationalism should grow harmoniously. That is the reason Rabindranath Tagore’s Shantiniketan turned into an ideal institution for education in internationalism. According to Tagore, education’s aim is to reach the level at which there is no distinction between nationalism and Internationalism. To develop the informational outlook of children he developed it with a new name Biswa Bharati University, which bears the culture of the 140 countries.

Students from different countries of the world read here and lecturers were engaged from different countries. It east-and-west relationship. In Biswa Bharati there is a union of nationalism and internationalism. Harmony is set up between the two in Shantiniketan and Biswabharati university. Tagore is considered an Internationalist.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Unit 3 Education and Society Long Answer Questions

Question .16
Explain Education for citizenship and socialization?
Answer:
India is a vast democratic republic in the world which needs ideal citizens. With the development of democracy, training for citizenship is being advocated in many quarters as the aim of education. Education should offer such experiences as would make one a good citizen of a democratic state. This view is mostly the outcome of the sociological approach to education. Education is to prepare the individual for the different roles he has to perform in life.

In a democratic society, the political role to be played is very complicated and at the same time important. A citizen and individual have certain rights from it. Education for citizenship should train him to discharge his duties and make him conscious of his rights. The practice, of education for citizenship results only in training to work out the political machinery of democracy such as election, responsible executive to carry on public business, legislation by discussions and debates etc.

It is because of this, that democratic machinery is introduced to regulate the group’s life in school. The pupils run their own union by electing office bearers for it, they are trained in debates. In progressive schools. The library, the school discipline, etc are also managed by the pupils through their elected self-governing councils.

But, if the aim of education for citizenship is only the training in running the political machinery of a democratic society, it is a very limited aim. It may be noted that the political role is not the only role which a citizen has to play in life his economic, social and religious roles are nonetheless important.

Besides, an individual is not only a member of society, but he is also an autonomous entity himself, no doubt he is a social being but he is an individual all the same. Hence, if education caters only to his social side neglecting his individual one, it is necessary to have a wider and more comprehensive aim for education.

Education for socialization :
Man is a social being. He fulfils the needs of or within society. Socialization is a virtue, Qualities of man to share the joins and Sooners with others. Socialization is training for ideal citizenship. In participating in social service programmes, Red-cross unit, SUPW activities community work and community participation the child is endowed with such Qualities.

In schools and colleges community service programmes, are arranged to inculcate such potentialities in children. A socialized individual is an ideal citizen. Ideal citizenship training is performed through social activities. Social awareness is evoked education for citizenship socialization, now become an essential part of education. Gender disparity & the role of education

Question 17.
Discuss Gender disparity in work, paid work, and work in the organized sector?
Answer:
Women run households, rear children, care for the aged and the sick, foil on farms and in the factories and in performing economic and non-economic activities. Now they are seen working in official, factories and farms. But most times, their working hands remain invisible. Their participation in the economy is undermined.

Most of the tasks within the home were done by the mother, grandmother, and sister and soon involved no payment. Workers for which payment is received include economic activity and national income. But these tasks for which no payment is made like kitchen gardening, post harvesting, processing, livestock maintenance unpaid labour in family farm etc.

non-economic activities are performed by women. Women’s work participation is lower in comparison to men’s. According to the 1991 census, 22.27% of women were in the workforce. Apart from this, there is the existence of a wide difference in the participation of women and men in the economy. In the 2001 census 30.9% of women in rural areas and about 11.55% of women in rural areas and 50% of men in urban areas.

Through the female work participation rate increased from 19.7% in 1981 to 25.7% in 2004, but still it is much lower than the male work participation rates in both urban and rural areas. The disparity in work participation across rural and urban areas is also large. Participation of adult women in the work force is much lower than men.

Type of work:
The women perform seven categories of work in rural and urban India. These are:

  • Wage and salaried employment
  • Self-employment outside the household for profit
  • Self-employment in cultivation and household industries and household industries for profit.
  • Self-employment in cultivation for own consumption,
  • Other subsistence activities in allied. sectors such as dairying, fishing and cultivation of fruits etc.
  • Activities are related to domestic work such as repair of dwelling, fetching, fuel, fodder, making cow dung cakes etc.
  • Domestic work such as cooking, cleaning, care of children etc.

Paid work:
Women also work for wages in fields, forests, mines, factories, offices, and small-scale and household industries. The nature and extent of such work differ according to the location, of the family in the social hierarchy. In the rural sector, the subsistence work burden falls heavily on women while in higher castes and higher income groups on women while in higher castes and higher income groups non-work of women is given more value.

In the middle-class families:
In middle-class families, women work for improving or maintaining the standard of living of the family or to provide a cushion against rising, cost of living. Performing family responsibilities does not guarantee a better status for Women.

Women’s work in unorganized sectors :
In rural areas, women work in the sectors of agriculture, plantations, fisheries, and dairy. In urban areas, they work for manufacturing units of garments and food processing and household-related activities. Agriculture confines to be a major field for women’s employment.

Women work harder and for longer houses and contribute to the economy:
Working for long hours in the assembly line of small electronics manufacturing units or the beedi, tobacco, and cashew nut, factories women live in fear of retrenchment, exploitation and inadequate ways. In informal sectors, there is no redress for problems, no maternity or other leave benefits and little security of service.

Women’s work in the organized sector:
It includes Govt, services at the central, state and local levels, public sector undertakings such as agriculture, industry, credit financing, and public services the women cannot perform duty successfully. So, only a negligible number of women is employed in the organized sector. But the number of women workers in industries such as textiles and mining has reduced.

In modem industries also such as food, textiles, and pharmaceuticals employed a substantial number of women for three decades. Women are interested inflexible jobs like clerks, typists telephone and nursing but in harder skilled jobs like engineering defence, airline services etc the performance of the work by men is successful.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Unit 3 Education and Society Long Answer Questions

Question 18.
Discuss the factors and causes affecting women’s education?
Answer:
There are a number of factors that causes and affect the education of women includes:

  • Socio-cultural factors
  • Economic factors
  • Other factors such as
  • Distance of school
  • Absence of female teachers
  • Absence of girls schools
  • Insufficient number of teachers
  • Lack of basic amenities
  • Inadequate childcare facilities
  • Insufficient incentives
  • Teaching method, school curriculum etc.

Socio-Cultural Factors:
The socio-cultural factors play an important role in inhibiting the participation of women in education. The low status of our women is the major cause of low female literacy. Parents are illiterate. They engage the girls in household work, They think that an educated girl would require an educated husband. An educated in-law would demand a higher dowry.

It is not easy to find a suitable match with an equal educational level. Secondly, many parents do not like to send their daughters to co-educational schools and schools without female teachers. Such age-old negative attitudes still prevail towards women’s education. Most parents consider that after marriage the daughter will leave their family and have to take the role of a mother and a housewife.

In certain parts, girls are expected to be given marriage in their early teens. The sociocultural practice of early marriage important reason for dropping out girls from educational institutions. Many parents also do not allow send their daughters for education after they attain puberty. Such attitude of the parents and the community restricts women’s education.

Economic Factors :
An important reason for the low participation of girls, in education, is that girls from a very early age begin to take care of their younger siblings to relieve their parents to go out for work. Again girls in rural areas or in the low-income groups of the urban areas often assist the family either by working in the field or in household work. The parents in such families may be reluctant to send their girls to school and not prepared to lose their working hands.

If the girl can directly earn for example, as a domestic servant, the family may not be prepared to use her by sending her to school. Although no school fee is charged, for girls’ education still certain items like books stationary and uniforms retail costs which poor families sometimes is not able to meet and prefer not to send their daughters to school.

Some parents consider their son’s education as an investment for better employment opportunities in future, where as daughters’ education does not receive such concern and so they do not give priority to their daughter’s education. The parents again think that the cost of education would be incurred in their marriage. If they educate their daughter then they have to look for an equally educated groom and have to spend more during her marriage.

So they educate their daughter till the level where they can find a suitable match. For their daughter. In some families the young girls are engaged in home-based productions of incense, papads beedi, rolling, gem polishing, making paper bags, stitching, making ready-made garments and assembling electrical and electronic goods etc. So the parents of these girls do not take interest in sending their daughters to schools for receiving an education.

Other factors:
Due to some other factors, women are not able to participate in education. Some of the factors are as follows
Distance of school:
Distance of school from home imposes restrictions on girls, particularly after a certain age because parents are unwilling to send their daughters to these schools. They are more concerned about the safety of the girls than their education.

Absence of female teachers :
Many parents want a female teacher too. teach their daughters. But due to the lack of female teachers in the schools, they do not send their daughters to school.

Absence of Girls’ schools :
Due to our cultural and social heritage, parents are often reluctant to send, their daughters to co-education schools, especially from middle level. The lack of an adequate number of girls’ schools or colleges hinders women’s education.

An insufficient number of teachers :
Many schools are run by single teachers and there are many schools where teachers remain absent frequently in such situations parents are reluctant to expose their daughters to a potentially unprotected environment.

Lack of basic Amenities :
In most schools, a minimum study environment is not available. There are schools without buildings and operated in a tent or in open spaces. There are schools where there are no drinking water facilities and no separate lavatory for girls students. Some parents do not want to enrol their girls in such schools.

Inadequate childcare facilities:
Studies have shown that the number of girls attending schools increases where childcare facilities are available in or near the schools. In view of such a situation, various schemes have been advocated. But unfortunately except Tamilnadu, no other state has the requisite provision of childcare services.

Insufficient incentives :
There are various incentives such as scholarships, mid-day meals, free books, free uniforms etc. Which operates to enhance the enrollment of more girls in schools. the studies show that the delivery system is delayed. The parents do not have the resources to support their children in the interim period.

Teaching method, school curriculum:
The school curriculum mostly shows urban with little to no relevance to rural or tribal life and environment. addition, dull teaching methods, and lack of educational support at home lead to low performance. Further, in schools where the Quality of education is low when minimum level of learning is not attained, parents withdraw their children from the school system. These are the barriers to the participation of girls in school. In disadvantaged classes, the girls face socio-economic surveys.

Question 19.
What are the measures for promoting women’s education?
Answer:
The measures in promoting the education of women are as follows.
Incentives like a free supply of books, stationery, uniform, mid-day meals, scholarships and stipends should be provided in time to all these girls’ students who hail from the poor sections of society. Girls’ schools should be established in the area where there is demand for them.
Some standard of courses should be made available to the students of girl schools.

More committed women teachers should be employed and special facilities should be provided to them. The school environment should be made attractive, adequate basic facilities like proper seats in the class separate toilets and suitable extracurricular activities and games should be made available in the schools, especially in co-educational institutions.

The common and relevant curriculum for boys and girls should be introduced to have equal educational opportunities. Childcare centres should be made available near the school. Schools should be opened within working distance from their homes and when this is not possible adequate arrangements for free or cheap based accommodation for girls should be provided.

Special campaigns should be launched to change pupils’ attitudes in favour of girls’ education. Educated women should be projected through the mass media as a leader, reformers, facilitators or as role method to influence their own group towards education. An educational curriculum should be made relevant to their daily lives and should enable them to run their homes better in later life. The education system should be oriented to generate greater employment opportunities or to help them to enhance their income.

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CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Questions And Answers

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 5 Intelligence Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Questions And Answers

Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1:
Creativity
Answer:
Creativity is a kind of cognitive activity that results in a new way of solving problems. The concept of creativity needs special attention.

Question 2:
Artificial Intelligence
Answer:
In the stage of information technology and computer science artificial intelligence. The computer’s performance is done by artificial intelligence.

Question 3:
Hereditary factors
Answer:
Several studies have been conducted on identical twins to determine the role of hereditary. Holzinger identicals this twins.

Question 4:
Age and Intelligence
Answer:
I.Qs tend to be erratic in the first few years of life, whole intellectual ability. Binet’s intelligence tests were first administered to individuals of different age groups.

Question 5:
Emotional Intelligence
Answer:
The concept of emotional intelligence is quite a novel one. Current researchers have started recognising that in the world.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Questions And Answers

Question 6:
Distribution of intelligence in the population
Answer:
When intelligence test is administered to thousands of children of the same age the population. In the OX axis, the amount of I.Q. is presented.

Question 7:
Sternberg’s briarchic theory of approach.
Answer:
Sternberg (1985) has attempted to explain the concept of intelligence. Componential intelligence. Experiential intelligence emphasizes insight and involves the ability to formulate new 7 ideas. Contextual intelligence it is 3rd aspect. Sternberg’s view of intelligence is purposive adaption.

Question 8:
Emotional intelligence
Answer:
The concept of emotional intelligence is quite a novel one. Current researchers have started recognising that in the practical world. This is in fact very encouraging and illuminating research in the finding in the area of intelligence. Intelligence is the capacity to adapt and adjust quickly to-varied circumstances of life. This is more necessary and required in life than theoretical or abstract intelligence.

Question 9:
Artificial Intelligence
Answer:
In the age of information technology and computer science, artificial intelligence demonstrates intelligent performance. Intelligence is created by human beings. Examples computerisation, calculations perceptual tasks etc. We can solve problems and play complex games on computers. We can plan everything easily through the computers.

Question 10:
Mental age (M.A.)
Answer:
Mental age is a measure of the absolute level of intelligence. A 6-years old child who performs the intelligence test of a 5-year-old child is said to have mental age, of 5 years. In short, mental age refers to a type of norm. The Stanford-Binet test result indicates that mental ability increases as the child grows older. In the case of children with normal intelligence mental age increases at the same rate as chronological age.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Questions And Answers

Question 11:
Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.)
Answer:
The ratio which states the relationship between mental age and chronological age is called I.Q. The I.Q. or the intelligent Quotient is computed by the formula. The I.Q. as a ratio gives a figure for any person that remains more or less constant for a period of years. An intelligent person is referred to in the term I.Q. Children who are above average will receive an I.Q. above 100.

Question 12:
Infant intelligence tests
Answer:
Some intelligence tests have also been constructed to measure the intelligence of infants and babies. Most of these are meant to measure sensory motor skills. Arnold GeseU’s development schedules like Binet and Wechsler Scaler indicate a clear age progression. The age levels vary from one month to two years. At each age level, the tests are divided into four categories such as motor, adaptive, and language.

Question 13:
Contextual intelligence
Answer:
This is the 3rd aspect of stemborg’s theory. If centres around that intelligence which deals with the inter environment and external world. Persons who rate high on the dimension of contextual intelligence. Stenberg’s, theory puts emphasis on the basic knowledge about cognition. Sternberg’s view of intelligence is purposive adaptation.

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Define intelligence and its definitions.
Answer:
Nature and operational definition of Intelligence.
Geeta is the brightest child I ever saw. Look at her big black eyes; how sharp and 1 expressive they are! She learns a thing almost before you have told it to her. Oh! see how smart Sushil is, you would think he was two years instead of one year. He is S-0-0 intelligent and sharp. These are the common expressions we hear from parents, teachers, neighbours and friends regarding various children.

Brightness, sharpness, and cleverness all refer to some sort of intelligence, which is recognized universally as one of the most important attributes of any person at any age. Those who are most alert mentally, who can react and respond very quickly to any stimulation and cap grapes at the earliest and can understand things before you complete your sentence are l said to be very intelligent.

An intelligent person is always in an advantageous position in society. He can adjust to various circumstances of life in the most appropriate way, can solve problems quickly, can achieve things at a greater speed, can perceive the relationship between different things in the field and can give shape, an organisation to any perception.

On the whole, an intelligent person usually becomes the most successful person, keeping other factors constant. The term intelligence is so commonly used, but it is so complex that it is difficult to give a comprehensive and precise definition of intelligence which would be accepted by most.

As years, pass, volumes of research on intelligence make it so complicated that it becomes difficult to embrace all attributes of intelligence in a single definition. However, psychologists have defined intelligence in their own characteristic way, according to their own conceptions and theories. There still prevails a controversy about its exact meaning although the country’s definitions of intelligence have been there.

The term ‘intelligence’ is derived from a Latin word, framed by Gicepo to translate a Greek word used by Aristotle to include all cognitive processes. This cognitive capacity was called ‘ Intelligence’ and it was thought to be inherited, innate and general to nature. Spencer believes that intelligence is the capacity of the organism to adjust itself to an increasingly complex environment.

Thus, he believed biological adjustment to be a sign of intelligence. Solving complex situations of life means solving the problems of engineering, science, medicine, mathematics, economics, social science, agriculture, business and management”. Galton (1900) was of the opinion that intelligence refers to the general cognitive, innate ability of an organism which was accepted by Binet.

Intelligence is a trait of personality which every living organism possesses to a greater or lesser degree. It is innate, given by birth. Whatever may be the meaning of intelligence, it definitely refers to the individual’s effectiveness or ability to carry on real tasks of day-to-day life successfully and efficiently.

Hence, a person who is able to meet the demands and challenges of life successfully, one who is able to carry out the duties of life effectively is said to be more intelligent than one who does not. According to Binet (1905), the pioneer in the construction of intelligence tests “Intelligence refers to comprehension, intention, direction and criticism”.

Intelligence, therefore, refers to the capacity to comprehend the interrelationship between two things when many other things are present, being more akin to insight. The comprehensive capacity of a less intelligent person or an idiot is superficial, his power to invent is limited. An intelligent person can direct things in a successful manner and can criticise and appreciate things.

Wyatt defines intelligence as the power of apprehending the relationship. According to Stem “Intelligence is a general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions”. In Thorndike’s opinion intelligence is the combination of certain specific abilities. Terman defined intelligence as the capacity to carry out abstract thinking.

Terman is of opinion that we are able to act until gently in proportion we are able to think in abstract terms. But this is quite a narrow definition of intelligence as it does not involve other psychological processes such as perception, imagination etc. Superman (1904) suggested that intelligence is the capacity for constructive thinking, a discovery of appropriate qualities and relations of the ideas that are before us.

Spearman also believes intelligence to be the capacity by which the entire cognitive life is built. According to him, intelligence depends upon the clarity with which he apprehends his own experience, the speed with which he deduces relations and correlations and the complexity of the relation and correlations he deduces.

Most of the modem tests of intelligence are based on these lines. David Wechsler defines intelligence as the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully to think rationally and deal effectively with the environment. Precisely, he says that intelligence characterises the individual’s behaviour as a whole. But acting purposefully is not an intelligent behaviour because it refers to the conative aspects of one’s behaviour, while intelligence is related to the cognitive process.

According to Thurstone (1930), intelligence consists of many primary abilities. Some have also defined intelligence as “flexibility or versatility in the use of symbolic processes”. A person who is more flexible and versatile in his reasoning, understanding of concepts, recall, perception and learning is said to be more intelligent.

The theme of these definitions advanced by different psychologists can be summarized as follows:

  • Intelligence is the ability of the organism to adjust consciously to new conditions and problems of life.
  • It is the capacity to leam, to solve higher kinds of mental activities, to do harder tasks in a shorter time and to profit from past experience.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Questions And Answers

Question 2.
Critically examine the necessity of infant intelligence tests.
Answer:
Infant intelligence tests according to Gesell these tests do not measure intelligence but the level of development of the child. Thus, the score obtained by an infant in these tests is called Development Quotient (DQ). This is calculated with the same formula used to calculate I.Qs. Performance is scored in months which becomes D. A. (Development Age) like M. A. That is, if a child of two years is able to perform the tests meant, a baby of one year, his D. A. is one year and C. A. is two years and his DQ=\(\frac{12 \times 100}{24}\)=50.

Studies, however, indicate that D.Qs found during infancy do not correlate with I.Qs. achieved at maturity level (16-20 years). The most outstanding study to support this assumption is the Berkeley Growth Study by Bayley and Schaefer (1964) in which children were tested from the first month to the age of 16,17 and 18 years and their D.Qs were compared.

The lack of correlation between these studies explained the fact that the two scores reflect different abilities. This study also strongly supports the assumption that intelligence is not a single capacity growing with age; but rather a collection of several abilities some found in the young child and others found in the older child.

In one study by Hotstaetter(1954) early test scores were found to depend mostly on sensory-motor alertness whereas measures of persistence were important in determining test scores from ages 2-4. Verbal reasoning ability increased rapidly through the pre-school years and as the child grew they became the more important determinants of test scores. All these results suggest that with the growth of intelligence, mental functioning changes qualitatively as well as quantitatively.

Mental Age (M.A.):
Mental age is a measure of the absolute level of intelligence. A 6-year-old child who performs the intelligence test of a 5-year-old child is said to have a mental age of 5 years. When a child of 10 years passes all the tests of a 6-year-old child and half of the tests of 7 year old and none for those of 8 years, his mental age is calculated as 6 years + 6 months + 0 = 78 months.

His chronological age is 10 years. Thus, the mental age is calculated by first finding the age level at which the child passed all the test items, this is called the basal age and then adding up the values for the I remaining items correctly answered. In short, the mental ages refer to a type of norm.

The Stanford-Binet test results indicate that mental ability increases as the child grows older. In the case of children with normal (average) intelligence mental age increases at the same rate as chronological age. But in the case of bright children, there is a more rapid increase in mental ability as a result of which their mental age becomes greater than their chronological age.

On the other hand, in the case of less intelligent (slow) children, the mental age increases at a slower rate in comparison to their chronological age. Thus a six-year-old who performs the tests of a three-year-old only is said to be dull or an idiot. When a 5-year aid is able to answer the test of 10-year-old children, he is said to be very bright. For the calculation of I.Q. mental age is necessary.

Intelligence Quotient (I.Q):
The ratio which states the relationship between mental age and chronological age is called the I.Q. or the Intelligent Quotient. The I.Q. is computed by the following formula :

I.Q=\(\frac{M \cdot A}{C \cdot A}\)x100 if the M. A. and C. A. of an individual are the same, say 10, his I.Q. would be 100 which refers to the average intelligence: (M.A.=10, C.A.=10; I.Q.=\(\frac{10}{10}\)x100=100). Thus normal persons have an I.Q. of 100. If M.A. is 6 and C.A. is 5, I.Q. will be \(\frac{6}{5}\)x100=120, which means better than average intelligence.

Similarly, if one’s M.A. is 10 and C.A. is 15, his I.Q. would be \(\frac{10}{5}\)x100=66.66. This refers to the intelligence level of a moron. The I.Q. as a ratio gives a figure for any person that remains more or less constant for a period of years. Children who are above average will receive an I.Q. above 100. Those below the average will receive an I.Q. below 100.

The I.Q. is not only a measure of relative brightness, but it is also a measure ofthe individual’s rate of intellectual development. Usually, tire levels of intelligence of a person are referred to in terms of I.Q. ranges. The following table show levels of intelligence in terms of Stanford-Binet I.Q. ranges:

                   I.Q. Range
Idiot 0-25
Imbecile 25-50
Moron 50-70
Borderline 70-80
Low normal 80-90
Normal 90-100
Superior 110-120
Very Superior 120-140
Near genius 140 and over

In general, it can be assumed that the higher the economic standing of an occupational group, the higher would be the average I.Q. keeping other factors constant. It is a comparative rather than an absolute measure of intelligence. It is relative to the standardization group and the condition under which the groups were tested. If the individual’s I.Q. remains the same at yearly age levels it cannot be said that he maintains his relative position in the group.

Distribution of I.Qs. In The Population:
When an intelligence test is administered to thousands of children the same age as the population, their I.Q. can be represented graphically in the following manner: In the Ox axis, the amount of I.Q. is presented. In the OY axis percentage of children in each category of I.Q. is presented.

That is 2.15 percent of children’s scores. I.Q. between 0-70, 13.59 percent between 70 to 85 and 34.13 percent between 5 to 100, and 34.13 percent of children score between 100 and 115 I.Q. In short, the maximum number of children has an I.Q. between 85-115 population.

Critically examine the necessity of infant intelligence tests Q2

Constancy Of I.Q.
The entire concept of I.Q. suggests that an individual will maintain the same relative position in his group as he grows. I.Qs. are constant throughout childhood and adolescence. For one thing, I.Qs. are not very stable during pre-school years (Sontagetal, 1958). The findings of several studies indicate that on the whole I.Q. remains essentially constant.

When other conditions like health, type of education, home situation and other situational facilities do not have a significant change. But in the case of very young children, there may be some deviation from this general rule as their potentialities may still be more variable. Among many studies on the constancy of I.Q., the typical study by Hirt (1945) supports the view that the I.Q. remains relatively constant.

Although a few cases show a change of 50 or more I.Q. points, most studies, comparing the I.Qs. obtained after the pre-school years indicate an average fluctuation of about 5 points plus or minus. Adverse physical conditions like deficient thyroid gland, and insufficient food rand-nutrition may affect them. I.Q. level, though there is no clear-cut evidence in support of these views.

Unusual environmental conditions and lack of normal educational opportunities may lead to the decline in I.Q. to a limited point. But when normal educational opportunities are provided improvement in I.Q. is again found. Good enough (1940) has, however, found a progressive change in the I.Q. of children. The I.Q. changed at yearly intervals like 133,150,143,147 and 151. The child’s school progress also indicated arise.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Questions And Answers

Question 3.
Sternberg’s approach to intelligence.
Answer:
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Approach:
Sternberg (1985) has attempted to explain the concept of intelligence through his Triarchic theory or Triarchic model of intelligence. This theory holds that there are three types of human intelligence.

Componential Intelligence:
It emphasizes effectiveness in information processing. Persons who score high on this dimension are able to think analytically as well as critically. Meritorious students come under this category. These persons generally do excellent on standard tests of academic potential. Componential intelligence includes 3 types of components:

  • Knowledge acquisition component
  • Performance components for problem-solving methods or strategies
  • Metacognitive components for selecting a strategy and monitoring programmes towards success.

Experimental Intelligence:
It emphasizes insight and involves the ability to formulate new ideas. Persons scoring high on this dimension of intelligence excel in knowing what information is important in a given situation and they also succeed at combining unrelated facts into a related one. Great scientists and inventors like Einstein, Newton, Freud etc. come under this category.

Various Nobel prize winners in science and medicine come under this category. Experiential intelligence helps in learning new things and then doing them in reality. It is reflected in creative works. It involves the ability to picture the external world by using and manipulating very different experiences in a unique and original manner. Artists, scientists, and fashion designers score high in this type of intelligence.

Contextual Intelligence:
This is the third aspect of Sternberg’s theory. It centres around that intelligence dealing with the outer environment and external world. It means man’s adjustment to his environment and outer or practical world. How we select our external world, how we change or manipulate our environment as per our needs and requirements and finally how capable we are to adjust to it, all come under conceptual intelligence.

This, in short, refers to practical intelligence. Persons who rate high on the dimension of contextual intelligence are highly adaptive in the practical field. They can adapt very quickly to their surroundings and environment. They can perceive quickly what is required from them in a particular situation and what type of behaviours or responses will bring them success and act accordingly.

People who prove to be very successful in their respective fields of life score very high in this component of intelligence. In a party or in a formal or informal meeting these people become the “man/woman of the day”. They succeed in making their presence felt by everybody. Practical management of day-to-day work come under this category. They shape the environment as per their needs.

Successful professionals and businessmen score high in this category. Stenberg’s theory thus puts emphasis on the basic knowledge about cognition. But if only the I.Q. scores are taken into consideration contextual and experimental intelligence will not be traced. Along with I.Q. tests observation of the behaviour of persons in day-to-day life are also essential. While solving mathematical problems a person also uses his past experience which is part of the intellectual ability according to Sternberg.

Sternberg (1985) divides this experience into two parts:

  • Ability to deal with the new situation
  • Development of autonomic mechanisms for processing information.

To emphasise this point Sternberg says “I propose that intelligence involves not merely the ability to learn and reason with new concepts, intelligence is not so much the ability to learn and within familiar conceptual systems as it is the ability to learn and think with new conceptual systems which can then be brought to bear upon already existing knowledge.”

In Sternberg’s view, Intelligence is a purposive adaptation to the appropriate environment and selection of an external environment required for living successfully in the environment. The knowledge acquisition component of Sternberg’s theory deals with adjustment to the external world of the organism.

Thus, intelligent people not only adapt to their existing environment but also make changes in their environment and shape it as and when necessary like social reformer Raj a Ram Mohan Ray or famous novelist Prem Chand, who have brought changes in society through their revolutionary works.

Question 4.
Define the Gardener multiple intelligence approach.
Answer:
Recently a few psychologists working in the area of intelligence have attempted to explain intelligence from different angles. These approaches may also be called models of intelligence.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Approach:
According to Gardner (1983) intelligence includes numerous abilities and each one is equally important. The value of each ability is culturally determined as per the need of society. Thus, Gardner has attempted to explain intelligence in terms of culture. Gardner’s theory of intelligence has seven separate abilities. They are briefly discussed below.

  • Linguistic Ability:
    The verbal ability or the ability of a person to deal with grammar, speech and language etc. refers to linguistic intelligence.

Socio-Mathematical Ability:
It refers to the numerical ability of a person or the ability to deal with numbers and digits, solving arithmetic or problems related to mathematics and logical puzzles. According to this approach, good logicians are also good mathematicians. Logic and mathematics both deal with reasoning ability also. So there is a positive correlation between logic and the manipulation of symbols.

Spatial Ability:
It deals with orientation or ability in space reading. People having good spatial ability are hence good at map reading, visual arts, and playing different games like chess “Passa” which require good spatial ability.

Musical Ability:
The ability to be a good musician refers to musical intelligence which is a kind of very specialized ability. This ability is not found in all persons. Hence every one cannot be a good musician.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Ability:
Dancing, athletics, running, mountaineering, swimming activities and specialisation related to bodily movements even surgery depend upon the above ability. These intellectual abilities are located in the motor cortex. But whether these are abilities or skills is still controversial and needs further research in the area.

Inter-personal Ability:
It refers to the ability to deal with and understand others. Inter-personal intellectual abilities deal with understanding others’ behaviour, intentions, attitudes and temperaments. It is held that a successful salesman or a good sales representative, a politician, a doctor, a public relations officer, an insurance agent or a postal agent etc.

Who prove successful in their job and have good interpersonal abilities. These are commonly called skills, but in Gardner’s opinion, they are abilities by birth. So this type of ability determines the relationship between self and outsiders. But some people.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Questions And Answers

Question 5.
Discuss the studies on the role of the environment in intelligence development.
Answer:
Some studies have been conducted in Odisha on the role of the environment on intellectual development. Das, jaw chuck and Panda (1968) conducted a study on the high and low economic groups of Brahmin and Ilarijan children (High and low castes). They found that the poor Haorijan children scored lowest in the cognitive tests in comparison to children of all other groups.

Though the rich Harijan children performed better than the poor Harij children, they scored lower scores than the Brahim (High caste) children. Rath, Dash, and Dash (1973) conducted a comparative study on the cognitive and intellectual development of some Brahmin, Adivasi and Harij children of Odisha.

Das and Singh’s (1976) study on rural and urban Brahmin and Harijan children indicated that there was no difference in the intelligence of urban grade, Brahmin and Harijan children. But the rural Brahmin children scored higher in intelligence tests than the rural Harijan children. Jack and Mohanti (1974) conducted a study on Low Socioeconomic status and progressive Retardation in cognitive skills.

They found that children of high SES performed better in every respect in cognitive skills. Surprisingly, they found that lower SES children of higher age groups showed poor performance in comparison to lower age groups. Thus they found that children of higher age groups of low SES show slower progress in cognitive development in comparison to higher SES groups.

Culture:
There is very little empirical study on the influence of culture on the development of intelligence. But it has been observed that different cultures lead to the development of different patterns of ability. This is because a particular type of environment requires a particular type of adaptive behaviour. For this adjustment, one has to accelerate the development of certain abilities.

In another culture, certain other abilities are developed. ?Comparison of abilities necessary in different cultures proves this fact. In this connection, the study conducted by Straus (1951) is notable where intelligence test scores of college freshmen in Ceylon and the United States were compared. The Ceylonese students scored consistently higher scores than the United States students.

Secondly, the Ceylonese students scored higher in the language items compared to the Americans, although the test was given in English. This higher score on the Ceylonese people intelligence test is attributed to the emphasis on verbal achievement in Ceylonese culture. The influence of cultural factors on intelligence was also proved during I World War. In general, blacks did poorly than whites.

Sex Differences:
Although early studies do not point out any striking difference in the I.Q. of boys and girls, some recent studies indicate several interesting sex differences in intelligence. By using modem measuring instruments primary mental abilities have been measured. In a study by Hobson (1947) primary mental ability tests were conducted on three successive junior high classes in Brookline.

Results showed boys being superior in spatial intelligence, and in rote memory, reasoning and word fluency. Boys did better than girls in verbal comprehension. But no significant difference in numerical ability was noticed. Havighurst and Breese (1949) administered the Thurstone battery of primary mental abilities test to all thirteen years old children in amid western community of 6,000 persons.

Girls surpassed boys in number, word, fluency, reasoning and memory. Boys did better than girls in spatial ability. No significant difference was found in the verbal comprehension test. A study on college students by Sweeney (1953) showed men surpassed women in solving problems which required logic and ingenuity. All these studies indicate that girls show superiority in some abilities and boys in others.

These differences cancel each other when general tests are used leading to no general difference between the two sexes in the overall level of intelligence. However, the sex differences in these specific abilities are attributed by some to basic constitutional differences partly and partly to socio-cultural training. A study by Deborah (1977) indicates that the better spatial ability of men may be related to their physiological differences from women.

Health:
Innumerable studies show that health is positively correlated with intelligence. In other words, keeping other factors constant, good general health goes with high intelligence, because superior heredity is related to physical and mental superiority as pointed out by Terman (1925). The relationship between secretions from the endocrine glands and intelligence is not yet clearly established.

As such, there is no evidence, for the common belief that pituitary disorder lowers intelligence. Scholar (1938) has found that persons with a severe pituitary deficiency may actually be above average intelligence. The belief that intelligence does not improve by improving the diets of undernourished children has been supported by investigations on the effects of nutrition on intelligence.

But it has been found that a child’s intelligence may be affected by the quality of the mother’s diet during pregnancy (Harrell, Woodyard and Gates, 1955). The view of some that children suffer from tonsils and adenoids, decayed teeth and rickets have how intelligence is not supported by recent studies.

Family Size:
A low negative correlation has been found between intelligence and the number of siblings particularly in lower-income groups as found by Gille (1954), and Heuyer (1950).

Social Deprivation:
According to some, social experiences are of tremendous importance to intellectual development and this socio-cultural deprivation lowers I.Q. An investigation conducted by Skeels (1966) supplies evidence for this. He found that when the social environment of some children was changed, they received additional stimulation in the new environment.

Their average I.Q. increased by 28 points while the I.Q. of the children who remained in the deprived social environment (orphanage) dropped by 20 points. But this study has raised certain controversial issues regarding the relationship between social deprivation and intellectual development.

It has, however, been concluded that “the effects of social deprivation on the development of intelligence depends in part on how long it is endured”. When children live under deprived circumstances, it may not have any visible effect on their intellectual development, but deprivation for a longer period is assumed to have permanent and significant detrimental effects on intellectual development.

Socio-economic status:
People belonging to upper-class families get more intellectual stimulation and enriched environmental facilities in comparison to persons belonging to the lower class. This is believed to influence their intelligence level in a positive direction. Data collected during Second World War by Harrell and Harell (1945) show that people with higher I.Qs usually fill up professional posts.

The enriched environment included varied factors such as greater availability of educational and instructional materials like books charts, diagrams, and instruments and high parental aspirations. Moreover, the study by Yando, Seitz and Zigler (1979) indicates that children of higher and lower SES bring different attitudes and styles to problem-solving that could affect their performance in intelligence tests.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Questions And Answers

Question 6.
The determinants of intelligence or factors influencing intelligence.
Answer:
The determinants of intelligence also refer to the factors related to mental development. It is found that in the general population some are of superior intelligence, most are of average intelligence and some are below normal intelligence or are mentally retarded. What are the factors which lead to such variations in human intelligence?

Obviously, heredity and environment are two chief variables which influence the growth and development of intelligence. Intelligence varies with varying influences of heredity and environment. As observations and empirical findings show intelligence is determined by both heredity and environment.

Hereditary Factors:
Several studies have been conducted on identical twins to determine the role of heredity in the development of intelligence. Two important studies may be mentioned in this connection. Newman, Freeman and Ilolzinger (1937) took 19 pairs of identical twins, who were reared separately through adaption into different foster homes.

The findings showed that the intelligence test scores of identical twins reared separately were almost as similar to two scores achieved by the same person at different times. Besides, they were mostly like identical twins reared together. Thus, these investigators concluded that the possession of identical heredity was a factor operating system to determining the development of similar intelligence.

Another recent study was done by Shields (1962). He took 88 pairs of identical twins of which half were reared together and the other half were reared in different homes. The correlations between their intelligence test scores were 77 for those reared together and 76 for those brought up separately. This proves the role of heredity and not an environment in the development of intelligence.

In some other studies, the I.Q. of the child is studied by keeping him in a separate environment, particularly at an early age (pre-school age). But it retains its constancy thereafter even when there is a significant change in the environment. The constancy of I.Q, in spite of the change in the environment, supports the role of strong hereditary influences. A study by Blewett (1954) indicates that intelligence is largely determined by heredity.

Jensen’S Theory:
Prof. Arthur Jensen’s article “How much can we boost: I.Q. and Scholastic achievement” published in Harvard Educational Review (1969) brought a revolution and led to a lot of debate on the role of heredity in the development of intelligence. Jensen has evaluated the findings of ‘Project Head Start’ conducted as a compensatory project to help the socially disadvantaged Negroes and Asiatic origin lower class people.

By means of special education programmes, provision of different incentives, enriched environmental facilities etc. In Jensen’s opinion because of these programmes, there has been no improvement in the intelligence Of disadvantaged and underdeveloped children. Since there has been no cognitive development, it is no use of continuing these developmental programmes, he opined.

But many thought this was an attack on the developmental work of the minority groups, or more correctly, an attack on the minority groups themselves. Jensen states that the I.Q. of Blacks is always less than that of Whites, the reason being that, the standard of living of black people is always lower than that of whites.

Low socio-economic status and deprived environmental facilities for ages have been responsible for this genetic difference in the I.Q. of blacks and whites, Jenson stated. Taking the help of several investigations Jensen has shown that abstract reasoning differs significantly on the basis of class and caste. Jensen’s theory has been severely criticised by many.

Whitten and Kagan (1969) have viewed this theory as “Jensen’s dangerous half-truth”. They hold that there are many other basic factors responsible for the difference in I.Q. of the Negroes and whites than actual intelligence itself and one of them is the cultural variation undoubtedly, they say. Secondly, they say that at least this compensatory project has been very successful in Israel. If it is not successful in other places it is due to organisational defects, they assert. More research in this area is necessary.

Environmental Factors:
Although strong hereditary influence on the growth of intelligence is obvious from these studies, they do not necessarily conclude that poor environmental facilities don’t retard the development of intelligence.

Question 7.
Define intelligence tests and individual tests and verbal or non-verbal tests.
Answer:
Intelligent tests:
Alford Binet (1867 -1911) is the first person who devised systematic tests to measure the intelligence of children the lie was particularly interested in the intellectual differences among individuals. Binet (1905), a french psychologist designed the very first test of intelligence at the request of the Paris school authorities to help them to select children of low intelligence, who could not gain from attending the gene classes in school.

Lewin Terman (1877 -1956) of Stanford University revised Binet’s scale intended for school children in the United States. Tennant, in fact, is responsible for bringing the Binet Test into the mainstream of academic life in America. This revised test was known as Stanford Binet Test. This test was similar to Binet’s 1911 version except that Terman made some changes and added the age placement of many items according to the performance of children in the United States. The test was standardized for the U.S.A. children. This Stanford-Binet test became the model for many intelligence tests developed after that.

Individual Tests:
Particularly those non-verbal tests which require the use of apparatus, become individual tests because it is not possible to conduct tests on 50-60 people using 50-60 pieces of equipment simultaneously. Since most of the non-verbal tests need paper and pencil, they are usually conducted in groups.

Verbal And Non-Verbal Tests:
All verbal tests require tire use of language, understanding and literacy. To avoid the limitations of verbal tests, when the person is illiterate and is of a different language, non-verbal or performance tests are applied. In non-verbal tests, some kinds of motor activity are involved. Motor activities of different difficulty levels are prepared so that they could measure different levels of intelligence. Some examples of verbal and non-verbal tests are given below:

Verbal Tests:

  • Opposition in a fixed time limit – Opposite of certain words are to be given.
  • Verbal comprehension – Meaning and short explanations have to be given for the words presented in the test.
  • Analogies
  • Classifications
  • Reasoning Test
  • Following directions

Non-Verbal Tests:

  • Form Board
  • Picture completion
  • Drawing test
  • Alexander’s Pass long test
  • Cube Construction test
  • Block design test, picture arrangement test
  • Progressive matrices test
  • Chatteijee’s non-verbal test of intelligence.

Bhogle, Sudha and Jai Prakash Indira (1992) in a study called the performance of Indian children on the Coloured Progressive Matrices developed norms for Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices (RCPM) for Indian children by administering it to 248 male and 252 female subjects in the age range of 5-12 years. Age-wise norms and working percentiles have been reported. Comparisons with original norms have been made. The performance of the children in the present sample is found to be comparable to that of the standardized sample.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Questions And Answers

Question 8.
Discuss theories of intelligence.
Answer:
There are several theories that explain the components of intelligence. There are:
Two-factors theory of spearman:
Spearman (1904) one of the greatest British Psychologists initiated the two-Tractor theory of intelligence. lie held that intelligence consisted of two factors, a general factor (G) and several specific factors (S). Spearman said that there was a general ability employed by people while adjusting to different sorts of intellectual tests. This is a general factor-specific ability called specific factors.

Theory of intelligence by Thorndike:
Thorndike an American Psychologist of eminence holds a different opinion regarding the theory of intelligence. In place of holding a single general factor common to all mental activities, he considers different kinds of mental activities as highly specific in themselves, though they have certain elements in common. These common elements are responsible for the correlation between different performances shown by the same person.

Thorndike holds that the common elements don’t make the whole of intelligence and intelligence into different kinds

  • the ability to deal with ideas and symbols
  • concrete intelligence or the ability to handle concrete things and situations
  • social intelligence or the ability to get on with people.

Theory of Intelligence by Cattell:
According to Raymond B called general intelligence can be divided into two independent parts fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence.

Points to remember

Question 1.
Nature and operational definition of Intelligence.
Answer:
Geeta is the brightest child I ever saw. Look at her big black eyes; how sharp and expressive they are! She learns a tiling almost before you have told it her. Oh! see how smart Sushil is, you would think he was two years instead of one year. He is S-O- 0 intelligent, so sharp. These are the common expressions we hear from parents, teachers, neighbours and friends regarding various children.

Question 2.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Approach.
Answer:
Sternberg (1985) has attempted to explain the concept of intelligence through his Triarchic theory or Triarchic model of intelligence. This theory holds that there are three types of human intelligence.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Questions And Answers

Question 3.
Intelligent tests.
Answer:
Alfred Binet (1867 -1911) is the first person who devised systematic tests to measure the intelligence of children. He was particularly interested in the intellectual differences among individuals. Binet (1905), a french psychologist designed the very first test of intelligence at the request of the Paris school authorities to help them to select children of low intelligence, who could not gain from attending the general classes in school.

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CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Unit 4 Method of Teaching Maths Questions and Answers

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CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Unit 4 Method of Teaching Maths Questions and Answers

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Discuss the Aims and Objectives of teaching Mathematics.
Answer:
The knowledge of mathematics is very essential for everybody. The most important aims and objectives of mathematics are discussed below.

To develop the thinking and reasoning, power of the child:
The power of thinking and reasoning is very much essential for an. individual to lead a disciplined and well-adjusted life. These powers can be developed by knowing mathematics.

To provide a suitable discipline to the mind:
Mathematics knowledge makes the mind of the learners disciplined which is essential for leading a healthy social life.

To develop an art of living:
Mathematics prepares children for economic, purposeful, productive, creative, and constructive life. The children learn an act of effective living.

To acquaint the learners with cultures:
Mathematics is the backbone of culture. So by studying mathematics an individual becomes acquainted with his own culture. So cultural development is possible.

To prepare the pupil for various professions:
The children are prepared to enter into various professions of engineering, cashiers, statisticians, accountants, auditors, bankers, etc.

To prepare the students for various higher educational centers:
Mathematics forms the basis of many educational courses and as engineering physical science etc.

To develop the habits of concentration, self-reliance, and discovery:
The habits of concentration, self-reliance, and power to discover new things, new laws, and principles in students are created by mathematics.

To create a love for hard work:
Mathematics as a subject needs consistent hard work. This has helped the student to undertake hard work for a longer period.

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CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Unit 4 Method of Teaching Maths Questions and Answers

Question 2.
Discuss briefly the inductive-deductive method of teaching mathematics. Bring a difference between the inductive and deductive methods.
Answer:
“Inductive-deductive method is the combination of two separate method-inductive and deductive methods.
Inductive method:-
The inductive method is based on induction. Induction is proving a universal truth or theorem by showing that if it is true of any particular case, it is also true for the next case in the same serial order. In this method, we proceed from particular to general, from concrete cases to abstract cases, and from specific to general formulas. In adopting this method, the students are required not to accept the already, discovered formula without knowing the formula by adopting inductive reasoning.

Example No.1:-
The students may be asked to construct a few triangles of various sizes and shapes. They may be asked to measure and sum the angle in each case. Then the sum will come to be the same in all cases. i.e, the sum in all cases will come to be two right angles. Hence, the students may conclude through induction that the sum of these angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles.

Example No.2:- Suppose we find out the simple interest of Rs. 400/- in four years at 5% per annum. It will be equal to Rs.80/-

Or, S.I=\(\frac{400 \times 5 \times 4}{100}\)=80.00

Similarly, the simple interest Rs. 500/- in a year at 6% per annum will be 90.00.

Or, S.I=\(\frac{500 \times 6 \times 3}{100}\)=90.00

From the above, two examples the students can evolve a rule that,

Simple Interest=

C:\Users\Shaheena\Desktop\Discuss briefly the inductive-deductive method of teaching mathematics Q2.png

S.I=\(\frac{\text { PRT }}{100}\)

Deductive Method :
The deduction is the chief generalized form. In this method, one follows deductive reasoning which is just the opposite of inductive reasoning. Abstract ideas are preceded by concrete experience. The students memorize the different formulas and then apply them to solve a particular problem.

Examples- If the teacher wants to teach the calculation of simple interest in the class the formula for calculating interest to the students.

i.e. S.L =\(\frac{\text { PRT }}{100}\)

Question 2.
Explain with examples the analytic and synthetic methods of teaching mathematics. What are the merits and demerits?
Answer:
Analytic Method:
Analytic means breaking up the problem in such a manner that it ultimately gets connected with some known. The method proceeds from known to known. The analysis is the process of unfolding the problem to know the hidden aspects. We have to begin with what is to be found out and then proceed to further steps and possibilities that may concern the unknown with the known, the desired result is found out.

Merits of Analytic Method:
The Analytic Method has the following merits.
It is a logical method that leaves no doubt and it convinces the learner. The steps are developed in a general manner. Each step has a reason and justification. It facilitates understanding and creates an urge to discover facts. As the students face questions is what a statement is into simple elements they grapple with the problem confidently and intelligently. He gains competencies and skills.

Demerits:

  • It is a lengthy method.
  • It is very difficult to acquire efficiency and speed.
  • It may not be applicable to all topics equally.

Example

If \(\frac{a}{b}=\frac{c}{d}\) prove that \(\frac{a c-2 b^2}{b}=\frac{c^2-2 b d}{d}\)

∴\(\frac{a c-2 b}{b}=\frac{c^2-2 b d}{d}\)

By cross multiplication

acd – 2b2d = be2 – 2b2d

Cancellation of the common quality -2b²d from both sides can further he canceled.
acd = bc2 will be true
If this is if ad = bc arranged in a more systematic form, ad = bc will be true.

\(\frac{\mathrm{a}}{\mathrm{b}}=\frac{\mathrm{c}}{\mathrm{d}}\) which is given is thus true.
So, we can say that,

\(\frac{\mathrm{ac}-\mathrm{b}^2}{\mathrm{~d}}=\frac{\mathrm{c}^2-2 \mathrm{bd}}{\mathrm{d}}\) is also true.

Synthetic Method :
The synthetic method is just the opposite of the analytic method. One has to proceed from known to unknown in this method. Synthesis implies the placing together of the parts to get the solution. One has to start from what is known as given and proceed toward the unknown part of the problem, thus, the unknown information becomes known and free. In practice, synthesis is complementary to analysis.

Merits :

  • This is a logical method.
  • It is short and elegant.
  • It glorifies memory.

Demerits :
It leaves a long number of doubts in minds of readers and offers no explanation for them. As the reader gets no satisfactory explanation for his doubts while solving the problem, he will be perplexed when faced with a need problem. He may not recall the steps of synthesis. There is no provision for a complete understanding of the method. Discovery and thinking have no place in this method. Memory work and homework are too heavy.

Example:
Let us take the same example.

\(\frac{a}{b}=\frac{c}{d}\) then prove that \(\frac{a-2 b^2}{b}=\frac{c^2-2 b d}{d}\)

We have to start with the given or known fact \(\frac{a}{b}=\frac{c}{d}\)

∴\(\frac{2 b}{c}\) be subtracted from both sides

∴\(\frac{a}{b}=\frac{2 b}{c}=\frac{c}{d}=\frac{2 b}{c}\)

Or, \(\frac{a c-2 b^2}{b c}=\frac{c^2-2 b d}{c d}\)

\(\frac{a-2 b^2}{b}=\frac{c^2-2 b d}{d}\)

(Cancelling from both sides)
Thus identity is proved.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Unit 4 Method of Teaching Maths Questions and Answers

Question 3.
Explain the problem-solving methods of teaching mathematics. What are the merits and demerits?
Answer:
The problem-solving method aims at presenting and repurposing the existence of problems in the teaching-learning situation. A problem is a sort of difficulty which has to be overcome to reach the goal. It may be a purely mental difficulty. The problem-solving methods aim at presenting the knowledge to be learned in the form of a problem.

It begins with a problematic situation and consists of continuous meaningful well-integrated activity. Mathematics is a subject of problems. Its teaching and learning depend on solving innumerable problems. Efficiency and ability in solving problems is a guarantee in learning this subject. The procedure of problem-solving is (almost like the project method. It can be taken the form of an inductive deductive method.

Steps to the situation :
Sensing the problem, interpreting, defining, and delimiting the problem. Gathering data in a systematic manner, organizing and evaluating the data, formulating tentative solutions, arriving at the true and correct solution, and verifying the results. It is a research-like method that involves scientific thinking as a process of learning.

How it is employed :
Suppose finding the volume of a cylinder is a problem before the class. Its formula is to be developed on the basis of the earlier formula for the volume of a thing while analyzing the problem it gets connected with the previous knowledge that the volume of any regular solid can be found by multiplying the area of its base with the height of the object.

The area of the base of the cylinder is found by the only known formula a new the results are checked. The solution to the problem and the result comes from the students. The teacher remains in the background and directs or guides the students from the position.

Merits of problem-solving method:
This method satisfies the laws of teaching. It involves reflective thinking. So it stimulates thinking and learning through self-effort, reasoning, and critical judgment in the students. It develops qualities of imitative and self-dependence in the students. It is a stimulating method, The problem is a challenge.

Once it is properly recognized it acts as a great motivating force and directs the students, attention, and activity. It serves individual differences. A student can solve any number of problems in a specific and make progress accordingly. It is especially suitable for mathematics which is a subject of problems. It develops desirable study habits in the students.

Limitations:
The process is purely literary. It only needs a mental solution. Life problems -need some physical activity also. All problems cannot be solved by this method. The method does not suit the students in lower classes. Teachers, the burden becomes heavy. Textbooks written in the traditional style do not help in the use of this method. There is an absence of suitable books for reference and guidance.

Question 4.
Discuss the steps in lesson planning.
Answer:
J.F. Herbert has suggested six important steps in planning a lesson. After his name, those steps are called “Herbartion” steps.
These six steps are:

  • Preparation
  • Introduction
  • Presentation
  • Recapitulation (comprehension)
  • Summarisation
  • Application

Preparation:
The teacher has to prepare himself and the students for the lesson. He has to formulate the objectives, select the content matters from the textbook, select the teaching aids and prepare the lesson accordingly.

Introduction:
The main purpose of the introduction is to motivate the pupils. The teacher has to test the previous knowledge of the students by asking some questions. Then the teacher can know the background knowledge is to be linked with the previous knowledge through the introduction. A teacher can introduce a reason by various means such as:-

  • asking question
  • showing pictures and models
  • citing an example
  • dramatization
  • quoting a dialogue

Presentation:
It is the most important step in the lesson. During this step, the teacher presents some new ideas to the pupils. Questioning discussion, demonstration of aids, active pupil participation, and blackboard work are some of the essential elements of the presentation. The objectives of the lesson determine the nature of the presentation.

Recapitulation:
The teacher should ascertain to what extent the students have understood the topic taught by him. To test their understanding and comprehension the teacher has to put some questions. On this topic, after the presentation is over, this will also help the teacher to know whether his teaching is effective or not.

Summarisation :
The teacher has to associate and generalize the subject matter taught in the lesson in forming a blackboard. Summary, a formula or a rule ‘or a skeleton chart of the important learning points. The step completes the presentation by providing the gist of the topic.

Application :
At this step, the students make use to acquire, knowledge in familiar situations. It tests the validity of the generalization, rule principles or formula arrived at by the pupils at the end of the topic. Through the application, the new knowledge acquired by the students is retained in their minds for a longer period.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Unit 4 Method of Teaching Maths Questions and Answers

Question 5.
Six aims and objectives of Mathematics:
Answer:
It develops the power of thinking and reasoning. It helps the child to solve mathematical problems. It develops the self-confidence and habit of concentration. To help the child to develop the power of expression, and appreciation. It enables the child to go through the transaction of coins. It helps the child to lead a career as an accountant, auditor, engineer, and scientist.

Question 6.
Analytic method:
Answer:

  • It proceeds from unknown to known.
  • It is a process of thinking.
  • It demands exploration.
  • It is a method for. thinkers and discoverers.
  • It develops originality.
  • It is informal, psychological, and based on heuristic lines.

Question 7.
Aids used in teaching mathematics:
Answer:
Visual aids:
Samples, umbrellas, stick-rounded things, dolls, toys, balloons, plates blackboard, models, etc.

Audio Aids:
Radio, gramophone, tape recorders, etc.

Audio-visual aids:
T.V. and films. Through these aids, subjects are taught by experts. These are effective aids in teaching mathematics.

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CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

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CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
The intelligence of a person can be accurately assessed from his _________.
(a) eyes
(b) performance
(c) conversation
(d) intelligence test scores
Answer:
(d) intelligence test scores

Question 2.
I.Q. is calculated by the following formula
(a) I.Q=\(\frac{\text { Age }}{\text { Mental Age }}\)x100

(b) I.Q\(\frac{\text { Mental Age }}{\text { Chronological Age }}\)x100

(c) I.Q=\(\frac{\text { Chronological Age }}{\text { Mental Age }} \)x100

(d) I.Q=\(\frac{\text { Mental Age }}{\text { Chronological Age }}\)
Answer:
(b) I.Q=\(\frac{\text { Mental Age }}{\text { Chronological Age }}\)x100

Question 3.
The term intelligence is derived from the _________.
(a) Latin word
(b) Greek word
(c) German word
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Latin word

Question 4.
Intelligence refers to the _________.
(a) Effective capacity
(b) thinking capacity
(c) Cognitive capacity
(d) Conative capacity
Answer:
(d) Conative capacity

Question 5.
That intelligence is a capacity of the ‘O’ to adjust itself to an increasingly complex environment is believed by _________.
(a) Gallon
(b) Spencer
(c) Binet
(d) Spearman
Answer:
(b) Spencer

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 6.
The two-factor theory of intelligence was proposed by _________.
(a) Guilford
(b) Thurstone
(c) Stanford
(d) Spearman
Answer:
(d) Spearman

Question 7.
Intelligence is influenced by _________.
(a) Hereditary factors
(b) Environmental factors
(c) Organic factors
(d) both hereditary and environmental factors
Answer:
(d) both hereditary and environmental factors

Question 8.
Accurate assessment of intelligence is possible through _________.
(a) Observation of behavior
(b) Abstract performance
(c) Mathematical ability
(d) Standardised intelligence test
Answer:
(d) Standardised intelligence tes

Question 9.
Edward’s personal preference schedule is a _________.
(a) Open-end inventory
(b) True/False questionnaire
(c) Forced choice inventory
(d) Multiple-choice inventory
Answer:
(d) Multiple-choice inventory

Question 10.
The factors of 16 PF questionnaires were selected through _________.
(a) Chi-square
(b) Factor analysis
(c) Rating
(d) Rank difference method
Answer:
(b) Factor analysis

Question 11.
When no language is used in an intelligence test it is called a _________.
(a) Performance test
(b) Non-performance test
(c) Verbal test
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Performance test

Question 12.
When the suitability of a particular person for a specific job is to be assessed he should be administered with _________.
(a) Power test
(b) Intelligence test
(c) Aptitude test
(d) Performance test
Answer:
(c) Aptitude test

Question 13.
A performance test is that which _________.
(a) Uses language
(b) Does not use language
(c) Assess special ability
(d) Assesses mechanical ability
(b) Does not use language

Question 14.
The progressive Matrices test is a test of _________.
(a) Aptitude
(b) Intelligence
(c) Attitude
(d) Language
Answer:
(b) Intelligence

Question 15.
Children’s progressive matrices test is a _________.
(a) Verbal test
(b) Non-verbal test
(c) Imagination test
(d) Creativity test
Answer:
(b) Non-verbal test

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 16.
The capacity to perceive the relationship between the means and the end is called _________.
(a) Imagination
(b) Sensation
(c) Intelligence
(d) Learning
Answer:
(c) Intelligence

Question 17.
The first group test of intelligence was _________.
(a) W.A.T.
(b) T.A.T.
(c) The Standard Binet
(d) The Army Alpha
Answer:
(c) The Standard Binet

Question 18.
MMPI is a test of _________.
(a) Intelligence
(b) Personality
(c) Aptitude
(d) Interest
Answer:
(b) Personality

Question 19.
Rorschach test is a test of _________.
(a) Intelligence
(b) Power
(c) Personality
(d) Aptitude
Answer:
(c) Personality

Question 20.
Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposely, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment. This definition of intelligence was given by _________.
(a) Binet
(b) Thurstone
(c) Wechsler
(d) Spearman
Answer:
(c) Wechsler

Question 21.
The concept of mental age was introduced by _________.
(a) Wechsler
(b) Spearman
(c) Binet
(d)Galton
Answer:
(c) Binet

Question 22.
The adult intelligence scale Of Wechsler constitutes of _________.
(a) Non-verbal scale
(b) Verbal scale
(c) Verbal and performance scale
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) Verbal and performance scale

Question 23.
Binet was a/an _________psychologist.
(a) French
(b) Germany
(c) English
(d)American
Answer:
(a) French

Question 24.
Binet with the help of another collaborator devised a scale consisting of 80 tests arranged from the simplest to the most complex. Who is that another collaborator?
(a) Galton
(b) Simen
(c) Terman
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Simen

Question 25.
Binet and Simon revised the 1905 test scale in the year _________.
(a) 1908
(b) 1910
(c) 1913
(d) 1917
Answer:
(a) 1908

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 26.
When the M.A. and the C.A. are the same, the I.Q. is _________.
(a) 95
(b) 98
(c) 100
Answer:
(c) 100

Question 27.
Mental age is calculated on the basis of _________.
(a) Chronological age
(b) Mental ability as calculated from the intelligence test score
(c) Ability calculated from the test of creativity
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Mental ability as calculated from the intelligence test score

Question 28.
Raven’s progressive Matrices test is _________.
(a) Verbal test
(b) Performance test
(c) Non-performance test
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Performance test

Question 29.
Raymond cattle’s IPTAtest is a _________.
(a) Culture fair intelligence test
(b) Culture-free intelligence test
(c) Structural test of intelligence
(d) Personality test
Answer:
(a) Culture fair intelligence test

Question 30.
The process of classifying all intellectual abilities into a systematic framework has been developed by _________.
(a) Guilford
(b) Stanford
(c) Jensen
(d) Thorndike
Answer:
(a) Guilford

Question 31.
The structure of intellect can be classified into _________.
(a) Three different ways
(b) Four different ways
(c) Five different ways
Answer:
(a) Three different ways

Question 32.
Intelligence reaches its peak by the age of 16-20 years and remains at the same level up to _________.
(a) 40 years
(b) 45 years
(c) 50 years
(d) 60 years
Answer:
(b) 45 years

Question 33.
Two children of the same age will have the same _________.
(a) Intelligence Quotient
(b) Mental age
(c) Chronological age
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) Chronological age

Question 34.
Intelligence is the ability to _________.
(a) Perceive new situations and learn
(b) To adjust oneself to the new situations
(c) To think about the present situation
(d) To do all the three above
Answer:
(d) To do all the three above

Question 35.
Most of the infant intelligence tests are meant to measure _________.
(a) Intelligence
(b) Sensory motor skills
(c) Perceptual ability
(d) All of these
Answer:
(b) Sensory motor skills

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 36.
The score obtained by an infant in the infant intelligence test is called _________.
(a) Intelligence Quotient
(b) Mental Age
(c) Development Quotient
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) Development Quotient

Question 37.
Mental age is a measure of the level of intelligence _________.
(a) Specific level
(b) Absolute
(c) General
(d) All of these
Answer:
(b) Absolute

Question 38.
The most outstanding study conducted to compare the Developmental Quotient and I.Q. of children was conducted by _________.
(a) fleidbrelder
(b) Gessel
(c) Bayley and Schaefer
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Gessel

Question 39.
The very earliest tests of intelligence were based on the assumption that intelligence has a _________.
(a) Physiological basis
(b) Hereditary basis
(c) Environmental basis
(d) Psychological basis
Answer:
(b) Hereditary basis

Question 40.
_________believed that the fine-tuning of the nervous systems of intelligent people extended to their bodies and made them physically vigorous.
(a) Binet
(b) Galton
(c) Simon
(d) Wechsler
Answer:
(b) Galton

Question 41.
Binet had developed a number of intelligence tests by _________.
(a)1890
(b)1900
(c)1905
(d)1910
Answer:
(c)1905

Question 42.
The book “Experimental study of intelligence” authored by Binet was published in _________.
(a) 1900
(b) 1903
(c) 1905
(d) 1913
Answer:
(c) 1905

Question 43.
The mental age is computed by first finding the age level at which the child passed all the test items which is called the _________.
(a) Basal age
(b) Fractional age
(c) Chronological age
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Basal age

Question 44.
The _________Psychologist Louis Stem suggested the division of mental age by Chronological age to asses relative intelligence.
(a) American
(b) Germanic
(c) Swiss
(d) English
Answer:
(c) Swiss

Question 45.
Terman issued the first American revision of the Binet scale in _________which was called the Stanford Binet intelligence scale.
(a) 1910
(b) 1912
(c) 1916
(d) 1918
Answer:
(a) 1910

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 46.
Intelligence tests are so constructed that the average person will receive an I.Q. score of about _________.
(a) 90
(b) 100
(c) 105
(d) 110
Answer:
(b) 100

Question 47.
An I.Q. of _________indicates the role of the intellectual development of the average person in the population.
(a) 95
(b) 100
(c) 105
(d) 110
Answer:
(b) 100

Question 48.
A person having an I.Q. of 55 is called _________.
(a) Imbecile
(b) Moron
(c) Idiot
(d) Boarder line case
Answer:
(b) Moron

Question 49.
When the number and representatives of the individuals in the standardizing sample increased the adequacy of the standardizing procedure.
(a) Decreases
(b) Increases
(c) Does not change
(d) Remains moderate
Answer:
(b) Increases

Question 50.
That intelligence is best conceptualized as a large number of independent abilities held by__________.
(a) Galton
(b) Cattell
(c) Thorndike
(d) Guilford
Answer:
(c) Thorndike

Question 51.
One of the most elaborate schemes for classifying intelligence into specific abilities was proposed by _________.
(a) Gallon
(b) Guilford
(c) Cattell
(d) Hebb
Answer:
(d) Hebb

Question 52.
Guilford made a unique contribution to the understanding of intelligence by including in his model the operation of thinking _________.
(a) Convergent thinking
(b) Divergent thinking
(c) Abstract thinking
Answer:
(b) Divergent thinking

Question 53.
Guilford’s “Plot Title Test” is an example of a test of _________.
(a) Divergent thinking
(b) Convergent thinking
(c) Creative thinking
(d) Autistic thinking
Answer:
(a) Divergent thinking

Question 54.
The ability to think abstractly was the essential ingredient of intellectual effectiveness. This was the view of _________.
(a)Terman
(b)Galton
(c) Guilford
(d)Thurstone
Answer:
(a)Terman

Question 55.
_________ holds that intelligence consists of specific cognitive abilities that enable an individual to adapt to the environment.
(a) IIebb
(b) Guilford
(c) Gallon
(d) Charlesworth
Answer:
(c) Gallon

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 56.
That intelligence changes with age was the general observation made for the first time by _________.
(a) Spearman
(b) Gallon
(c) Binet
(d) Simen
Answer:
(d) Simen

Question 57.
Most of the infant intelligence tests are constructed to measure _________.
(a) Perceptual skill
(b) Sensory motor skill
(c) Cognitive ability
(d) Abstract thinking
Answer:
(b) Sensory motor skill

Question 58.
The most important infant intelligence test was developed by _________.
(a) Clark
(b) Charles Worth
(c) Gessel
(d) All of these
Answer:
(c) Gessel

Question 59.
The infant intelligence scale developed by Gessel is called _________.
(a) Differential Schedule
(b) Generalised Schedule
(c) Developmental Schedule
(d) Specified Schedule
Answer:
(c) Developmental Schedule

Question 60.
Gessel’s tests measure not intelligence but the child’s level of _________.
(a) Growth
(b) Emotion
(c) Adaptive Capacity
(d) Divergent thinking
Answer:
(a) Growth

Question 61.
In Gessel’s test, the score obtained by a child is called _________.
(a) Developmental Quotient
(b) Intelligence Quotient
(c) Creativity Quotient
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Developmental Quotient

Question 62.
Turnstone identified _______ primary mental abilities.
(a) 5
(b) 7
(c) 9
(d) 11
Answer:
(b) 7

Question 63.
Guilford proposed a structure of intellect containing items _________.
(a) 100
(b) 110
(c) 120
(d) 130
Answer:
(c) 120

Question 64.
Intelligence develops most rapidly during _________.
(a) Infancy
(b) Childhood
(c) Adulthood
(d) Late adulthood
Answer:
(b) Childhood

Question 65.
Boys score _________ in intelligence tests compared to girls.
(a) Higher
(b) Similar
(c) Lower
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Similar

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 66.
Multifactor theory of intelligence is given by _________.
(a) Binet
(b) Spearman
(c) Guilford
(d) Thurstone
Answer:
(d) Thurstone

True Or False Type Questions

Question 1.
All intelligence tests also test creativity. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 2.
Intelligence tests are measured of both intellectual ability and achievement although the emphasis clearly strives to be on the former. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Culture-free intelligence tests measure intelligence more accurately than culturally biased tests. Culturally unfair tests do not under asses a child’s intelligence. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 4.
IPAT culture fair intelligence test was devised by Thurstone. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 5.
It is erroneous to define intelligence on the basis of abilities related to school performance. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 6.
Standard intelligence tests fail to measure all the cognitive abilities that contribute to intelligence, broadly defined. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 7.
I.Q. is only a measure of intelligence ‘B’. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 8.
According to Ilebb, the term intelligence ‘A refers to an innate potentiality for the development of intellectual capacities, and intelligence ‘B’ to die level of that development at a later time when the S’s intellectual functioning can be observed. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Spearman thought of intelligence as composed ofthe ‘g’ factor and a number of ‘g’ factors. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 10.
Guilford included in his model of intelligence the operation of convergent thinking. (True/False)
True

Question 11.
Guilford’s ‘Plot Title test’ ’ is an example of a test of convergent thinking. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 12.
Little relation has been found between scores obtained on standard I.q. tests and scores achieved on tests of divergent thinking. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 13.
The ability to think abstractly was according to Tennant the essential ingredient of intellectual effectiveness. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 14.
Charlesworth was an opinion that intelligence consists of specific cognitive abilities that enable an individual to adapt to the environment. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 15.
Intelligence changes with age. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 16.
Intellectual growth continues throughout the lifespan. (True /False)
Answer:
False

Question 17.
Most infant intelligence tests are constructed to assess sensory-motor skills. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 18.
The most important infant intelligence test was developed by Spearman. (True / False)
False

Question 19.
The most important infant intelligence test was developed by Gessel. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 20.
The infant intelligence test developed by Arnold Gessel is known as Developmental schedules. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 21.
Gessel’s developmental schedules contain items that show a clear age progression. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 22.
Gessel’s test measures not intelligence but the child’s level of development. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 23.
In Gessel’s test, the score obtained by an infant is called the developmental quotient. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 24.
The failure to find a strong relationship between infant DQs and their subsequent I.Qs suggests that two scores reflect different abilities. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 25.
Verbal reasoning grows with age. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 26.
Crystalised intelligence increases with age and declines only with the approach of very old age. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 27.
There is no difference between pure intelligence and measured intelligence. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 28.
Thurstone identified nine primary mental abilities. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 29.
Guilford proposed a structure of intellect containing 120 separate items. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 30.
Intelligence develops most rapidly during childhood. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 31.
General intelligence continues to increase until the later adult years. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 32.
The rate of increase in intelligence slows down as the person grows older. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 33.
Usually, boys score higher in standard intelligent tests than girls. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 34.
The scores of boys and girls are marked by similarity in standard intelligent tests. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 35.
Some personality traits are associated with the I.Q. (True /False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 36.
Aggression, competition, and self-reliance traits are found to but associated with the increase in I.Qs. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 37.
Social class does not influence the I.Q. of a person. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 38.
Intellectual development is a smooth and continuous process. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 39.
Extreme and prolonged social deprivation produces intellectual impairment. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 40.
Gifted individuals are those whose I.Qs are at the upper end of the distribution of intelligence. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 41.
Creativity has no relationship with giftedness. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 42.
Creative persons have a high tolerance for ambiguity. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 43.
Children’s reasoning and their use of increasingly complex hypotheses in problem-solving tasks indicate a progression through cognitive stages. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 44.
Piaget has emphasized the biological and adaptive significance of intelligence. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 45.
During the preparational state, children begin to use symbols like imagery and language. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 46.
The sensory-motor stage continues from birth to five years. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 47.
The stage of formal operations is the third stage of Piagetian stages of cognitive development. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 48.
The preparational stage lasts from three to seven years. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 49.
Cross-cultural studies have indicated that the stages Piaget has observed in western children are also found in children of very different societies. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 50.
Intelligence and creativity are highly co-related. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 51.
A maximum level of intelligence is required to be creative. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 52.
Flexibility is essential for creativity. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 53.
Intelligence can be greatly improved by competition. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 54.
The two-factor theory of intelligence was proposed by Stanford. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 55.
Accurate assessment of intelligence is possible, through standardized intelligence tests. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 56.
Accurate assessment of intelligence is possible, through standardized intelligence tests. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 57.
Edward’s personal preference schedule is a multiple-choice inventory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 58.
When no language is used in an intelligence test, it is called a verbal test of intelligence. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 59.
A performance test does not use language. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 60.
The Army Alpha test is the first group test of intelligence. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 61.
M.M.P.I. is a test of intelligence. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 62.
The concept of mental age was introduced by Galton. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 63.
The adult intelligence scale of Wechsler deals with non-verbal scales. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 64.
Binet was an American Psychologist. (True/ False)
Answer:
False

Question 65.
Binet and Simon revised the 1905 test scale in the year 1908. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 66.
When the M.A. and C.A. are the same the I.Q. is 100. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 67.
Mental ability is calculated from the intelligence test score. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 68.
Mental age is calculated from the chronological age. (True/ False)
Answer:
False

Question 69.
Raymond Cattell’s IPTA test is a culture fair test. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 70.
A culture-fair test is otherwise called a culture-free test. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 71.
The process of classifying all intellectual abilities into a systematic framework has been developed by Stanford. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 72.
Intelligence reaches its peak by the age of 16 to 21 years. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 73.
Ordinarily, intelligence does not grow after 45 years. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 74.
Two children of the same age will have the same mental age. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 75.
Two children of the same age will have the same chronological age. (True / False)
Answer:
False

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 76.
The actual age of a person and his chronological age are the same. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 77.
Intelligence quotient and mental age are the same. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 78.
Guilford included in his model the operation of thinking. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 79.
Guilford’s Plot title test is an example of convergent thinking. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 80.
Guilford was of opinion that the ability to think abstractly was the essential ingredient of intellectual effectiveness. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 81.
Charlesworth held that intelligence consists of specific cognitive abilities that enable the individual to adapt to the environment. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 82.
That intelligence changes with age was for the first time made public by Binet. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 83.
Thurstone identified nine specific mental abilities which according to him are the constituents of intelligence. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 84.
Intelligence develops most rapidly during adolescence. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 85.
Boys are more intelligent compared to girls. (True / False)
Answer:
False

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 86.
The sensory-motor stage Piaget continues from birth to two years. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 87.
F or Piaget the function of intelligence is the adoption to the world. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 88.
Children’s cognitive system change and grow to become more adaptive and hence provides a more realistic understanding of the world. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 89.
Accommodation is a change of the internal cognitive system to provide a better match to outside information. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 90.
Intelligence quotient and mental age are different concepts. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 91.
I.Q. and Developmental age are different. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 92.
Most infant intelligence tests are meant to measure sensory motor skills. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 93.
Mental age is a measure of the absolute level of intelligence. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 94.
Gcssel conducted the most brilliant study to compare the D.Q. of children with their I.Q. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 95.
The very earliest tasks of intelligence were based on the assumption that intelligence has a physiological basis. (True/False)
Answer:
True

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 5 Intelligence Objective Questions

Question 96.
The book experimental study of intelligence was authored by Binet. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 97.
The PASS Model of intelligence was developed by cattle. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 98.
The sensory-motor stage continues from birth to two years. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 99.
Piaget has chartered major stages of cognitive development three. (True/False)
Answer:
False

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-2

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part 2.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Define meaning, the definition of motivation, and the goals of motivation.
Answer:
All these motivational terms regulate the behavior of a person. When we say one is motivated, we mean to say that he is driven or moved to an act by an inner control urge or force as in the case of the writer just discussed. In any action, except a simple reflex, the ‘O’ is guided by certain underlying internal conditions.

They direct the ‘O’ toward specific goals. In the opinion of Bunch (1958) a drive or a motive is a “persistent behavior which appears to be dominated by the time being by a relatively limited group of stimuli acting on the organism.” Motivation is derived from the Latin word “Movere” which means to move.

In the literal sense, it is a process that arouses the energy or drives in the individual to proceed in an activity. The activity aroused, fulfills the need, and reduces the drive or tension. Until it has not fulfilled the need, the drive is not reduced. P.T. Young has defined motivation as the process of arousing an action, sustaining the activity in progress, and regulating the pattern of activity.

Let us take the case of hunger which is a common biological motive. When one is hungry, the need is food. This need creates internal physiological changes in the ‘ O’ which induces a drive. This drive goal or directs the ‘O’ to search for food: When the food is available, the hunger needs is fulfilled and the drive is reduced and the activity ceases then and there.

A motivated act is completed When the goal is reached. Take the case of Thomdike’s eats. Only when the cat is hungry or has the need to escape out ofthe problem box, it tries to open the door. Otherwise, the cat may simply sleep inside the problem box very peacefully. Lashley (1938). He indicated that motivated behavior does not consist simply of chains of stimulus-response sequences.

Conditions within ‘O’ change his response to a particular stimulus at a particular moment. That is why the same person may show different types of responses to the same stimulus on different occasions. Motivation also varies from person to person. Freud, Young, Woodworth, and McDougall, all are of opinion that every action has an underlying cause behind it.

Every learning goal-oriented. Motivation is the superhighway to learning. So Thompson remarked, “All our behaviors are controlled from within the organism by primary motives and the secondary motives are determined by external stimuli.” McDougall and Freud both treated motivation in terms of energy, a conception That has persisted in the psychology of motivation down to the present time.

Freud stated that this energy is derived from a general reservoir of sexual motivation, the libido which is further supplied to all other behavior. McDougall said that all motives are purposive and directed towards a goal. “He led the foundation stone to the idea of motivational energy, the varieties of its expression, and the physiological mechanisms through which it operates.” (Kimbel and Germany 1980).

According to Atkinson (1958), the term motivation refers to the arousal ofthe tendency to act to produce one or more effects. Murphy considered motivation as the general name for the fact that an organism’s act is partly determined by its own nature and internal structure. N.R.F. Maier says that motivation is the process by which the expression of behavior is determined or future expression is influenced by consequences to which such behavior leads.

According to Guilford (1960), all the internal conditions that stir up activity and sustain activity come under motivation. Internal stimulation for motivation is essential while external stimulus may be of secondary importance. Like, if you are hungry, you will definitely search for food. Otherwise, food in the external environment will not motivate you.

Underwood (1968) gives the following operational definition of motivation. The classes of operations used to produce and measure changes in performance and changes in energy output. Maslow held that motivated behavior is need-related and need-based. I Ic also talked about the hierarchy of motives.

Maier defined motivation as a goal-directed activity. Young tried to define motive in a wider sense. He believed that “motivation is the process of arousing the action, sustaining the activity in progress, and regulating the pattern of activity”. New Comb has defined motive as “a state of the ‘O’ in which bodily energy is mobilized and selectively directed towards parts of the environment”.

According to Morgan and King (1975), “Motivation refers to states within a person or animal that drives behavior towards some goal”.
Thus, in the process of motivation, the following stages have involved

  • a state that drives behavior or drives
  • arousal of behavior by this physiological state, and
  • the direction of the behavior toward a specific or selective goal is found. This definition more or less deals with the aspects of the motivational process.

Drive:
Drive is a psychological state, a tateWhjph leads one to activity. This State of the body leads the ‘O’ to a certain specific and selective activity that produces tension. When one is thirsty, if he is given food instead of water, it may not reduce his driving state. His activity is specifically directed towards getting a glass of water for the reduction of thirst drive. Drive is pure energy that is mobilized and made available for activity. Drive is further a consequence of unsatisfied needs. Only art unsatisfied need generates a drive.

Goal Or Incentive:
According to Ruch (1970), “A goal refers to some substance, objects or environmental initiated action. “Skinner and Bugelski have shown symbolic incentives in rats temporarily eliminating the complexity of internal conditions which initiated action, “Briefly, a goal is a reward, an incentive, or a motivation towards which behavior is directed.

The term incentive refers demotivational value of reinforcer. Without an incentive or reinforcer, motivation cannot be fulfilled, the incentive may be positive or negative, like food and electric shock or reward and punishment. It may be material, semi-material or non-material. It may also be verbal, non-verbal, biological, or social.

The incentive may be symbolic also when it does not have direct reinforcing power. Token experiments by Wulfe (1936) and Cowles (1937) have proved this, By achieving the goal through I the incentive satisfaction of the motive takes place. The goal or incentive varies with die nature of the drive. For hunger, food is the goal, for thirst water, sex mate and maternal-drive children, etc. are considered as goals.

A goal may be distant or near. It may be a long-range behavior sequence or a short-range behavior sequence or a short-range behavior sequence. Usually, near goals act as a better motivating factor than distant goals. In any process of motivation, we find this need, drive, and incentive (goal) sequence.

These three are indispensable for the process of motivation to operate and to be completed. Without a need, there cannot be a drive and without a drive, the behavior cannot be goal-oriented. Finally, without a goal or incentive, a motive cannot function successfully. Thus, it is aided by Hull that all learnings are purposive.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-2

Question 2.
Define the meaning and definition of emotion and describe the nature or characteristics of emotion.
Answer:
Emotion:
Meaning, operational definition, and nature of emotion:
The only child of a woman dies in a road accident. She is so disturbed by this, pathetic incident that she sits like a statue for days together, completely motionless. Then one day her dead body is found inside a well. An old man, at last, is ruined by his long-lost son. He just cries and cries, not out of misery but in happiness.

The first incident indicates emotions of sorrow, distress, and unhappiness, and the second one of happiness, joy, and pleasure. Thus, emotions take life interesting as well as distressing pleasant as well as unpleasant, and happy as well as unhappy, sometimes emotions bring distress and disaster in human life, disorganize, and disturb the entire life pattern.

At other times, it rebuilds functions and organizes activities. The emotion of love, happiness, and joy help in uniting and reuniting many friends, relations, couples, and marriage patterns. Without emotions, life would have been dull and colorless, devoid of charm. Emotions are also responsible for the finest human characteristics as well as for the most horrible and mean things in life. Emotion makes life pleasurable as well as miserable.

According, to Ruch (1970), “Emotions play a vital part in our motivational patterns. Life without emotion would be virtually a life without motion. Emotion has also organized and motivational values. When strong emotions arise strong motives are satisfied.” Emotion, a very complex and intricate psychological process has been a matter of discussion by, physiologists and psychologists for the last 100 years or more.

Emotion Defined:
It is quite difficult to give a comprehensive definition of emotion, which is a very complex and intricate psychological process. Different psychologists have defined emotion in several different ways. But the most appropriate definition of emotion so far is given by P.T. Young. According to him, “Emotion is an acute disturbance ofthe organism, as a whole, psychological in origin involving behavior, conscious experience, and visceral functioning.

An analysis of this definition points out four important characteristics of emotion:
Emotion is acute or strong in the body, unlike feelings in which the disturbance is mild. The whole body is strongly disturbed and agitated.
The disturbance due to emotion has always had a psychological origin. That is, a stimulus either external or internal always produces an emotional reaction.

Suppose the person saw a tiger in the forest and became afraid. This very fear is psychological in nature, and it introduces a stirred-up state. Thirdly, the disturbed state produced by an emotional experience creates bodily l changes which are physiological in nature. Physiological changes take place in the entire body system.

Finally, emotion is a conscious experience. The person facing the emotion-provoking situation must perceive it as significant. Then only emotion can be produced. The individual must be aware that the situation is such and such, that it is dangerous for him and hence should be avoided, and so on.

Nature And Characteristics of emotion:
The term emotion has been derived from the Latin word E-mover, which means to move to stir up, to agitate, to excite, and to arouse oneself. This arousal of self creates an art urge towards action. It is a very complex, disturbed state of the organism. That is why emotion has been defined as a stirred-up state of the organism.

The entire organism is disturbed both physiologically and psychologically, activated, and excited. Titchener defined emotion as an affected state of the organism. By affective state, he meant to say joy, sorrow, love, hatred, etc. Emotion has got both integrating and disintegrating roles in life.

According to Carr (1925) emotion is a form of energy mobilization. On a Scale of one end, there is a strong emotion and at the other end, no emotion or sleep will be there. This mobilization of energy helps the individual overcome an obstacle at the time of emergency situation like fear or anger.

The person sees a shake, immediately he is activated by tonnes of energy to run away from that place. Emotion is very brief. It starts very abruptly and ends soon after the incident is over Since emotion involves physiological changes, it disappears after the emotional outburst is over. Emotion deals with both physiological and psychological changes, both Objective and subjective aspects.

It has got feeling or covert aspects as well as overt or behavioral aspects. Some psychologists like McDougall have considered emotions as instincts. But this is only a historical and Controversial issue. Emotions occur as a reaction to some basic biological drives. When the basic needs are not satisfied, the person is frustrated.

For example, fear is associated with danger. Similarly, joy is felt when a long-cherished need is satisfied. Certain emotional experiences also help in the satisfaction of some biological needs. During anger, we are able to make use Of more energy in fighting the obstructing situation. Thus, emotions have biological values. Strong emotions help the individual tO be less sensitive to pain.

Question 3.
Discuss the common emotional patterns and describe the cause of fear. Prevention and Elimination.
Answer:
Common Emotional Patterns:
Fear:
As Bridges (1932) says, at first fear is generated more like a state of panic, and excitement than of any specific form. Gradually with the development of language, fear increases and is expressed in many other linguistic expressions than by crying alone. Fear appears clearly at the age of six months.

It is supposed to be a very early emotion and in most cases very dangerous for normal personality development. The arousal of fear depends upon different situations. Loss of support, the sudden approach of anything, or loud noise lead to inherent fears. A five-year-old child has a fear of dogs, doctors, machines, etc. death, fainting persons, dead bodies, being left alone, deep water, etc.

All these are not natural but acquired fears. Fear for animals and fire etc. occurs because of conditioning and habit, says Watson, children also may develop certain imaginative fears or symbolic fears like fear for rats, and spiders. Fear for the parents may be expressed in fear for the teacher who resembles a parent.

However, before the age of 5, symbolic fear does not arise. Fear for animals is more found in childhood, but for non-animals, it increases with age such as fear of disease, illness, dentists, and doctors. Boys usually show more fear towards school work and girls towards illness, disease, darkness, and night. The stimulus itself does not create fear, the way it is presented determines a fear, response.

Causes Of Fear:
Suggestion and imitation:
Dreadful stories narrated by the parents or grandparents, particularly at night cause dangerous fear in them. Mother suggests the baby certain feared objects like Ghost, Tiger, and Demon, and sleeps peacefully, while the baby spends the night with horrible experiences and nightmares without being able to sleep.

In a particular case, whenever the mother sees a rat she screams in fear as if she is facing a lion. The child at the early stage had no such fear of rats. But when he saw several times his mother screaming, at the sight of a rat, he also gradually developed this fear of rats. Most of our childhood fears are partly due to imitation and partly due to suggestion.

For Getting Attention:
One shows fear of getting attention also. In order to escape an unpleasant task or experience one develops a fear response.

Poor Training:
Overprotected and sheltered home life prevents emotional maturity. Wien the mother or other family members make it a point to accompany the child whenever he goes, wherever he goes, to protect him, in future he cannot go anywhere alone, let it be the latrine or bathroom. If we say, don’t go in the dark, you will fall down, don’t go alone, somebody will kidnap you. Don’t touch the switch, you will get shocked, don’t go to high places, you will fall down, and the child will be afraid of everything and every place.

Symbolic and Imaginary fears:
Phobias are of this type. To repress fear for one tiling, they show fear for other things, such fear for spiders, a bunch of hair, and small rats, which are mostly symbolic fears. Since these are harmless stimuli, one should not normally show fear of these stimuli. But when these objects stand for some other feared objects because of repression, such fears become unhealthy for normal personality development.

Unpleasant Dreams:
Dreams about ghosts, demons; dangerous animals give rise to various fears.

Prevention and Elimination of Fear:
Jones found two broad techniques for preventing fear.

  • social Imitation
  • Direct Conditioning

Social Imitation:
Just as fear develops by imitation, it can also be eliminated by imitation. Suppose the child is afraid of a cat. The mother or somebody whom the child loves, respects, and obeys, should bring the cat, hold it, and show the child in a gradual process that the cat is not harmful. Similarly, fear of different domestic animals, dark places, open places, high places, rivers, water, and crowdy places can be removed by imitation. Thus far can be removed by allowing the child to learn from others.

Direct Conditioning:
By associating the feared object with a stimulus that the child wants or desires to get, fear can be eliminated. By associating with a stimulus that the child likes or wants to get, say with a chocolate or ice cream or with the mother or some near and dear one the child’s fear can be eliminated. However, the prevention of fear by the conditioning method cannot be done in a day or two. It is a gradual and slow process, which requires patience, time, and understanding of the child, his current needs, and desires.

Fear can also be prevented by other techniques :
Prevention of useless and needless fear like goats or big fish. Many persons develop an aversion to fish or meat by visualizing the killing of these stimuli. This should be discouraged. The child must not be told or allowed to hear horrible and dreadful stories as they imagine these stories in reality and develop tremendous fears. Stories of ghosts and witches should be avoided completely.

Reconditioning of fear by gradually familiarising the child with the fearful object, say water or any animal. This has been discussed earlier. By having someone with whom he has got confidence. Fear of a dog increases when the child is taken to the dog by a stranger. But when he approaches the dog with his mother or father, the fear gradually subsides.

By introducing counter motives by presenting the feared stimulus with attraction and pleasant ones. Curiosity and heroism should be developed to avoid fear. A sense of curiosity is required to avoid symbolic fear. Security in the family decreases fear response (Jersild and Homes).

Verbal appeal and reassurance combined with practical demonstration reduce fear. By developing good health. Self-expression and self-criticism also reduce fear (Conn). Acquaintance with the environment. According to Slater, Beekwitn, and Behnke fear of the unfamiliar disappears as the child becomes acquainted with his environment.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-2

Question 4.
Define Anger and discuss the causes of treatment and jealousy.
Answer:
Anger:
Anger is said to be a negative emotion like fear. In the beginning, generalized undifferentiated and mass anger response is found. But gradually it is distinguished and differentiated. Anger is a more frequent emotional response in children than fear, as anger-provoking stimuli are more than fear-provoking stimuli in the child’s environment. When the natural desires and motives are not freely satisfied, but obstructed, anger is shown.

Causes of Anger:
The cause of anger is interference or restriction of any type or it may be due to frustration. This frustration may be due to personal, physical, or social causes. Ricketts has pointed out certain other causes of anger like conflict over playthings, conflict over toilet and dressing, interruption of interesting activities like pressurizing the child to leave play and study, etc.

Jones has found that in 3-5 years children’s anger is created over their daily toilet, habits, dressing, going to school, etc. But by and large, the main cause of anger both in children and adults is interference in the fulfillment of wishes and desires.

Treatment or Anger:
Checking or repression of anger is undesirable. Anger should be channelized in socially acceptable Ways rather than being suppressed, repressed, or restricted. In general, anger can be treated by obtaining a clear picture of all factors, removing the irritating factors which annoy the child, substituting a different goal, and redirecting its motives.

Jealousy:
Jealousy is an outgrowth of anger. It is an attitude of resentment directed towards other people only while anger can be directed towards people, self, and others. It is a negative emotion. The arousal of jealousy depends upon training and the treatment that one gets from others. Child-rearing practices have got a lot to do with the development of jealousy.

Clinical studies of jealousy in young children show that it is a common emotional experience, originating with the birth of younger siblings. Children also show jealousy towards parents, especially towards the father when they see him showing affection towards their mother. The characteristic expression of jealousy includes hurting others, reverting to infantile behavior like bed wetting, thumb sucking, and attention-catching.

In older people jealousy is directly expressed in verbal quarrels, gossiping, name-calling, and making sarcastic and taunting jokes. Jealousy is indirectly expressed in daydreams. Girls are found to be more jealous than boys as found by Foster. More Jealousy is found in children of higher intellectual levels.

Question 5.
Define the bodily changes and eternal expressions of emotion.
Answer:
Bodily changes from individual to individual. In spite of these variations, there are some common bodily changes, which can be divided into overt and covert, as external and internal bodily changes.

External Expressions of :
Facial Expression:
The face is the most expressive organ of the human body. It is thus said to be the barometer of emotion. The muscles in the forehead, head, around the eyes, nose, and mouth are used differently with each emotion. Facial expressions vary from emotion to In anger the facial expression is different than when one is happy or afraid or sony. But it is not always easy to judge accurately one’s emotions from these facial expressions, particularly of adults.

Besides, some do not show any definite pattern of facial expression for a particular emotion. Munn states that it is much easier to differentiate facial expressions of pleasant and unpleasant emotions than it is to differentiate expressions of specific emotions, say joy versus love or sorrow versus fear. In a study to relate the different facial expressions of emotion. Schlosberg (1952) obtained certain pictures of the same face posed to express different emotions.

These pictures were given to observe to sort out into one of the following six categories:

  • Love, happiness, mirth
  • Surprise
  • Fear, suffering
  • Anger, determination
  • Disgust
  • Contempt

Schlosberg found a high correlation in the judgments of different observers but found that in several cases pictures posed to express love were confused with those posed to express contempt. Nevertheless, looking at someone’s face we can say whether he is happy, angry, or afraid. The many parts of the face like eyes, nose, lips, cheeks, forehead, etc. reflect the emotional pattern of anger.

In joy, the eyes may shine. In grief, they get dimmed. In anger the face becomes red, and the nostrils may expand or contract, in happiness the bps may smile. The cheeks may be red in anger or when one blushes because of shyness. In fear, the mouth gets dry, the face is full of sweets, the body shakes and the hair stands.

Postural Reaction:
Different emotions arouse different postures. Fear involves flight violent anger involves not flight but aggressive movements, which may either be abusive or involve an actual attack. In grief we bow, we stiffen in anger, and we lean forward when we are anxious and expect something.

In the emotion of love, there is movement in the direction of the beloved. In sorrow, there is a general slumping posture while in joy the opposite is involved, i.e. the head is he Id high and chest out, and there is the movement of hands. Gestures as expressions of bodily changes are to what extent influenced by culture is not known.

The importance of postural reaction in emotional experience has been emphasized by James Lange’s theory. It holds that stimulations produced by assuming different postures contribute to the feeling aspect of emotion. For instance, it holds that if we put our hands on our cheeks and sit lowering our faces, we will feel sorry.

Vocal Expression:
Voice is a powerful organ for indicating different types of emotional experiences. The modulation of voice, change in loudness, and pitch may represent different types of emotion. A loud sound with enough variation in pitch indicates excitement, a rising inflection usually indicates a feeling of surprised doubt, and loud laughter indicates joy and happiness. A slow monotonous voice expresses defeat and dejection.

A higher pitch indicates anger. In anger the increase in body tension leads to more tension in the vocal cords which leads to a rise in voice, similarly, in fear there is suffering. Though the high pitch associated with anger is inborn these vocal expressions in most cases are also colored by cultural training. The word can be uttered differently to express different emotions. Say “COME” C…O…M…E‘come’.

Therefore from the verbal expression of a person, his emotional state can be easily detected in addition to his facial expression, postural and other reactions. Merry by recording the speaking and singing voices of actors and singers has shown how different emotions are expressed through them. In addition to these bodily expressions of emotion Ruch(1970) has stated four other emotional behavior patterns.

Destruction:
Destruction is found mostly in anger reactions. In anger, the most typical physical reaction is overt aggression or attack. The type of attack varies from culture to culture. In the case of uncivilized people, the attack is more of biting, hitting, shooting, and piercing with a knife. In the case of civilized people, the attack is more symbolic. This implies that in place of physical injury attack is made through language, i.e., sarcastic remarks, taunting words, abuses, etc.

Approach:
In happiness, joy, delight, pleasure, and love, the response made by the experiencing person can be said to be one of the approaches. The approach leads to further stimulation. Success in life produces elation. This is also an approach reaction. Even anticipation of success brings some pleasant emotion and ultimately an approach response.

Retreat or Flight:
The emotion erf fear, the typical bodily response observed universally is the flight from the emotion-provoking stimulus or retreat. By withdrawing from the fearful or dangerous situation the person saves himself. Flight is said to be the best medium of adjustment in dangerous situations.

In civilized people, the retreat may also be through symbols and withdrawal reactions like daydreaming. Ruch remarks “In civilized life, however, we often retreat symbolically through words, apologies, compromises, discussions, and various psychological mechanisms of withdrawal”.

Stopping of Response:
In sorrow, gloom, and depression, there is no destruction, no approach, no flight, but by and large a stop of unusual response. The person in such emotional experiences never shows any behavior. Even a strong stimulus does not bring any response in him.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-2

Question 6.
Discuss bodily or organic Or physiological changes in emotion.
Answer:
Bodily changes mean physiological changes. Because of the excessive activation of different organs during emotional states, physiological changes occur.
They are discussed below:

  • External expressions of emotion.
  • Physiological changes.
  • Glandular responses
  • The Galvanic skin responses
  • Pupillometrics
  • Gastro-Intestinal functions

External Expressions of Emotion:
Facial expression:
The face is the most expressive organ of the human body.

Postural Reaction:
Different emotions arouse different postures, fear involves a flight. Violent anger involves not flight but aggressive movements.

Vocal Expression:
Voice is a powerful organ for indicating different types of emotional experiences.

Physiological Changes:
In our day-to-day experience of emotion, we find the body undergoing various physiological changes like the rate of breathing increases, the rise of heart palpitation, sinking feeling in the stomach, general feeling of weakness, sweating, trembling, rise in blood pressure, and similar physiological changes.

The symptoms of fear reported by thousands of soldiers during the second world war are given below:

Some felt symptoms of fear of Violent
the pounding of the heart 86%
The sinking feeling in the stomach 75%
Feeling sick in the stomach 59%
Trembling and shaking 56%
Cold Sweat 55%
Tense feeling in my stomach 53%
The feeling of weakness and tenseness 51%
Vomiting (Quoted from Munn M.L. 1953) 24%

A large number of researches have been undertaken to objectively measure the physiological concomitants of emotion to discover how the different physiological processes change during emotion and whether there are different patterns of physiological change underlying specific emotions like fear, rage, and disgust.

In such studies changes in blood pressure, heart-best, and respiration are recorded during emotional states by different instruments. The activity of the heart during an emotional state is studied by examining the shape of the curve recorded by an electrocardiograph.

Glandular Responses:
Glands play an important role during different emotional states. In anger, the module of the adrenal gland secrets excessive amount of adrenaline and non-adrenaline and pours them into the bloodstream. Adrenaline is responsible for many characteristics of strong emotional experiences. The level of sugar in the blood rises because of excessive secretion of this hormone.

This increases heartbeat, and blood pressure increases due to the release of glycogen from the lever. The pulse rate also rises. Blood clots more quickly, more air enters the lungs, pupils enlarge and the body sweats profusely. The skin temperature also rises. Non-adrenaline constricts the blood vessels at the surface of the body as a result of which more blood is sent to other parts of the body.

Evidence also indicates the role of the thyroid and pituitary gland in emotional response. Research shows that adrenaline by itself may not necessarily arouse emotional experience or behavior. In a study done jointly by Cantril and Hunt (1932), 22 normal subjects were injected with adrenaline, 3 out of 22 reported unpleasant experiences, one pleasant experience, and ten no emotional experience, and the rest had different kinds of emotions.

Though subjects injected with adrenaline report that they feel as if they are going to have an emotional experience, they do not experience it. This suggests that in addition to adrenaline, probably emotion-provoking situations arid-related postural activities are necessary to produce emotional states.

The Galvanic Skin Response:
The galvanic skin response is measured with an apparatus called a psycho-galvanometer. It measures the electrical resistance in the skin; technically called electrodermal changes. These changes result from the activity of the sweat glands. The galvanic skin response associated with blood pressure and respiration is a highly sensitive objective indication that an emotional experience is taking place.

In addition to its presence in manual and mental work, its presence is evident in upsetting emotional conditions. According to Munn (1953), changes in the galvanometer following emotional stimulations are due to the lowering of electrical resistance between the two electrodes on the skin. Munn further adds that the GSR may be studied in terms of its latency, its amplitude, its duration, and some derivative of such indices.

Pupillometrics:
Pupillometry is a novel technique for measuring physiological changes during emotional studies. The pupil of the eye during emotional states dilates in response to stimuli that arouse a favorable reaction and contracts in response to unpalatable and disliked stimuli. Thus pupillometry is based on Darwin’s view of the eyes widening and narrowing during emotion.

In 1960, Eckhard Hess rediscovered this fact in an incidental observation. Hess made further laboratory study on this and found the size of the pupil changes with die favorable or unfavorable nature of the stimulus, which may be taste, sound, or sight. It is assumed that pupillometrices are of immense value in psychotherapy as a diagnostic tool, in particular.

By looking at pictures loaded with emotional complexes the patient can without his knowledge hint at the stresses in his personality. Precisely, the reactions of his eyes will reveal this. Pupillometrics can also be used in lie detection, as pupil contracts only to unpleasant stimuli.

Gastro-Intestinal Functions:
There is also a change in gastrointestinal functions during emotional behavior. Gastro¬intestinal functions are usually measured with the help of balloons inserted into the stomach or intestines. By observing the stomach directly gastric functions can also be measured. Munn (1953) has given an example of this connection.

The patient suddenly experienced fear one morning amid a phase of accelerated gastric function. An errata doctor entered the room muttering imprecations about an important protocol that had been lost. The patient had misled it and feared that he had lost the record and his job. He lay motionless on the table and his face became pale.

Prompt and decided pallor occurred also in his gastric mucosa, and associated with it there occurred a fall in the rate of acid production. A minute later the doctor found his paper and left the room. Forthwith the face and the gastric mucosa of the patient regained their former color”.

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CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-2

Question 7.
What is the motive? Describe biological motive.
Answer:
Motivational terms like line desire, wish aim, drive, purpose, goal-oriented activity, urge, incentive and so on which go to mean motive. All these motivational terms regulate the behavior of a person. Motivation is derived from the Latin word “movere” which means to move.

Types of motive:
Motivation has been classified by psychologists into some categories. These are:

  • Biological motives
  • Social motives
  • Psychological motives

We discussed the
Biological Motives:
The biological motives are rooted in the physiological state of the body, hunger, thirst, sex is the most obvious biological or physiological motives. They are physiological because they are associated directly with physiological systems. Other physiological motives include temperature regulation, sleep, pain avoidance, and a need for oxygen.

Hunger:
Earlier Experimental literature on hunger reveals that the source of hunger drive is stomach contractions. The experiments were simple. The observers used subjects who were trained to swallow small balloons with rubber tubes attached. The balloons were inflated in the stomach and the rubber tubes were connected to kymographs recording mechanisms.

Here each spasm of the stomach muscles could cause a mark on the smoked drum. On different occasions, the subjects were also asked to press the key when they felt hunger pangs. As a result, a mark was made on the drum just below the record of stomach activities. Further, the abnormal breathing of subjects was also recorded.

The investigator, here, could decide very well whether the spasms represented in the record were due to the stomach or abdominal movements. It was observed that the hunger pangs coincided with stomach contractions, but these pangs were not related to movements of the abdominal muscles. But the recent works on hunger reveal a different story.

The conclusions depict that the relationship between stomach contractions and hunger is weak. A joint venture of both psychologists and physiologists tried to find out some other conditions of the body which trigger hunger. Recent research also has shown that people report normal feelings of hunger even when the nerves from the stomach have been cut or the stomach has been entirely removed.

Physiologists believe that changes in the metabolic functions of the liver when fuel supplies are low provide the body’s stimulus for hunger. The liver can give a signal to the hypothalamus that more fuel is needed which triggers the hunger drive. Further experiments on the functions of the hypothalamus revealed that two regions of the hypothalamus are involved in the hunger drive-lateral hypothalamus and ventromedial area.

The lateral hypothalamus is the excitatory area. Animals eat when this area is stimulated. When this area is damaged, animals stop eating and die of starvation. On the other hand, the ventromedial area is located in the middle of the hypothalamus, which is otherwise known as the ‘ hunger-controlling area’. Experts consider this area as the inhibited region of the hunger drive.

Studies revealed that when this ventromedial area is dangered, animals develop voracious appetites. They went to take a huge amount of food and they also overeat. Experimental literature also reveals that cessation of eating or satiety is controlled by a hormone called Cholecystokinin (cck), which is released into the bloodstream when food reaches the intestine (Gibbs Smith, 1973).

Injections of cck into food-deprived rats who are eating causes them to stop eating and start grooming and other behaviors which are part of satiety in animals (Smith & Gibbs, 1976). But the role of ‘cck’ as a satiety hormone has been questioned. Both the hypothalamus and blood chemistry are, no doubt, responsible for hunger.

Thirst:
Thirst serves as a strong drive mechanism in both animals and humans. Humans can live for weeks without eating, but they can not live only for a few days without replenishing their supply of fluid. When human beings experience fluid deprivation, their mouths and throats become dry, cooling them to drink.

Previously it was believed that drinking is triggered by a dry mouth. But physiologists revealed that dry mouth does not result in enough drinking to regulate the water balance of the body. Thirst and drinking are controlled by processes within the body itself. Since maintaining the water level is essential for life itself.

The body has a set of complicated internal homeostatic processes to regulate its fluid level and drinking behavior. Our body’s water level is maintained by physiological events in which several hormones play a vital role. One of these hormones is the antidiuretic hormone (ADII). It regulates the loss of water through the kidneys.

Experts feel that thirst drive and drinking of water are mainly triggered by two mechanisms. The first one is that when the water level of the body goes down, certain neurons located within the hypothalamus begin to give out water. The thirst which results from this mechanism is known as “cellular dehydration thirst.”

Some experimental results also revealed that the loss of water from the cells in a particular region of the hypothalamus might initiate the drinking behavior. The experiments view that the neurons in the preoptic regions of the hypothalamus (Known as osmoreceptors) are responsible for controlling the drinking behavior of the organism.

Thirst triggered by the loss of water from the osmoreceptors is called “cellular-dehydration thirst”. The second mechanism which is responsible for triggering drinking behavior is known as t ‘hypovolemia’ or the condition of low blood plasma volume. Loss of water in the body results in hypovolemia or a decrease in the volume of the blood.

When blood volume goes down, so does blood pressure. The drop in blood pressure stimulates the kidney to release an enzyme called ‘renin’. This enzyme is involved in the formation of a substance known as ‘angiotensin’ which circulates the blood and may trigger drinking.

Sex Drive:
Partially sexual behavior depends on physiological conditions. So it may be considered a biological motive. But sexual motivation is far more than a biological drive. Sexual motivation is social because it involves other people and provides the basis for social grouping in higher animals.

Sexual behavior is powerfully regulated by social pressures and religious beliefs. Sex is psychological because it is an important part of our emotional lives. It can provide intense pleasure, but it can also give us agony and involve us in many difficult decisions. Till now, physiologists are trying to find out the exact location of the internal control of the sexual drive.

No doubt, the intensity of sexual urges is dependent upon chemical substances circulating in the blood known as sex hormones. Studies confirmed that this urge is profoundly influenced by the presence of hormones produced by tests in males and ovary cases of human beings, socio-cultural and emotional factors seem to play pivotal roles.

Sleep:
Sleep is a basic necessity of life. About one-third of our life is spent sleeping. It is a dramatic alteration of consciousness and it also happens spontaneously. The ordinary fluctuations in consciousness are part of the rhythmic. All creatures in this world are influenced by nature’s rhythms.

Human beings are at least a time cycle known as circadian rhythms. These rhythms are bodily patterns that repeat approximately every 24 hours. About one-third of the circadian rhythm is devoted to the period of energy-restoring rest called sleep. The most significant discovery after EEG technology in sleep research was that of rapid eye movement (REM).

These are the bursts of quick eye movements under closed eyelids, occurring at periodic intervals during sleep. The time when a sleeper is not showing REM is known as non-REM or NREM sleep (NREM). Dreams are possible during REM sleep. But NREM reports were filled with brief descriptions of ordinary daily activities, similar to waking thoughts.

Research evidence indicated that over the course of the night, our sleep cycle crosses several stages, each of which shows a distinct EEG pattern. It takes about 90 minutes to progress through the first four stages of sleep (NREM sleep). The first period of REM sleep last for about 10 minutes. In a night’s sleep, an individual passes through this 100-minute cycle four.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-2

Question 8.
What are social motives?
Answer:
Social motives are otherwise known as secondary motives. These are also known as acquired learned motives. These motives are complex in nature. Social motives are called secondary because they involve interaction with others and are learned due to social conditioning in a social context.

Need for affiliation:
Seeking other human beings and waiting to be close to them both physically and psychologically is called affiliation. It refers to keeping contact with other people, in other words, affiliation refers to the need that people have to be with others. This motive is aroused when individuals feel helpless or threatened and also when they are happy.

Research findings indicate that fear and anxiety are closely related to affiliation motives. Where the degree of anxiety and threat is very high, such affiliation behavior is often absent. Studies also revealed that early learning experiences influence this motive. The first-born or the only child in the family had stronger affiliation motives than those bom later.

Studies have also shown that children who are brought up to be dependent or raised with closed family ties show a stronger affiliation motive than those coming from more closely-knit families which encourages early independence. Cultural differences were also found. Affiliation needs are stronger in some cultures than in others.

Need for Power:
The need for power is an independent motive. It expresses itself in behaviors, which tend to control and influence the course of events including the behaviors of others. History reveals that mankind has always struggled for power. Power was desired by the individuals as an instrument to satisfy other motives like aggression, greed, affiliation, etc. But in recent years, emphasis has been placed on the power motive as independent in itself. This view was emphasized by McClelland.

In his theory, David Me Clelland (1975) has expressed that power motivation can be revealed in four general ways:

People do things to gain feelings of power and strength from sources outside themselves. For example, children express power motivation by reading stories. Individuals gain strength fry reading the activities of past leaders. People do things to gain feelings of power and strength from sources within themselves.

For example, a college student may express power motivation by building up the body and by mastering urges and impulses. People do things to have an impact on others. For example, an individual may argue with another individual or may have a competitive attitude in order to influence that person. People do things as members of organizations to have an impact on others.

For example, the leader of a political party may use the principles of his party or an army officer may express the need for power through the chain of command to influence others. Studies reveal that for any individual, one of these ways of expressing power motivation may dominate. But a combination of power motives can not be ruled out.

With age and life experiences, the dominant mode of expression often changes. Studies have also shown that women seem to have less strong needs for power than men. They choose indirect ways to impact and influence. For example, women prefer to express their power motivation by being counselors, advisors, and resource persons for other people.

Depending on motive:
Shortly speaking dependency refers to interpersonal relationships where an individual behaves in a way in order to gain attention, assistance, comfort, and support from fellow men. For example, children use to spend more time with parents or intimate friends in difficult situations. People appear to be more dependent on social interactions and approval. Studies reveal that girls and women tend to be more dependent and affiliative than boys. In stress, people want to resort to dependency.

Co-operation motive:
Co-operation is an acquired motive. Moreover, it is a condition manifested when two or more individuals or groups work together to achieve a common goal. It signifies a lack of mutual disagreement and opposition among fellow group members and the absence of rivalry. Research evidence indicates that the citizens of Zuni of New Mexico are found to be extremely cooperative.

Being wealthy in Zuni brings no status. Status is derived not from power, but from friendship. A happy and successful Zuni has many friends. Different studies on altruism among children provide evidence that helping behavior can be fostered through the use of models (Paulson, 1974).

Conformity motive:
Conformity refers to the tendency to allow one’s opinions, attitudes, actions, and even perceptions to be affected by prevailing opinions, attitudes, actions, and perceptions. Very often people act in ways consistent with the majority. This tendency to ‘go along with the group is popularly known as behavioral conformity.

Changes in attitude and belief also take place due to pressures from others. It is known as ‘ attitudinal conformity’. There is also conformity of personality traits i.e. underlying characteristics of a person changes according to the norms of society. With the help of a conformity curve, F.H. Allport (1935) described the conformity motive phenomena.

He related that most people exhibit complete conformity to social norms with fewer and fewer people having deviations. Our submissiveness to social influences is due to conformity motives to the norms of the society in which we live. Norms refer to behavior that is usual or expected, acceptable, and socially prescribed.

Points to remember:

Question 1.
Define the meaning and definition of thinking.
Answer:
Thinking is a very often used psychological term in our daily life. The importance of thinking is evident not only for the wide use of the term but also because thinking helps in the solution of all our day-to-day problems. Thinking is the most complex of all psychological processes and it is thinking that normally differentiates man from lower animals.

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-2

Question 2.
Define the sensory-motor period.
Answer:
Sensory-Motor Period.
The sensory-motor period is the period that starts before the language development of the child. Piaget distinguished between two major stages in cognitive development i.e. sensory-motor intelligence (0-2 years) and conceptual intelligence (0-to Maturity). During the sensory-motor period, the child’s adaptations and activities do not involve extensive use of symbols or language.

Question 3.
Describe the stages of cognitive development by Piaget.
Answer:
Piaget is a development theorist who believes that cognitive development occurs gradually phase by phase.
Piaget has divided the entire period of cognitive development into four basic stages.

  • A sensorimotor period is 0-2 years approximately.
  • Preoperalionalperiod 2-7years approximately.
  • The concrete operational period is 7-12 years approximately.
  • The formal operational period is 12 years above approximately.

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