Bhagya

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part 2.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Type Questions with Answers

Question 1.
Discuss the meaning and operational definition of learning?
Answer:
Meaning and operational definition of learning:
Learning has been described by some as a modification of behavior. In learning vocabulary, tennis, football, remembering a poem, learning typing, or driving modification of behavior takes place. As a result of repeated practice modification of behavior takes place whether it is sensory, motor or psychological learning starts with an absolute zero. But this definition is too wide and suffers from vagueness. All modifications of behavior cannot be called learning. Some cases of change of behavior appear like learning from the surface. Once not actually learning modification of behavior due to:

• Sensory adaptation
• Maturation
• Fatigue
• Drugs cannot be attributed to learning

Sensory adaption:
When you entered the class you got the strong smell of perfume. But after a few minutes, you are no more aware of the fragrance as the Olfactory sense organ has adapted very quickly. This insensitiveness to the smell of perfume is not because of previous learning but because of the adaptability of the Olfactory senses of the individual.

Maturation:
Two kinds of changes in behavior take place: Those changes which occur due to endogenous (internal) factors are called changes due to growth and maturation, Those changes in behavior that take place due to external factors like environment are called learning changes, called maturational changes. Thus, due to maturation birds start signing at a particular period. The human babysits, stands, walks, and babbles at a particular age. Sexual growth starts at a particular age and so on.

Changes in behavior due to maturation should not, therefore, be confused with changes in behavior due to learning. Changes due to maturation are usually stereotyped and practically identical to all members of the species. But most of the learning changes are varied, also behavior changes due to abnormal glandular secretion, brain damage, and disease should not be attributed to learning.

Fatigue:
A decrement in work performance takes place because of fatigue or tiredness. Fatigue decreases efficiency. A student who is taking down notes in the class at a fantastic speed in the early hours, may not be able to write at the same speed in the last hours. comparative change in performance is not due to learning, but due to fatigue. A person is instructed to draw two parallel lines as quickly as possible for an unlimited period.

After some time, the performance gradually decreases and a period comes when he cannot move his wrist any further. Does this work decrement take place because of practice, due to learning? No, it is not due to practice or learning. It is due to fatigue. This work decrement is also temporary and disappears after rest or change in work.

Drug:
After taking some drugs, some people may suffer from the “drug effects”. The effect of drugs brings a complete change in their behavior for a temporary period. This change in behavior of the ‘ O ’ is not due to practice and hence cannot be attributed to learning. Further temporary that it cannot be called a case of learning.

In view of these facts, learning can be described as a permanent modification of behavior as a result of past experience and practice. Practice reinforces learning firstly, the change in behavior must be more or less, permanent and secondly, it must be the effect of past experience and practice. Any modification of behavior not due to past experience and practice cannot be attributed to learning.

Learning can also be defined as a progressive improvement in performance as a function of practice. No improvement in performance would be possible if the practice does not result in cumulative retention. Secondly, the change that we refer to in learning must be a quantitative and measurable change in performance. The following table demonstrates the measurable change in the performance of a person while learning typing.

Day	Errors	Av. Performance in 30 Minutes
1	25	15Owords
2	32	180 words
3	34	190 words
4	30	190 words
5	25	200 words
6	15	230 words
7	15	230words
8	12	250words
9	06	300 words
10	00	320 words

Both reductions in error and an increase in the speed of typing day by day suggest that the output of learning can be measured by trial. A number of different learning psychologists have emphasized different aspects of learning in their definitions. Some of them are discussed below Boaz (1984) defines learning as the process by which the individual acquires various habits, knowledge, and attitudes that are necessary to meet the demands of life in general.

Learning according to Boaz is a continuous psychological activity that takes place to solve the problems, needs, and demands of the concerned person. Secondly, by learning he develops those attitudes, knowledge, and habits that are required to meet the specific needs of problems of the learner. A person leams typing and shorthand to get a paying job as a personal secretary. A student leams cycling, so as to cover the distance from his residence to school.

A housewife leams the operation of electrical gadgets for the smooth functioning of domestic work, a girl learns cooking, knitting, and signing to have better prospects in the marriage market. Thus, Boaz emphasizes the motivation behind every learning. Learning by Morgan and King (1978) is defined “as any relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of practice and experience.” thus he deals with three major elements Learning is a change in behavior.

it is a change that takes place through practice and experience. Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent; it must last a fairly long time. According to Garrett, “Learning is that activity by virtue of which we organize our response with new habits.” Thus the element of organization in learning cannot be overlooked according to Garrett. In the opinion of Woodworth, learning a new thing adds to one’s experiences. He emphasizes the role of reinforcement in learning by saying it is indispensable for learning.

Woodworth and Scholasberg have given a very comprehensive definition of learning. According to them, “Learning is a change that occurs in the ‘O ’during any kind of activity. It shows later on after the effect of activity. A later activity is different from the earlier activity. We are tempted to say that learning is demonstrated when even a later activity shows some after-effects of earlier activity.

According to Ruch (1970), Learning is a process that brings about changes in the individual s way of responding as a result of contact with aspects of the environment. Ruch views that behavioral changes induced by drugs, brain injury, and maturation are not considered to involve learning Hilgard has defined.

learning as follows Learning is the process by which an activity originates or is changed through training procedures as is distinguished from changes by factors attributable to training. According McGcoch, “Learning as we measure it is a change in performance as a function of practice. In most cases, if not in all, this change has a direction which satisfies the current motivating conditions of the individual.”

Question 2.
What is trial and error of learning? Describe the process of trial and error learning with an experiment?
Answer:
Methods or process of Learning :
How learning takes place? This has been a major issue for many decades and various methods have been developed for learning psychologists to explain how learning takes place. Theories of learning explain the learning process. Mainly the learning theories can be classified into two groups on the basis of their approaches. Stimulus – Response Theory supported by Thorndike, Pavlov, Skinner, Hull, Guthrie, etc. Cognitive Theory is supported by Kohler, Koffka Tolman, Lewin, etc.

The S-R theorists argue that learning occurs by habit due to a chain of reflexes. The ‘ O ’ learns to perform an activity by repeating the performance which brings the correct response or which leads one to reach the goal. This sort of learning process according to them takes place purely mechanically due to habit, due to stimulus-response association.

It does not require the understanding, the brain, or the intelligence of the learner. Paradoxically, cognitive theorists stress the role of organism variables in any learning. They argue that for any learning process to continue, intelligence, understanding, cognitive structure, etc. play an important role. Thus, they stress the role of brain processes in learning. They emphasize the means and the end, and understanding of the situation as a whole.

E.L. Thorndike’S Contribution To Trial And Error Learning:
The psychology of learning owes its existence to American Psychologist E.L. Thorndike (1874¬1949) for his first scientific study of learning. A glance at the contemporary situation of learning psychology indicates that for over half a century, the whole scene of learning psychology has been dominated by one person directly or indirectly and he is E.L. Thorndike.

It is also interesting to note that Thorndike has many followers as well as haters and rivals. When he first propounded his theory of Trial and Error Learning, it produced quite a stir in psychology. Tolman has, therefore, rightly pointed out, “He may be a starting point of attack.”. So, it is said that the psychology of animal learning, not to speak that of child learning, has been or still is primarily a matter of agreeing or disagreeing with Thorndike or tiyin in minor ways to improve upon him.

Prior to Thorndike, nobody did deal with the problem of motivation, not even Wundt or Ebbinghaus. But Thorndike brought a radical change in the history of psychology by bringing motivation into the picture. He conducted a large number of experiments on animal learning, and contemporary psychology and came to the conclusion that animals have no rational faculty in learning. They do not leam by reasoning but by trial and error.

Trial And Error Learning:
Animals go on hitting the target by impulse or leam out of a blunder of hit and miss. This is called Trial and Error Learning. Among the random hits, the correct response which is rewarded is ‘ Stamped in’. The wrong response which is not rewarded is ‘ Stamped out’. Thus; stamping incorrect responses and stamping out wrong ones is the core of learning according to Thorndike.

Trial and error is the simplest form of learning. It came into existence by means of animal experimentation. The trial and error method means trying one way to escape, reach the food or solve a problem, becoming unsuccessful and so trying another way. In this manner, the animal tries and tries until the correct solution is achieved until the goal is reached. The correct response is then repeated to strengthen the S-R connection.

This sort of hit-and-miss learning proceeds slowly, and gradually. The errors fall slowly. The process of selecting and rejecting consists of this gradualness. On the basis of his vast amount of findings on animal experimentation. Thorndike viewed that animals come to leam things quite by chance rather than by anything like understanding. They learn blindly, mechanically, and randomly.

The solution comes by chance, accidentally. To study animal learning by Trial and Error method. Thorndike conducted a classic experiment on a hungry cat, which is described below A hungry cat was put inside a puzzle box. A piece of food (motivation) was kept outside the box at a little distance so that the cat cannot reach it unless she opens the door of the puzzle box. The cat had to press the lever by pulling the loop of the chord to open the door and to get the fish.

At first, the cat tried a number of ways and made lots of unnecessary movements to open the door. The random movements included clawing, biting, pulling, pushing, thrusting, and paws through any opening and the like. In this way after trying several hit-and-miss random acts, making enough struggle, accidentally, the loop was pulled and the door opened.

Finally, the animal reached its goal. Time taken for reaching the food was recorded. After several trials like this, the cat learned to go straight to the lever, press it, open the door and reach the food. A comparison of the time and unnecessary movements from the first to the last trial showed a gradual decrement in the time taken to reach the food.

Also, the unnecessary movements gradually decreased. This type of random hit-or-miss, exploratory activity is called Trial and Error. When these data are plotted into a curve, the irregular slopes at places indicate that animals do things accidentally without understanding. In this case, the cat leams through errors.

Question 3.
Discuss the stages of trial and error learning?
Answer:
Stages of Trial and Error Learning:
Need or Drive:
For any learning to operate need or drive is essential. It goals or motivates the organism to action. In Thorndike’s experiment, the cat was hungry. Hunger was the drive and the need was to get food. In certain cases when the cat is not hungry, the drive for exploration may serve as the need in learning the maze. The motivation should be goal oriented.

For instance, the cat is hungry. But there is no food outside the puzzle box. In this case, the animal will not try at all to open the door, unless, of course, the need to escape from the box operates as a goal. There must be some goal whatsoever, otherwise learning will not be effective.

Block or Resistance:
By preventing the direct release of tension blocks are created so that the animal would make attempts to learn. Without blocks, there cannot be any learning. Thorndike made many T & Y mazes and artificial blocks.

Random Movement:
Rigidity on the part of the ‘O’ does not help to learn quickly. Accidentally the rat heats so many paths; shows random, variable hit-and-miss kinds of activities that are blind, mechanical, and lack understanding and meaning.

Chance Success:
When the cat was trying to get the fish, it made many random unsuccessful activities. Out of these random attempts, by chance, accidentally, the ‘O’ succeeds in reaching the goal. So in .trial and error learning, success comes by chance.

Selection:
The successful movements or the correct responses which lead to the goal are reinforced and hence selected for further practice. The unsuccessful activities are discarded and the successful ones are encountered. This is called selection.

Repetition of the Successful Movements:
Repetition of successful movements leads to the establishment of a habit for a definite movement. When the cat found that certain selected movements led him to food, it attempted only those movements that enabled him to get out of the box and reach the food.

Fixation:
Fixation takes place due to habit, due to the repetition of the successful movements. The habit leads to a definite S-R connection. In fixation, certain essential factors like a decrease in time taken to reach the goal, no random movement, and anticipation of behavior observed. All the above principles are found generally, in any type of trial and Error learning.

Question 4.
Discuss briefly the curve of trial and error learning and maze learning?
Answer:
The curve of Trial and Error:
A curve can be drawn by taking the learning trial, a number of errors, etc. into consideration. The trial and error learning curve has the usual characteristics of a gradual decrease in time and error.

The blind and random activities, at last, come to an end. Errors become zero when the learning becomes perfect. But the time period never comes to zero because some time is necessary to reach the food object. It will vary from organism to organism according to its physiological limit A Japanese experimenter, Kuo did an experiment, on Maze. Shock chambers and confined chambers were allowed.

The shock was given in the earlier path but no food, he went in the short path but got shocked. So he went on another path but again got shocked. Finally, he went on another path and took more time to run. He learned the last path because it gave him reward and pleasure. In this case frequency with reward was found to be the effective answer. Kuo thus disapproved. Thorndike’s Frequency Theory by finding that frequency followed by motivation results in learning.

Kuo’s experiment concludes that practice always depends upon the consequence of reward. The rewarded learning is only fixated. Adam repeated Trial and Error Learning and formulated certain principles which opposed Thorndike’s. He conducted an experiment on discrimination learning where the monkey was trained to select a particular circle that brought him food.

There are two circles, one is big and the other is small. Food is always reinforced to the small circle. After some training, this big circle was substituted by a small circle which was smaller than the second one. In spite of this change in the size of the first circle, the monkey discriminated between the two circles and also learned to always respond to the circle which accompanied the food.

Here, Adam says, the monkey did not learn quite blindly but tried to perceive the relationship between the circles and discriminate one from the other. So he retorted, animals always do not learn by chance. Their activities are not always random or unsuccessful. Sometimes the animal tries to understand the situation and gives a response accordingly.

Thorndike counteracted this criticism by the argument that trial and error learning occurs in the case of lower animals only. Monkeys, chimpanzees, and human beings do not learn by trial and error. Adam conducted another experiment where even after 21 trials, the animal did not learn to open the latch because there was no reinforcement (food) outside the box. But when the smell of fish was noticed by the animal, it tried to open the latch.

Thus, Adam proved that motivation followed by practice strengthens learning. He proved that without motivation learning cannot be specific. This data also went against Throndike’s assumption and emphasized more practice for effective learning. The findings of several such studies led to severe criticism of the Law of Exercise of Thorndike. Thus after 1933 of Effect was included along with the Law of Exercise.

Maze Learning:
Several maze methods were used extensively to demonstrate trial-and-error learning. Maze refers to a number of complicated ways in which the ‘O’ tries to escape or to seek food. In such learning, time and errors are taken as criteria of learning. As the time and errors, reduce the ‘O’ is said to proceed toward learning. The number of unnecessary movements taken to reach the goal is counted as error. By making suitable readjustments, each time the ‘O’ attempts to improve his performance.

Question 5.
What is human learning define the meaning of the law of learning and explain different laws of learning?
Answer:
Human Learning:
Human beings also learn by trial and error method. A human ‘O’ is given to learning a complicated maze blindfolded. In the beginning, he makes several wrong movements though less in degree than, the animal. Gradually in a few trials, he learns the maze. Besides simple mazes, hand stylus and complicated mazes are also used in human learning. Trial and learning also take place in our everyday life.

Opening a lock by selecting from a bunch of keys without knowing the actual key, solving a sum by different formulas, sensory-motor learning like tracing star papers with the help of mirror drawing, typing, cycling, and other motor skills are all cases of trial and error learning. Though simple by nature, the trial and error method is said to be one of the most important methods of learning.

In some conditioning and insightful learning trial and error, the method is also involved. Trial and error learning can be overt and covert. Thinking is said to be covert or mental trial and error. However, the trial and error method does not take into account the importance of the whole situation in learning. It has always emphasized part learning, i.e., learning part by part.

Laws of Learning:
on the basis of several experimental findings on animal learning. Thorndike formulated certain laws to explain, the fundamental process of learning. Learning can be explained as an operation of these laws or principles. These laws explain the how and why of learning, a) Law, of Readiness It refers to the physical or psychological (mental) preparedness of a person to do a job or to attend to a stimulus.

If one is prepared to learn; or acquire something, he welcomes it and gets a satisfying feeling while doing it. Conversely, if one is not ready to receive a stimulus, he regrets it and demonstrates dissatisfaction while making a response. Thus, in the opinion of Thorndike, readiness for doing work makes learning smooth, pleasant, and economical.

The Law of readiness has three parts:
If there is, a conduction unit that is ready to conduct an impulse, the act of conducting is satisfying or pleasing. This unit is nothing but a neural pathway or a relay of neural. If there is a conduction unit that is ready to conduct, not doing so is annoying. You are all prepared to/run a race. You are in attendance. If this race is canceled suddenly you are annoyed.

You are all dressed for a film show. Your spouse or friend does not reach in time to accompany you to the show. So it is canceled and you are deeply annoyed. If there is a conduction unit not ready to conduct and if you force one to conduct that creates annoyance. For instance, when you are not ready to sing a song but are forced to do so, it creates annoyance.

Some critics of Thorndike argue that Thorndike in three formulations speaks entirely in terms of physiology, only neural readiness. But looking at these laws, it seems that no legitimate physiological meaning can be attached to them. Later students of Thorndike attempted to attach a more legitimate meaning to these principles.

They say that though Thorndike speaks in the language of physiology, he actually meant psychology. Thus they interpret the conduction unit as a readiness, a set, a preparedness for making a response tendency which is more a psychological readiness.

Law of Exercise:
It is the principle of repetition or the frequency principle. This law states that if an S-R connection is used repeatedly, the strength of that connection is increased and if an S-R connection is not used, the strength of that connection is weakened. Repetition, therefore, increases the strength of response and lack of repetition weakens it. Hence, the law of exercise is based on the principle “Practice makes one perfect. A person who has repeated a poem several times will remember it more than one who has not.

The Law of exercise comprises two short laws:
Law of use and law of disuse. The S-R connection is strengthened by using it and weakened by not using it. This law of exercise is defined in terms probability of response strengthening and weakening. This suggests that the response acquires proficiency when it is repeated. Proficiency decreases when it is not repeated.

Criticism – Other behaviorists Thorndike took the law of exercise as the sole principle of learning. They argued that it leads to the fixation of certain definite S-R responses, a tendency leading to specific learning. But many experiments including Adam proved that learning is net-specific as Thorndike thought. It is rather a general orientation. Adam and others found that the same animal used different methods to achieve the same goal.

Thus, considerable doubt is focused on the specific nature of learning. Secondly, subsequent learning psychologists did not find the law of exercise as effective as Thorndike thought. Mere repetition without motivation does hot achieves anything. The person must have some reinforcement or incentive to learn a skill. Otherwise, practice proves ineffective.

Several experiments on knowledge of results show that repetition without reinforcement does not bring learning. Japanese psychologist Kuo has also found the same thing. That learning becomes ineffective without an intention to learn is proven in most of our daily activities. In view of this criticism, Thorndike decided to Supplement the Law exercise with the law of effect.

Law of Effect:
It follows from the Law of Exercise. The Law of effect refers to Some kind of reward or reinforcement. It stresses the role of motivation in learning. It is the cornerstone, the cardinal principle of Thorndike’s theory of learning. Thorndike viewed that in all situations involving learning, be its sensory or motor or both, the principle of effect is exemplified. conditioning learning, insightful learning, and in trial and or learning, the law of effect is indispensable. This law is responsible for the selection of some goals and the rejection of others. The whole system of Thorndike, in fact, falls or rises with this law.

Question 6.
What is learning of performance and discuss the maturation of learning?
Answer:
Learning and Performance:
Sometimes learning is confused performance. But learning is different from performance. Learning cannot be directly observed, but it is inferred from performance. So learning contributes to performance, but it is only one ingredient of performance. Performance is affected by many factors other than learning. Performance refers to observed behavior while learning can only be observed through performance.

The several factors which influence performance are – need, motivation, attitude, past experience, and learning. Thus, among several factors influencing performance, learning is only one factor.

Learning and Maturation:
Learning basically depends upon the psychological system, i.e. the sensory organs and the cerebral cortex. The growth of organs, therefore, helps in learning. Whatever training we may give to a baby of 5 months, he cannot walk or speak a language. Similarly, a five-year-old boy cannot solve complex mathematical problems, because the solution to mathematical problems depends upon the development of intelligence and the cerebral cortex.

If the brain is not ready enough to grasp a thing, learning will not be possible. Thus it seems apparent that maturation of that organ is necessary, which is to be used for particular learning. What is Maturation? If simply refers to growth, both physically arid and mental. Munn (1954) opines that maturation in man depends upon the existence of human genes and human intracellular, intercellular, and external preconditions.

Those changes which take place due to endogenous or internal factors are called changes due to the influence of growth and maturation. Changes due to the influence of external factors are due to learning. Maturation mostly depends upon prenatal conditions and genes and partly upon the environment. Maturation can be accelerated or retarded by the postnatal environment because feedback from the early environment has also something to do with growth and maturation.

Maturation occurs after birth as well as before. Maturation greatly depends upon heredity. But since the early environmental conditions play a role in development, it would be incorrect to say that any structure or function which matures is purely inherited. Due to the major influence of heredity and genes upon maturation, birds start singing at a particular age, and children start walking and babbling at a particular age. Sexual growth also begins at a particular period of life, even though no training is given.

Hence maturation does not depend upon learning maturation can be accelerated by training, by the factors of the external environment. Maturation can take place without learning, within the four walls. A person can sit, stand, walk and babble without getting special training. A lot of research on maturation has been conducted on animals and some on human infants. Evidence of maturation is found in experiments on birds, rats, monkey,s and human infants.

Arnold Gesell (1946) conducted a study to examine the importance of maturation over learning. She took two twin girls, say A and B. At 46 weeks A was trained to climb stairs and she took several weeks to leam the skill. At 53 weeks B, her sister, was taught to climb the same stairs. She only took 2 weeks to leam it. This difference in learning can be well attributed to better maturation in the case of who was taught to climb stairs seven weeks after her sister A was taught.

The findings of this study make it clear that maturation helps one to leam much more quickly. It also suggests that maturation may not necessarily depend upon learning, but learning definitely depends upon maturation. Why? According to Boaz (1984) “for the learning of complex tasks, particularly for the symbolic learning, maturation of the cerebral cortex and its association areas is an absolute necessity.

Lashley’s experimental findings also show that learning ability directly depends upon the size of the cerebral cortex. That is why, when the child is not ready to leam, no amount of teaching or training will make any good. This is what everyone, including the parents and the teachers, should realize.

Kellog and Kellog (1933) conducted a classic experiment on “The Ape and the Child.” A human child Donald and a Chimpanzee baby Gua were brought up in the same environment and treated identically. Gua, who was two months younger than Donald was humanized earlier than Donald. Munn in this connection describes.

In learning to skip, cooperate with her foster parent, obey requests, kiss to makeup, open doors, anticipate her bowel and bladder needs, eat with a spoon, drink from a glass, and understand such expressions as “Kiss, Kiss” “Come here” Shake hands” and “Bad girl”. Gua was ahead of Donald. She learned faster than Donald because she was more mature.

The conclusions of this study are:
Though the Chimpanzee was of an inferior race and was superior to the child in certain respects due to greater early maturation, Donald could leam certain things like speaking, which Gua without special training could not leam, even though she was more mature. It is because men are more mature than apes.

Question 7.
Define (aw of learning). Describe the law of effect?
Answer:
On the basis of several experimental findings on animal learning. Thorndike formulated certain laws to explain the fundamental process of learning. Learning can be explained as an operation of these laws or principles.

Law of Effect:
It follows from the law of exercise. The Law of effect refers to some kind of reward or reinforcement. It stresses the role of motivation in learning. It is the consumer stone, the cardinal principle of Thorndike’s theory of learning. Thorndike viewed that in all situations involving learning. Law of effect in Thorndike’s opinion refers to the strengthening and weakening of connection as a result of its consequences.

When a modifiable connection is made and is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the connection is increased. If a connection is made and is followed by an annoying state of affairs, the strength is decreased. If the hungry rat gets food after running the maze, it again runs the maze when hungry. But if it fails to get food, it will no more run.

Similarly, if the dog in the conditioned response method gets food, after salivating to bell it will again salivate to below. The learning which gives satisfaction is repeated over and over again. Conversely, failure and dissatisfaction will create an aversion to that learning. If several runs in a particular pathway do not lead to food, but to shock, the rat with a feeling of failure leaves that path and takes another, which leads to a reward.

If the animal is rewarded, next time it expects food and so learns quickly. Thorndike talks about the effect in operational terms. A connection is strengthened and associated with fulfillment of drive, weakened in the case of the opposite. The strength of connection takes place in terms of result i.e., it depends upon the result. The law of effect, therefore, can be called the law of consequence of results from this angle.

The satisfying consequences or results are retained and the dissatisfying ones are eliminated. Thorndike said, “By a satisfying state of affairs is meant one which the animal does nothing to avoid, often doing things which maintain or renew it. It is something that the animal always tried to maintain. An annoying state of affairs is meant one in which the animal does nothing to preserve often doing things that put an end to it.

Objections against the Law of Effect:
Some have argued that Thorndike’s reasoning is circular. Thorndike had to define satisfaction and annoyance in the manner of annoyance. In the pretension of defining a problem, he again comes back to the same problem. Another objection comes from Watson himself. He said that it has a subjective tinge. So he stated that satisfaction and annoyance are connected with some mental state and as such is inappropriate for the description of animal behavior.

Thirdly, the “backward effect” of the Law of Effect has been certified, because the effect going backward is not logical according to them. In Thorndike’s view learning consists of a series of S-R units like S -S2-S3-S4-S5 and so on. The effect comes only at 5. However, it not only influences S. but all the back stimuli like S, S, S3, and S4. But since learning is discreet, how can it be connected with other stimuli, and how the correct response at the 5th’ stage can again go back to the first one?

This idea of Thorndike is very legitimately doubted. To meet this criticism Thorndike argued that the effect of going backward is a matter of empirical observation and reality and hence should not be challenged. The Geslaltists rejected the law of effect. Their objections were based upon experiments and hence more troublesome for Thorndike, the Law of effect, in spite of this criticism is central not only to Thorndike but to all who believe in some sort of reinforcement in learning.

This was the position of Thorndike up to 1929. From 1929 onwards, a very great change took place in his theory, i.e., he modified it. The necessity of modification arose due to severe criticism from various contemporaries like behaviorists and Gestalt Psychologists. Thorndike was so much perturbed by the criticism coming from the Gestalt School and from Iris’s own experimental findings at the meeting of International Congress in Psychology (1927).

he confessed “I am wrong” With this statement, he suggested some radical modifications to his theory of trial and error. He completely gave up the law of exercise and so the law of effect after 1930 was called the “Truncated Law of Effect.” The weakening effect of punishment was also given up or renounced. Thus, he substituted only half of the original law of effect.

The other half dealing with punishment was given up as the negative side appeared to be unimportant for learning. He stated that mere occurrence was enough to counterbalance the eliminating force of punishment. This he did on the basis of his famous experiment on chicks. In a simple maze, the choice of three correct pathways was given such as:

• Freedom,
• Company,
• Food.

The wrong responses led to a punishment of confinement for 30 seconds. A careful record of the data was kept in regard to the times the chicks followed a path when it led to rewarding and it led to punishment. The aim was to examine if a particular pathway led to food or freedom or company or electric shock, and how often the different paths are repeated.

The findings of this study led Thorndike to conclude that rewarding a connection always strengthened it substantially, and punishing it weakened, it a little or not at all. Thorndike found that there was almost a universal view that reward was more efficacious than punishment. Contemporary psychologists called this the law reinforcement. Thorndike also discovered another important phenomenon in the law of effect.

It is known as The Spread of Effect. He noticed that the effect of reward was not only upon the connection with which the reward associated but also upon the neighborhood connections. Effect strengthens these connections which have preceded and followed reward. In short, reward not only strengthens the right connections but also the adjacent connections.

This Thomdike said is a kind of gradient effect. Subsequent experiments on the spread of the effect have yielded similar findings. Tiffin and Nuttin, for instance, got extensive results. However, this phenomenon of the spread of effect has been denied on experimental and statistical grounds. People said on the basis of empirical findings that the spread of effect is not real but conditional.

Thorndike’s theory after 1930 can be summarized as follows:
Reward is extremely urgent for learning. It minimizes the effect of punishment. In matters of potency, the reward is so potent counterbalances the effect of punishment. Rewarding connection always strengthens it substantially. Punishment weakens the connection little or not at all. Thorndike’s law of learning after 1930had a lot of social implications. The modification of this law is at the root of all social changes. It is more practical in classroom teaching, in jails, and in juvenile reform centers.

Spare the rod, spoil the child is based on this principle of learning. Canning has been banned in educational institutions. Physical punishment also is not in much use today. Thus, prisoners in jail, school students, and for juvenile delinquents laws of effect tremendous importance. The three important views about the law of effect are as follows Law of effect is essential to learning – Thorndike, Hull.

Question 8.
Discuss the few other laws of the theory of Thorndike and critical evaluation?
Answer:
Thorndike’s theory:
Thorndike has a number of subsidiary laws. They are The law of multiple responses, i.e. there are a number of responses at the disposal of the ‘O’. when one fails, one other is tried by the law of prepotency; and the law of associative setting. A few other laws of learning have also been referred to by Thorndike, which are discussed below:

Law of Contiguity:
Contiguity refers to nearness. Nearness can be two types, nearness of space and nearness of time. If two things are experienced together, either due to the nearness of space or time, when one is experienced, the other immediately comes to our mind. Blackboard and chalk, library and librarian are related by contiguity of space. When is face one, the other immediately comes focus of our consciousness? An example of the contiguity of time is thunder and lightning. When we see the lightning, immediately we anticipate the thunder which follows the lightning at once.

Law of Frequency:
It is a frequent occurrence that gives an advantage. When nerve connections are frequently used, they leave a particular mark on memory. This is suggested by Thorndike physiological change. It is very much related to the law of exercise. The Law of frequency and the law of exercise are sometimes considered as having equal functions.

Law of Recency:
Any act which has been performed recently has the advantage of being learned and remembered more quickly than the older, far-off, and distant experiences. The recent experiences are better remembered because Neural pathways involved in recent experiences are the last to be activated and the impression in the nerves is fresh. they were the acts nearer to the solution and satisfaction of the need.

The last attempt is the recent attempt and it is a nearer goal that gives a satisfying experience. So it is learned and remembered quickly. While learning the maze box, the rat remembers the last path move vividly as it brought food and satisfied its hunger need. Psychologists who have criticized the law of recency and the law of exercise believe that it is an atomic or molecular approach.

Law of Primacy:
First impressions last long. Other things being equal, all first-learned things are better remembered. The first time one meets a person, the first day of joining college, the first night of I marriage, and the first, time one joins a job or receives his pay packet are examples. Similarly, the first line of a song and the first syllable from a list of nonsense syllables are quickly learned.

Due to the operation of a law of primacy and recency, the first and last nonsense syllables of a list are more easily remembered than the materials in the middle of the list. The first things get enough time to be consolidated and there is no proactive inhibition in this case while in the middle series, both proactive inhibition and retroactive inhibition operate.

Law of Intensity:
If the experience is very intense and emotional, it is easily remembered and further learning may not be necessary to remember it. Certain childhood experiences which are extremely pleasant or deeply shocking like getting a gold medal as a reward, the sudden death of parents and failure in an examination may be remembered for the entire life because of their intense nature.

Intense experiences need not be repeated. One single experience will be enough to be remembered for one entire life. However, according to the theory of repression, if the experience is too shocking or unpleasant, it may be forgotten due to the operation of the mechanism of repression.

Law of Belongingness:
The Law of belongingness by its recognition of an organizing principle is foreign to the structure of Thorndike’s theory of specificity and mechanical action. Rather it gives some recognition to the Gestalt principles in learning. Attacked by Kohler, Koffka, and other Gestaltists for his neglect of organizational principles, Thorndike developed this law of belongingness. It states that the effect is stronger if it belongs to the stimulus-response connection.

Following this line, Thorndike said that if there is an S R connection and the effect belongs to it, the influence is weaker. When one is hungry, food belongs to the situation and so the hunger-food connection makes learning more efficient. When one is hungry, water does not belong to it, only food belongs to it, and only food can satisfy the need of hunger. The belongingness of reward and punishment depends upon the appropriateness of satisfying an arousal motive or want in the learner.

The concession to the principle of belongingness is a concession to the field psychologists who stress the field factor in every learning. Introducing this principle, Thorndike says that effect is more efficacious when it is an effect with belongingness. Belongingness of reward and punishment depends upon its appropriateness is satisfying.

An aroused motive or want in the learner and in its logical and informative relationship to the activities rewarded and punished. To be rewarded with a glass of water when one is thirsty is a reward with belongingness. Without belongingness, though the aftereffect cannot be denied, with belongingness they are more effective.

Critical Evaluation of Thorndike’s Theory:
Thorndike for the first time made a systematic and scientific study of the problems of learning. He developed methods of animal experimentation and gave such genetic and comparative psychology which provided the impetus for a tremendous amount of research on animal psychology. Looking at the theory of Thorndike, we find, it is one man who has created regular stomachs in the whole field of learning.

Though several decades have passed, still we find Thorndike at the root of all kinds of discussions in learning. Some of his ideas, though have been modified and improved, but the law of effect still continues to have a very significant place in learning. Chiefly two kinds of criticisms have been leveled against Thorndike. His stress on reaction performance, on parts rather than on whole has been criticized.

These are criticisms that result from differences in outlook and temperament. The second type of criticism is very fundamental and specific mainly against the law of effect. It was argued that the law of effect is subjective in nature and the backward nature of the law of effect was also criticized. There are also some important experimental criticisms like renunciations of punishment in the law of effect. While Mouren and others have viewed that punishment is very significant in the acquisition of behavior, taking the help of latent learning.

Tolman of the Gestalt School argued that learning can take place with simplicity without reward. The attacks by the Gestalt School in the 20s were more telling and Thorndike began to later meet some of these criticisms. But it was before the International Congress of Psychology Newttaven in September 1929, he came out with the statement “I am Wrong.”

Transfer of Training:
The theory of transfer of training refers to the popular concept that man should be given training in a general way which includes language, mathematics, and classics. They thought that training in these areas positively transferred to various walks of life. It was found that formal education is transferred to various life situations and vocations. The pattern of education at that time in England was, therefore, mainly restricted to classics, language, and mathematics.

Subsequently, there was a lot of discussion on the generalization of the transfer of training and transfer of mathematics to another subject. Thorndike was the first person to raise his voice against the unscientific character of this presupposition and said, it would be illusory to support that there is a transfer from mathematics to other subjects, He viewed that training in one subject helps the other subject only to the extent they have elements or aspects in common.

The identity may be in substance or in the procedure. Thus there can be a transfer from mathematics to statistics or knowledge of addition helps in multiplication; because both have necessary similarities. 11 hence, it is also called the “theory of identical elements”. Thorndike’s theory of transfer began to take shape in an experimental study done in collaboration with Woodworth (1903).

This study presupposes that transfer depends upon the presence of identical elements between the original and subsequent learning. What is implied by the transfer of training? When previous training or knowledge influences the acquisition of subsequent learning it is called a transfer of training. There are three types of transfer of training positive transfer, negative transfer, and zero transfer.

Positive Transfer:
In the positive transfer of training acquisition of skill in one situation facilitates the training in subsequent situations. For instance, knowledge of physics facilitates training in electronics. knowledge of mathematics accelerates the training in statistics or computer science; knowledge of language facilitates the study of classics and literature.

Positive transfer of training occurs due to the similarity of content, the similarity of technique, and the similarity of principle. Thorndike was of opinion that one activity influences another to the extent that they have common or identical elements. Contrary to the popular belief that transfer is general in nature, Thorndike put forth the idea that transfer is a matter of specific connections.

Question 9.
What is insightful learning? Discuss its characteristics and types?
Answer:
Insightful learning owes its existence to the Gestalt School of Psychology, particularly to its founders Kohler and Koffka. The theory of insightful learning developed as a revolt against Titchener’s structuralism, Thorndike’s trial and error learning, and part-whole relationship. As opposed to Thorndike, Gestalt developed and theory of whole part position in learning and perception.

Gestalt is a German word with no exact English translation. It more or less refers to the form organized whole and configuration. Objects and things are perceived and learned as a whole, in complete form. This is the salient point of the Gestalt School. According to Crow and Crow, Gestalt is a pattern a configuration of a form of apprehending a stimulus situation.

Characteristics of Insightful Learning:
Insightful learning, the ‘ O ’ reacts to the whole situation and not to some details only. The ‘ O ’ finds out the relationship between the various stimuli within the situation as a whole. The relationship that the ‘O’ perceives is mostly between a means and the end or goal. While learning by the insight the ‘ O’ modifies and restructures the perceptual field. A sudden change in the behavior of the ‘O’ is frequently observed.

The solution to the problem comes all of a sudden, in a sudden flash. The capacity for insightful learning is restricted by age and individual differences. Older children give a better response to learning by insight than younger ones. Similarly, higher animals like monkeys and chimpanzees solve problems by insight than guinea pigs. Insight depends upon past experience. However, the Gestaltists do not agree with this. They instead emphasize the present experiences of the learner.

But one must accept that a child cannot get into the heart of a mathematical problem unless the symbols stated therein are understood. For this, past knowledge of the subject is required. Even. when the problem is at the capacity level since he does not know the signs and symbols, he cannot solve the problem. Generally, it has been found that once one gets the idea for the solution to the problem in subsequent situations, that idea helps in solving the problem.

Insightful leaming needs experimental arrangement. The problem situation must be properly arranged and the tools must be kept systematically so that the necessary aspects are amendable to observation. If the required tool is out of the field of perception, solving the problem becomes difficult. Certain cases of insightful learning may be preceded by trial and error or a period for search or preparation.

In the stick and banana experiment, the first half was trial and error learning. Once achieved, insight can be used in a new situation. The same method can be repeated over and over again to solve new problems. The idea is thus transferred or carried over from previous to subsequent learning situations. In the case of human subjects, insight is often accompanied by verbal cues which help in subsequent learning. A solution of insightful learning can be readily repeated.

This has been proved in the case of the Sultan. When Sultan was again placed in the box with a bunch of bananas the next day, it repeated the same idea of joining the two sticks and getting the banana. Only it did not show any trial and error behavior as on the first day. In insightful learning we observe an integrating and reintegrating of part processes into a new total pattern, these part processes having been provided by experience, though the Gestalt School gives emphasis on the present situational factors.

Insightful learning can be of two types :

• Learning by Foresight.
• Learning by Hindsight Foresight

When the solution to the problem comes at once in the first attempt without actually trying the situation, it is called foresight. When a person solves a mathematical problem suddenly without using trial and method error it is a case of foresight. Hindsight Solution comes after trying with the elements.

Question 10.
Define observational learning?
Answer:
At the time there were rarely computer monitors in the airports of India showing the time of arrival and departure of planes indicated by their flight numbers. Only there were occasional announcements. I was waiting for a security check-up along with so many other passengers who were waiting for different flights with boarding cards of different colors kept in their shirt (front) pockets. I was a little nervous and worried because I was not very sure if I could be able to go to the right gate for a security check-up and board the right plane.

My boarding card was pink in color. Immediately I got the intrusion to follow the passengers who had also pink-colored boarding cards. I observed them and found four, or five passengers with pink colored cards, and I gave a sigh of relief. When there was a call for a security check-up, occupants of the pink-colored card got up to proceed and I quietly followed them and arrived at the right gate for the security check-up.

Subsequently, things became easy for me. I observed and imitated the activities of my co-passengers and followed them till I reached the plane. When the plane was about to take off, the air hostess announced that every one should fasten their seat belts. I tried with the seat belt but could not fasten it around my waist. Then I observed my co-passenger silently and learned the technique.

These are examples of observational learning. Observational learnings are most common in our day-to-day life. Observational learning in most cases is a simple type of learning whereby watching others in activities we learn a lot. Even we leam abstract rules, concepts, and ideas by observing others’ behavior either in reality or from cinema or T.V. Thus while watching T.V. people also learn to do things.

People leam social customs, rules, regulations, traditions, rituals, and cultural heritages of the society by observing others so that many embarrassments are avoided. When a child sees his mother showing respect to another person, the child also does the same. The child also does the same. ‘In society we leam from other people’s experiences by observing them, watching them. In fact, people leam both positive and negative behavior patterns like sociability and aggressiveness through observation of models.

Bandura, the pioneer of observational learning opines that it is a third major way by which we leam next to trial and error and conditioning. Several research findings suggest that observational learning places some role in every aspect of human behavior and we cannot manage without this method of learning. We leam cooking, stitching, washing clothes, toilet habits, knitting, making art and drawings, decorations by watching other people doing the same.

Even we leam a lot of necessities of day-to-day life by watching the T.V. Most of the household activities and various exercises are learned through observation. Many experiments on children prove this point. The famous Bobo doll experiment of Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) indicate how children leam to be aggressive by observing an adult aggressive model. They took two groups of nursery school children as samples. The control group was exposed to a non-aggressive amiable adult model.

But the experimental group was exposed to an aggressive adult model who kicked a big doll, scolded and insulted it. Then the children of both groups were allowed to play in a room with several toys. Children of the experimental group showed more aggressive behavior towards their toys and dolls compared to the children of the control group. This may also be called “Imitation Learning”.

Social scientists explain the indisciplined, aggressive, unruly violent, and ruthless behavior of many modem youths as a consequence of imitating the same from T.V. Cinema and video films. The ability to learn by observing others’ activities is due to the cognitive influence of learning. Even Toman’s experiment on rats learning to run mazes substantiates the fact that simple creatures can learn from experience to form internal models to guide later behavior.

Basic Principle of Observational:
The principles of observational learning explain what factors and conditions determine whether and to what extent we learn information skills, concepts, and ideas from others’ behaviors. Following are four basic principles of observational learning as suggested by Bandura.

The direction of attention to appropriate models performing a particular activity:
People generally imitate such people’s behavior which seems appropriate to serve their purpose or aim. Intelligent, pretty, attractive people demonstrating cognitive ability, having unique status, and success come under this category.

Remembering the actions, behaviors and skills shown by the model:
In order to be successful in observational learning, the person must retain what he has observed from his model so that he can behave in a similar way when required.

Production process or conversion of the retained behavior of the model into appropriate action at the time of requirement:
According to Bandura production processes depend upon one’s own physical abilities which can give a clear representation of its memory at the appropriate time, and the capability to monitor one’s own performance and manipulate it till it matches the behavior of the model.

Motivation:
In Bandura’s view, one may observe another person’s behavior but he may not convert it to action unless he is motivated to do so. Only those behavior that is required and useful for a person, he is motivated to practice them, so motivation is required to observe actively other’s activities and put them into practice.

Observational learning may not always be as simple as it appears. It is more complex than mere learning by imitation. It plays an important role in modifying our behaviors through observation. Observational learning leads to aggressive behavior (Baron and Richardson, 1994, Central wails 989, Synder, 1991, Wood, Wrong, and Chachese (1997). Children are found to show aggressive behavior after imitating their age mates.

It can also be used as a technique to train workers for the improvement of interpersonal relationships. Sociability, courteousness, and amiability can be developed by observing these qualities regularly in other people. Culture shock can also be avoided through observational learning. Asian and Western cultures differ contrastingly. It becomes difficult for people of both cultures to adjust and interact normally with each other. Similarly, with the globalization of the world economy, people of different cultures have to interact with each other when they meet.

Question 11.
Define the stage of insightful learning. Differentiate between insightful learning and trial, and error learing?
Answer:
Stages of insightful learning:
Need:
Like any learning, the need to leam is essential in insightful learning. The need may be biological like hunger, sex, or thirst or social like gregariousness, or personal like the desire for power, prestige, and recognition.

Preparation:
Preparation is a basic precondition before insightful learning starts. In Kohler’s experiment on the Sultan with problems involving the use of readymade implements, there were preliminary preparations for the learning. The leader makes various surveys, inspections, and acute examinations of the problem and its field.

Incubation:
It refers to the stage of clearness or dormant period when all overt activities are suspended. It is a period of progress when the ‘O’ silently thinks over the problem.

Inspiration:
In this stage, the idea for the solution to the problem comes suddenly. It flashes in the mind at once. The bright ideal, the “brain wave” comes to the mind during this stage. This stage is sometimes characterized by shouting and jumping in joy, as the ‘O’ is enlightened by the bright idea which came in a flash.

Verification:
It is the last stage of insightful learning in which the ‘O’ makes practical application of his bright new idea. In the case of the Sultan, it joined both the sticks, placed the boxes one after another, and got upon the third box, and brought the bunch of bananas hanging on the roof.

Critical Analysis of Insightful Learning Theory:
Kohler, Koffka, and other advocates of insightful learning have stated that perception of the relationship between different parts of the visual field and the goal plays a significant part in learning. They have also said that learning by insight takes a single attempt to solve a problem. But this is not the fact in reality. In most cases, we find that learning is a gradual process and the errors reduce gradually which the insight theory is not ready to accept.

So insight is not the only method of learning. It is nevertheless one of the methods of learning. Practice is also essential for learning. But practice is totally unacceptable to Gestalt psychologists. However, it can be said that in every difficult and complicated situation the only type of learning that is involved is insightful learning. Munn (1953) thus comments, “Insight is rare in animals, not quite so rare in children and quite common in human adults!”.

While American psychologists have mostly used mazes and puzzle boxes, German psychologists, used situations where all relevant aspects of the problem are visible. Thus Bertrand Russel remarked “Animals studied by Americans run about frantically, with an incredible display of hustle and pep, and at last achieve the desired result by chance. Animals observed by Germans still and think and at last evolve the solution out of their inner consciousness.”

Difference between Insightful and Trial and Error Learning:
Trial and error are more often found in lower animals and children while insightful learning is rare in animals, not so rare in children, and commonly found in human adults. Trial and error learning depends upon practice and repetition while insightful learning does not require much practice. Trial and error learning is mechanical, random, blind, a hit-and-miss type of learning where a solution comes by chance, accidentally.

Insightful learning depends upon intelligence, understanding, grasping, and perception of the whole field of the organization. Trial and error is a simple type of learning mostly found in the acquisition of skills, particularly motor skills. Insight is a complex method of learning. It is more effective in cognitive and verbal learning. Trial and error learning is gradual and slow. Several trials are required to lead.

Insightful learning is sudden and comes abruptly at once in a flash. One trial is necessary for learning. Trial and error learning is more or less temporary. When practice is given up, the acquisition of skill fades up. Insightful learning is permanent as it grows out of understanding the relationship between the tools and the goals. In trial-error learning, a reaction to a part and specific stimulus is made.

In insightful learning, the situation is perceived as a whole to bring the solution. Trial and error learning does not involve insight. Learning by the insight in many cases involves some amount of trial and error. Trial and error depend upon practice and past experience. Gestalt School argues that it does not depend upon past experience which is a controversial view. Learning is transferred from one situation to another on the basis of transposition. In insightful learning transfer of training takes place in the form of identical elements,

Question 12.
What is classical conditioning? Describe determinants and basic processes in classical conditioning?
Answer:
This type of learning was first investigated by Ivan R Parlov (1849 -1936). He was an eminent Russain Psychologist and a Nobel prize winner for his work on the physiology of digestion. During his studies, he observed that dogs started secreting saliva as soon as they did. Sighted the empty plate in which food was served. As we are aware, saliva secretion i.e. reflexive response to food or something in the mouth.

This observation led to the famous conditioned response of learning. Pavlov designed an experiment to understand this process in detail. In the first phase, a dog was left in a box and harnessed. The dog was left in the box for some time. This was repeated a number of times on different days. Then a simple surgery was made and one end of the tube was inserted in the dog’s jaw and the other end of the tube was put in a measuring glass.

Then, in the second phase of the experiment, the dog was deprived of food and was kept hungry. Again, the dog was placed in a harness with one end of the tube in the jaw and the other end of the glass jar. Now a bell was sounded and then meat powder (food) was served. The dog was allowed to eat it. This exercise was repeated for a few days. After a number of trials, a test trial was introduced in which the set up was the same except for the presentation of food.

In the first phase, the dog was secreting saliva in response to the Unconditioned Stimuli (US). But after conditioning, salivation started to occur in the presence of the sound of the bell (CS). Here, the bell becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and saliva secretion, a Conditioned Response (CR). Here, it is obvious that the learning situation in classical conditioning is one of the S-S learning, in which one stimulus (i.e. bell sound) becomes a signal of another stimulus (i.e. food).

So one stimulus signifies the possible occurrence of another stimulus. Examples of classical conditioning are many. Suppose someone has finished lunch and was satisfied with his food. But suddenly he saw some sweet dish served on the adjoining table. Then the secretion of saliva in his mouth became automatic. He felt like eating it. This is a conditioned response (CR).

Stages of Condition	big Operations
(a) Before	Sound of Bell -Alertness (No specific response)
(b) During	Sound of the Bell (CS) + Food (US) – Salivation (UCR)
(c) After	Sound of the Bell – Salivation (CS) (CR)

Determinants of Classical Conditioning:
Practically, the acquisition of a response occurs very quickly and strongly in classical conditioning. But how it occurs depends upon several factors. Some of the major factors influencing learning a CR are enumerated below.

Time relations between Stimuli:
Basically, there are four types of classical conditioning procedures. These procedures are based on the time relations between the onset of conditioned (CS) and, unconditioned stimuli (US). The first three are called ‘Forward Conditioning’ procedures and the fourth one is called the ‘Backward conditioning’ procedure.

The basic experimental arrangements of these procedures are as follows When the onset of CS and US are concurrent, it is called simultaneous conditioning. In delayed conditioning, the onset of CS precedes the onset of the US. The CS ends before the end of the US. In trace conditioning, the onset and end of the CS precede the onset of the US with some blank time between the two.

In backward conditioning, the US precedes the onset of CS. Now it is obvious that the delayed conditioning procedure is the most directive way of acquiring a CR. Again, simultaneous and trace conditioning procedures require a greater number of acquisition trials in comparison to the delayed conditioning procedure. But the acquisition of response under a backward conditioning procedure is very rare.

Type of Unconditioned Stimuli:
I.P. Pavlov used two types of unconditioned stimuli in classical conditioning – appetitive and aversive. Appetitive unconditioned stimuli automatically elicit approach responses, such as eating, drinking, caressing, etc. But the aversive US is painful, and harmful and elicits avoidance and escape responses. Examples are noise, bitter taste, electric shock, painful injecting, etc.

The observation indicated that appetitive classical conditioning is slower and requires a greater number of acquisition trials. But depending on the intensity of the aversive US, aversive classical conditioning can be established in one or two trials.

The intensity of Conditioned Stimuli:
The intensity of CS influences the course of both appetitive and aversive classical conditioning. It observed that more intense conditioned stimuli are more effective in accelerating the acquisition of conditioned responses. In other words, the more intense the CS, the fewer the number of acquisition trials required for conditioning.

Basic Process in Classical Conditioning Parlov’s classical conditioning is an extremely simple form of learning. Truly speaking, it is regarded as the building block of all forms of learning from simple to more complex. The basic processes involved in Pavlovian conditioning are enumerated below.

Acquisition:
In the classical conditioning experiment, the paired presentation of CS and UCS is called a trial. The period in which the organism learns the association between the CS and UCS is the acquisition phase. As the trials continue, the CS becomes gradually stronger to elicit the CR. Presenting UCS with CS during the acquisition phase is a critical operation in classical conditioning.

Here the UCS serves as a reinforcer because it reinforces the connection. Again, the trials on which UCS occurs are called reinforced trials and the trials on which the UCS is omitted are called unreinforced trials. At the beginning trials of the acquisition phase, the strength of CR increases rapidly.

The rate of acquisition during the reinforced trials depends on several factors. The important factors are the time – interval between the CS and the UCS. the intensity of the CS. the intensity of the UCS and the reliability of the CS in predicting the onset of UCS. As the reinforced trials continue, the strength of CR increases but not as rapidly as it used to be in the beginning trials.

Extinction:
When the CS is repeated without UCS then the CR gradually weakens and finally disappears. The disappearance of the CR due to non reinforcement is called extinction or experimental extinction. In the classical conditioning experiments, if a bell is presented time and again without food (reinforcement).

the amount of salivation gradually decreases and finally disappears. In short, when the reinforcement is withdrawn, the CR fails to appear. But extinction is not forgetting. The CR is only temporarily suppressed and after a brief rest period, a part of CR appears.

Spontaneous Recovery:
According to Pavlov, complete or permanent extinction of conditioned response is not possible. The reappearance of an extinguished CR after a Rest period is known as spontaneous recovery. Here the CR is partially recovered after a Rest period. hr classical conditioning experiment, after the salivation response, was given a rest period for thirty minutes.

After this span of rest, the bell was presented without food (UCS), following it. Then the salivation to bell suddenly reappeared. Very often, the response is successively extinguished when it reappears, then the spontaneous recovery diminishes. As a result, the CR fails to be shown even following the rest period. This is known as permanent extinction.

Stimulus Generalization:
In conditioning, generalization occurs to a certain class of stimuli rather than to a specific stimulus. In short, it is a tendency for the CR to be aroused by a similar stimulus.

In Pavlovian conditioning, the dog was conditioned to salivate to a specific tone. Then the CR is generalized to a second tone similar in characteristics to the first tone. As a result, a new procedure began. The first tone (CS) and the second tone (new stimulus) were presented on alternate trials. The first tone was followed by food (reinforcement) and the second was never followed by food (no reinforcement).

Consequently, the CR to the first tone was maintained and the generalized response to the second tone invited extinction. The dog learned to salivate to the first tone and to withhold salivate to the second tone. Finally, the dog was able to discriminate between the two stimuli because of differential reinforcement.

Like generalization, discrimination has also an adaptive significance, too much generalization is over-responsive, whereas, too much discrimination is over-selective. In a sophisticated manner, conditioning is a process in which discrimination ultimately wins over-generalization. Salivation to light by frequently associating it will bell but without presenting the food is called second-order conditioning.

Question 13.
Define operant conditioning?
Answer:
There are two main forms of simple learning. One is Classical and the other is Instrumental, Instrumental conditioning is also known as operant Conditioning. You can take a simple example here to describe instrumental behavior. When a dog responds to the commands of its master to get some biscuits, the dog has learned an instrumental response. The dog is rewarded for a particular response.

In nutshell, the dog’s response was instrumental in fetching a sought-after reward. That is why it is called instrumental conditioning. This type of conditioning was first investigated by B.F. Skinner. He studied conditioning of voluntary responses found when an organism operates on the environment. He called them operants. Operants are that behavior or responses, which are emitted by animals and human beings voluntarily and are under their control.

Here the very term ‘Operant’ is used because any organism operates on the environment. Skinner conducted His experiments on rats and pigeons in specially designed boxes, known as Skinner boxes. A skinner box usually contains a mechanism for delivering a consequence whenever the animal in the box makes a readily identifiable response that the experimenter has decided to reinforce or punish.

In experiments that involve rewards, the delivery mechanism is often a small lever or bar on the side of the box. Whenever the animal inside presses it, the response is rewarded (B.F. Skinner, 1938,1956). In his experiment, Skinner put a hungry rat in the chamber, which was so built that the rat could move inside but could not come out. In the chamber, there was a lever, which was connected to a good container kept on the plate placed close to the lever.

The hungry rat accidentally pressed the lever while moving around and pawing the walls (exploratory behavior). The hungry rat ate the food and in the next trial, after a while, the exploratory behavior again starts. As the trials increase, the rat takes lesser and lesser time to press the lever for food. However, conditioning is complete when the rat pressed the lever immediately after it is placed in the chamber.

It is obvious that lever pressing is an operant response and getting food is its consequence. In this situation, the response is instrumental in getting the food. That is why this type of learning is also called instrumental conditioning. Examples of instrumental conditioning are around in our everyday life. Flumen beings leam shortcuts to attain desired goals through instrumental conditioning. Through this process, children learn to be polite and say please to get favors from their parents and others.

Here the response is changed according to the need and the demand of the individual. The response is made and determined by the organism himself. This is the most distinguishing feature of operant behavior. The organism is capable of making varied types of responses according to the demand of the environment.

Recently biofeedback technique is being used in instrumental conditioning which informs the individual about his unknown physiological function. But if is still unknown whether biofeedback provides direct control over involuntary responses or whether this control is mediated by voluntary processes.

Determinants of Operant Conditioning:
No doubt, operant or instrumental conditioning is a form of learning in which behavior is learned, maintained, or changed through its consequences. Such consequences are known as reinforcers. A reinforcer is defined as any stimulus or event, which increases the probability of the occurrence of a (desired) response. In other words, the stimulus event which increases the probability that behavior will reoccur is called a reinforcer (Or reward).

The impact or consequence generated by a reinforcer is called reinforcement. By contrast, a publisher is a stimulus event that decreases the probability that the behavior will reoccur. The impact of punisher punishment. Punishment is more likely to be confused with negative refreshment since both involve an aversive stimulus that the individual likes to avoid or escape from Always remember that the negative refreshment increases the response probability whereas punishment decreases the response probability.

On the whole, positive and negative reinforcements are procedures that increase or strengthen behaviors. An organism obtains reinforcement in two ways by obtaining a pleasant stimulus and by avoiding a painful stimulus. There are two types of reinforcement – Positive and Negative. In positive reinforcement, the probability of a response increases, because it is followed by a pleasant stimulus. In negative reinforcement, the response probability also increases, because the response removes an unpleasant stimulus.

Schedules of Reinforcement:
The reinforcement schedule refers to the arrangement delivery of reinforcement during conditioning trials. Each schedule reinforcement influences the course of conditioning in its own way. In our life instances, reinforcement comes on and goes off unpredictably. In many instances, reinforcements are delivered according to rules. For example, we receive a salary every month according to the rules. When the reinforcement is continuous, every occurrence of behavior is reinforced.

This simplest form of reinforcement delivery is termed a “continuous reinforcement schedule If the pigeon receives a food pellet every time it presses the tire lever, it is on a continuous reinforcement schedule. The other type is partial reinforcement (intermittent reinforcement). In partial reinforcement, the response is not rewarded every time it occurs. This type of reinforcement is conducive to maintaining learned behaviors. Once a response is learned under this schedule, it takes a longer span of time to be extinguished.

Four types of partial reinforcement schedules are:

• Fixed-interval
• Variable-interval
• Fixed ratio and
• Variable-ratio.

In the fixed-interval schedule, the organism is rewarded for the first response occurring after a fixed interval of time. Students increase their study hours as the examination approaches. The pigeon is rewarded for the first lever-pressing response occurring after one minute interval.

In a variable-interval schedule, the organism is rewarded after a variable amount of time has elapsed. The hungry rat gets the food pallet after 2 minutes, the next one after 5 minutes, the third one after 3 minutes, and so on. 1 Here, the organism responds at a steady rate in the variable interval schedule as reinforcement may come any time. Gambling behavior is the best example here.

Schedules of Partial Reinforcement	Time Interval (Interval)	No. of Responses(Ratio)
Predictable	Fixed-Interval (low response) rate after each  reinforcement	Fixed-Ratio (high) response rate with brief pauses after each reinforcement
Unpredictable                 (Variable)	Variable-Interval Steady response rate	Variable-Ratio (high and steady response rate)

Question 14.
What is cognitive learning? Describe insightful learning and its stages or features?
Answer:
The process of acquiring knowledge about the environment which has an internal mental representation is called cognition. But learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency. The two terms are put together to generate the term ‘cognitive learning.
Two forms of cognitive learning:

• Insightful learning.
• Observational learning.

We first discussed the:
Insightful Learning:
I. P. Pavlov, S.L. thorndike and B.F. Skinner was all behaviorist. Obviously, they have ignored the study of learning based on reason and intelligence thinks when it learns. The chimpanzee evaluates the information in the learning situation and learns to reach a goal by developing insight. Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1968) arrived at Tenerife, the small island of the West Coast of Africa, to take charge of an institute for the study of the anthropoid apes, he was a German psychologist.

He was forced to stay on the island during World War-I. He engaged himself in an intensive study of how chimpanzees perceive, think, and learn. The results were translated into English in 1925 with the little ‘The Mentality of Apes’. Kohler used five types of problems to study how Chimpanzees solve complex problems. The two most fascinating and important problems were the ‘stick’ problem and the ‘box’ problem. Both these problems involved insightful solutions.

Besides chimpanzees, he also used dogs, hens, and little girls as subjects in his experiments. Kohler placed a hungry chimpanzee named Sultan inside a cage in the ‘stick problem. A bunch of bananas was kept outside the cage beyond the direct reach of the Chimpanzee. Two hollow bamboo sticks were kept inside the cage. One of them is very short and the other one is long. Since the sticks were hollow, one stick could be pushed into one end of the other to form a longer stick.

The bananas were kept at such a distance that neither of these sticks alone would be sufficiently long enough to reach the banana. But the Chimpanzee could get the banana if the two sticks were joined. The goal of the Sultan was to fetch the banana since he was hungry. Initially, he has shown all types of reactions that, generally, a Chimpanzee shows inside a cage. First, he used one of the sticks to draw the banana towards him but did not succeed. Then he tried the other sticks but in vain.

After some unsuccessful attempts, Sultan gave up the idea of getting food and sat in one corner of the cage. Then, after a short span of rest, he started playing with the sticks. He pushed one stick out as far as it could go and then pushed the first stick with the other until the first touched the banana. He started playing with the sticks again and accidentally one of the sticks went into the hollow end of the other. A sudden insight dawned upon Sultan and he solved the problem mentally.

Then he used two sticks to form longer sticks and with the help of this long stick, he pulled the banana inside the cage. When he faced the same problem on the next day, he solved it immediately. In another situation, Kohler demonstrated insightful learning in the ‘box’ problem. Here a bunch of bananas was kept on the tire ceiling of a cage, which Sultan could not reach. There were some empty boxes inside the cage. After some trials and errors, the animal could be able to snatch bananas by stacking several boxes.

Stages of Insightful Learning:
Here, the organism needs to reach a goal by solving a problem. The subject (learner) makes inspections, surveys, and examinations of the problem and the stimulus field. The ‘incubation period’ begins after an initial period of trial and error, all overt activities are withdrawn at this stage. The organism sits silently and thinks over the problem. Suddenly the organism develops insight into the problem after the incubation period.

The subject (learner) makes an attempt to make practical verification of his idea or insight about the problem. Once the subject achieves insight and solves the problem, the organism repeats the same method of solution without any hesitation. The organism attends to the relevant aspects and ignores the irrelevant ones when it attempts to solve similar problems in the future.

Common features of Insightful Learning:
Very often, the question arises – what does Kohler mean by ‘insight’ According to him, the common features of insightful learning are as follows The experimental situation is very important in insightful learning. The organism must be able to perceive the relationship among all relevant parts of the problem before insight can occur.

In this type of learning, the organism reacts to the whole situation, not to its component parts. Perceiving the relationship between the means and goal is very important in insightful learning. He also restructures the perceptual field during experimentation. Insight is followed by a period of trial and error behavior. During this span, the organism does not exhibit blind and random attacks as shown by Thomndike’s cat.

On the contrary, he tests behavioral hypotheses in the form of accepting some and rejecting others. The insight solution comes all of a sudden. Once the insight is reached, the organism shows a high degree of retention and transfer to similar problems. There is a correlation between insight and the capacity of the organism. This capacity depends upon age, experience, and individual differences.

Must Read:

M&M Pivot Point Calculator

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Type Questions

Question 1.
Experiments on remembering and forgetting were started for the first time by ______?
(a) Ailgard
(b) McGeoch
(c) Guthrie
(d) Ebbinghaus
Answer:
(b) McGeoch

Question 2.
Ebbinghaus’s method of measuring memory is called?
(a) Qualitative method
(b) Quantitative method
(c) Exact method
(d) All the above
Answer:
(c) Exact method

Question 3.
Ebbinghaus used the ______ method for the measurement of memory?
(a) Recall
(b) Recognition
(c) Relearning
(d) Reconstruction
Answer:
(a) Recall

Question 4.
The first verbal materials used for measuring memory case?
(a) Meaningful words
(b) Story
(c) Diagram
(d) Nonsense syllables
Answer:
(d) Nonsense syllables

Question 5.
Forgetting pictures with the passage of line can be due to?
(a) Proactive inhibition
(b) Retroactive inhibition
(c) decay through discuss
(d) All the above
Answer:
(d) All the above

Question 6.
Memory is measured in the laboratory by the instrument named?
(a) Tachistoscope
(b) Memory drum
(c) Aesthesio meter index
Answer:
(b) Memory drum

Question 7.
Pleasant and interesting materials are better remembered than?
(a) Nonsense syllables
(b) Meaningful words
(c) Unpleasant materials
Answer:
(c) Unpleasant materials

Question 8.
Both the recall and recognition methods can be measured?
(a) Learning
(b) Perception
(c) Memory
(d) Imagination
Answer:
(c) Memory

Question 9.
Memory is the mental power by which past experiences are?
(a) relearned
(b) retained
(c) recalled
(d) recalled and recognized
Answer:
(b) retained

Question 10.
The degree of retention depends upon the?
(a) Meaningfulness of the material
(b) Degree of learning
(c) Noninterference and judicious rest
(d) None of them
Answer:
(d) None of them

Question 11.
Zeigamik effect is evident in the continuous tension over a task that is _________?
(a) Unpleasant and incomplete
(b) Pleasant and unfinished
(c) Pleasant and completed
(d) None of them
Answer:
(a) Unpleasant and incomplete

Question 12.
Ebbinghaus was a ________ psychologist.
(a) American
(b) British
(c) German
(d) Swiss
(e) None of these
Answer:
(c)German

Question 13.
Amount of retention does not depend on one of the following?
(a) Meaningfulness
(b) Amount ofintereference during original learning and retention interval
(c) Amount of practice
(d) Emotional factors affecting learning
(e) Interest in learning
(f) Defects in motor capacity
Answer:
f) Defects in motor capacity

Question 14.
Ebbinghaus conducted memory experiments on?
(a) rats
(b)dogs
(c) monkeys
(d) human beings
(e) himself
Answer:
(c) monkeys

Question 15.
For the first time, Ebbinghaus conducted an experiment on memory using?
(a) Meaningful words
(b) Nonsense syllables
(c) drawings
(d) all these
Answer:
(b) Nonsense syllables

Question 16.
Do nonsense syllables consist of ______?
(a) two consonants and one vowel
(b) three consonants
(c) one consonant and two vowel
(d) all the above
Answer:
(a) two consonants and one vowel

Question 17.
Does a trigram consist of one vowel and two consonants?
(a) three consonants
(b) three vowels
(c) all the above
Answer:
(b) three vowels

Question 18.
Does a nonsense syllable consist of _____?
(a) three letters
(b) four letters
(c) five letters
Answer:
(a) three letters

Question 19.
When materials memorized afterward stand in the way of recall of materials memorized earlier, it is called?
(a) Proactive inhibition
(b) retroactive inhibition
(c) retrograde amnesia
(d) proactive facilitation
Answer:
(b) retroactive inhibition

Question 20.
When materials memorized afterward are interfered with by the materials learned earlier it is called?
(a) retroactive inhibition
(b) proactive inhibition
(c) simple inhibition
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(b) proactive inhibition

Question 21.
That method which shows earlier learning not discovered by other usual methods in?
(a) whole learning
(b) distributed learning
(c) recall
(d) saving recognition
Answer:
(c) recall

Question 22.
Distortion in day-to-day learning along with forgetting is called?
(a) trace theory
(b) motivated forgetting theory
(c) qualitative change theory
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) qualitative change theory

Question 23.
Which of the following psychologists can be associated with the psychoanalytic theory of forgetting?
(a) Ebbinghaus
(b) McGeoch
(c) Ereud
(d) Bartlett
Answer:
(c) Ereud

Question 24.
Which of the following psychologists can be associated with the theory of constructive changes in memory?
(a) Meltzer
(b) Ebbinghaus
(c) Sears
(d) Bbartlett
Answer:
(d) Bartlett

Question 25.
The use of nonsense syllables in the Laboratory was first introduced by?
(a) William James
(b) Osgood
(c) Ebbinghaus
(d) Muller
Answer:
(c) Ebbinghaus

Question 26.
The curve of forgetting was developed?
(a) Thorndike
(b) Kohler
(c) Ebbinghaus
(d) McGeoch
Answer:
(c) Ebbinghaus

Question 27.
When new learning is disturbed by old learning it is called _________?
(a) Proactive inhibition
(b) Retroactive inhibition
(c) Conditioned inhibition
(d) disinhibition
Answer:
(a) Proactive inhibition

Question 28.
Recognition thresholds are higher for _______ words?
(a) Taboo
(b) Neutral
(c) Pleasant
(d) All the above
Answer:
(c) Pleasant

Question 29.
That sense modality through which learning produces better retention is ________?
(a) Visual
(b) Auditory
(c) Olfactory
(d) Kinesthetic
Answer:
(a) Visual

Question 30.
Retention in comparison to learning is a?
(a) Passive process
(b) Active process
(c) Moderately passive and moderately active
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Passive process

Question 31.
Forgetting is at first rapid but gradually the rate of forgetting becomes?
(a) Speedy
(b) Slow
(c) Moderate
Answer:
(b)Slow

Question 32.
The basic law that tine rate of forgetting is rapid in the beginning and then slows down with the passage of time holds good, for?
(a) Nonsense Syl labels alone
(b) Meaningful words alone
(c) Digits alone
(d) All types of materials
Answer:
(d) All types of materials

Question 33.
Ebbinghaus mostly used methods to study remembering and forgetting?
(a) Recall method
(b) Recognition method
(c) Saving method
(d) All the above
Answer:
(a) Recall method

Question 34.
The recall is of types?
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
Answer:
(a) Two

Question 35.
Forgetting due to sudden shock and emotional blocking is called?
(a) Primary forgetting
(b) Secondary forgetting
(c) Retrograde amnetia
(d) All the above
Answer:
(c) Retrograde amnetia

Question 36.
The easiest method of measuring retention or memory is _______ method?
(a) Recall
(b) Recognition
(c) Saving
(d) Reconstruction
Answer:
(b) Recognition

Question 37.
When two items or stimuli appear similar to each other percentage of recognition is from when they are dissimilar?
(a) more
(b) less
(c) moderate
Answer:
(b) less

Question 38.
The relearning method is also known as?
(a) Reconstruction method
(b) Anticipation
(c) Prompting method
(d) Saving method
Answer:
(a) Reconstruction method

Question 39.
Do digits have a better memory span than?
(a) Nonsense syllables
(b) Meaningful words
(c) Trigrams
Answer:
(a) Nonsense syllables

Question 40.
There is usually no increase in memory span after the age of?
(a) 4-5 years
(b) 6-8 years
(c) 12-15 years
Answer:
(c) 12-15 years

Question 41.
Do meaningful and rhythmic materials have an effect on retention?
(a) beneficial
(b) harmful
(c) neutral
(d) all of the above.
Answer:
(a) beneficial

Question 42.
Remembering is greatly aided by?
(a) disassociation
(b) association.
(c) negative transfer
(d) zero transfer
Answer:
(b) association.

Question 43.
Words are quickly less than nonsense syllables because of their value?
(a) associative
(b) transfer value
(c) meaningfulness
(d) none of these
Answer:
(a) associative

Question 44.
Not the retention interval as such, but what happens during the retention interval is very important for?
(a) remembering
(b) reminiscence
(c) disuse
Answer:
(a) remembering

Question 45.
When the two stimuli and responses are identical in original learning and interpolated activity there occurs?
(a) maximum inhibition
(b) maximum facilitation
(c) no visible effect
Answer:
(b) maximum facilitation

Question 46.
Interpolated activity nearer to the original learning and subsequent recall the influence of retroactive inhibition?
(a) heightens
(b) decreases
(c) no influence
(d) non of the these
Answer:
(a) heightens

Question 47.
When the retention interval is free from activity, there is almost no loss of retention. This has been held by?
(a) Muller and Pilzecker
(b) MimaniandDallenbach
(c) McGeoch and Underwood
Answer:
(b)MimaniandDallenbach

Question 48.
To study whether cockroaches can remember what they have learned an experiment was conducted by?
(a) Underwood
(b) McGeoch
(c) Hunter
(d) Duncan
Answer:
(c) Hunter

Question 49.
Minami and Dallenbach have got empirical support for the fact that when the retention interval is free from activity there is almost no?
(a) learning
(b) retention
(c) forgetting
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) forgetting

Question 50
also, occurs when the new learning is disturbed by old learning?
(a) proactive inhibition
(b) retroactive inhibition
(c) retrograde amnesia
Answer:
(a) proactive inhibition

Question 51.
The decrement in the retention of a task as a consequence of other learning coming prior to the learning of the task is known as?
(a) Associative interferences
(b) Retroaction
(c) Proactive inhibition
Answer:
(c) Proactive inhibition

Question 53.
When the degree of prior learning increases, proactive ve inhibition?
(a) decreases
(b) increases
(c) remains constant
(d) none of these
Answer:
(b) increases

Question 54.
According to point of view, forgetting is due to the repression of the learned material?
(a) Freudian
(b) Gestalt
(c) Neo Freudians
(d) All these
Answer:
(a) Freudian

Question 55.
The mechanism of repression explains many men in everyday life?
(a) Learning
(b) retention
(c) forgetting
(d) all these
Answer:
(c) forgetting

Question 56.
The unacceptable shocking, antisocial, unpleasant, and ego-dissatisfying experiences are pressed back into the deep chamber of the unconscious by the mechanism of?
(a) Suppression
(b) Repression
(c) Dissociation
(d) All these
Answer:
(b) Repression

Question 57.
Pleasant experiences are recalled better than unpleasant ones. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 58.
The repressed urges are recalled back through hypnosis, dream analysis, and psychoanalysis. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 59.
Emotion-provoking situations immediately before or immediately after learning, have got no obliterating effect on memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 60.
Retroactive inhibition is the cause of forgetting?
(a) one of the
(b) only
(c) important
Answer:
(a) one of the

Question 61.
Memory traces fade either due to biological factors or external factors like Retroactive inhibition. This has been held by?
(a) Freudians
(b) Gestalts
(c) Trace Psychologists
Answer:
(b) Gestalts

Question 62.
Sometimes retention curves show a period of increased retention immediately after the practice is stopped. This concept is known as?
(a) long term memory
(b) short term memory
(c) reminiscence
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) reminiscence

Question 63.
In the earlier stage reminiscence was called?
(a) Ballard-William Phenomena
(b) Mimani-Dallenbach Phenomena
(c) Skagg-Robinson Hypothesis
(d) McGeoch-Irrion Hypothesis
Answer:
(a) Ballard-William Phenomena

Question 64.
The phenomenon of reminiscence while studying verbal discrimination learning was found by?
(a) McClelland
(b) McGeoch
(c) Hunter
(d) all these
Answer:
(a) McClelland

Question 65.
The classic experiment on short-term memory was conducted by?
(a) English and Well-borne
(b) McGeoch and Irrion
(c) Peterson and Peterson
Answer:
(c) Peterson and Peterson

Question 66.
Words processed at a deeper level are better retained than processed at a superficial level. These is the findings of the study conducted by?
(a) Nonnen and Rumehert
(b) CraikandTullving
(c) Muller and Pilzecker
Answer:
(b) CraikandTullving

Question 67.
The interference theory was propounded by?
(a) Muller and Pilzecker
(b) Melton and Irriwin
(c) McGeoch and McDonald
Answer:
(a) Muller and Pilzecker

Question 68.
The theory of forgetting advanced by Ebbinghaus is known as?
(a) Memory Trace theory
(b) Disuse theory
(c) 1ntcrfcrcncc theory
(d) None of the these
Answer:
(b) Disuse theory

Question 69.
Optimum retention occurs when the interpolated learning is introduced in the middle of a long retention interval. This view has been advocated by the?
(a) memory trace theory
(b) disuse theory
(c) interference theory
Answer:
(c) interference theory

Question 70.
Trace theory of forgetting has been advanced by?
(a) Behaviourists
(b) Gestalts
(c) Freudians
(d) All these
Answer:
(b) Gestalts

Question 71.
When the ego is threatened by certain situations, in order to defend itself, the ego represses them?
(a) Bartlett
(b) Freudians
(c) Gestalts
Answer:
(b) Freudians

Question 72.
came forward with his qualitative approach to remembering?
(a) Freud
(b) Ebbinghaus
(c) Bartlett
(d) Irwin
Answer:
(c) Bartlett

Question 73.
The method of repeated reproduction is also known as the method of?
(a) Social Reproduction
(b) Successive reproduction
(c) Associative reproduction
Answer:
(b) Successive reproduction

Question 74.
Pleasant materials are quickly remembered and retained for a long time compared to unpleasant materials keeping other factors constant. This is obvious from the experiment of?
(a) McGeoch and irrion
(b) Skaggs and Robinson
(c) Jersild and Meltzer
Answer:
(c) Jersild and Meltzer

Question 75.
The view that perceptual motor skills are retained relatively well over a considerable period of time than verbal materials has been supported by?
(a) Irrion
(b) Hamilton
(c) Katona
(d) Ebbinghaus
Answer:
(c) Katona

Question 76.
A principle of learning that is involved in training is?
(a) a period of no learning
(b) a period of instruction
(c) a period of boredom
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) a period of instruction

Question 77.
The approach to the study of the biology of learning is?
(a) the capacity approach
(b) the research approach
(c) the structural approach
(d) the functional approach
Answer:
(d) the functional approach

Question 78.
The first person to conduct experiments of trial and error learning was?
(a) Pavlov
(b) Kohler
(c) Titchener
(d) Thorndike
Answer:
(d) the functional approach

Question 79.
The first person to conduct- experiments in classical conditioning was?
(a) Watson
(b) Bechtervev
(c) Pavlov
(d) James
Answer:
(c) Pavlov

Question 80.
The school first conducted experiments on insightful learning is?
(a) Gestalt
(b) Functional
(c) Structural
(d) Psychoanalysis
Answer:
(c) Structural

Question 81.
Operant conditioning is also known as?
(a) Escape conditioning
(b) Backward conditioning
(c) Avoidance conditioning
(d) Instrumental conditioning
Answer:
(d) Instrumental conditioning

Question 82.
A stimulus that reinforces behavior, which terminates it is called?
(a) conflict
(b) reflex
(c) positive stimulus
(d) negative reinforcer
(e) Unconditional stimulus
Answer:
(c) positive stimulus

Question 83.
The process b.y which a C.R. can be weakened and finally eliminated is known as?
(a) Spontaneous recovery
(b) Deconditioning
(c) Experimental Neuroses
(d) Experimental Extinction
Answer:
(b) Deconditioning

Question 84.
A response may be more resistant to experimental extinction if reinforcement in conditioning trial has been?
(a) periodic
(b) continuous
(c) never provided
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(a) periodic

Question 85.
The process through which a CR is elicited by a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus it is called?
(a) Stimulus generalisation
(b) Response generalisation
(c) Differentiation
(d) Internal Inhibition
Answer:
(a) Stimulus generalization

Question 86.
The ability of the organism to respond to the reinforcing stimulus and not to the neutral or noil reinforcing one is called?
(a) Stimulus generalization
(b) Stimulus discrimination
(c) Response discrimination
Answer:
(c) Response discrimination

Question 87.
Operant conditioning is usually studied in the laboratory using a?
(a) Problem box
(b) Maze
(c) Skinner box
(d) Activity case
Answer:
(c) Skinner box

Question 88.
When the experimentally extinguished response reappears again after a period it is called?
(a) Hxperimental neuroses
(b) Spontaneous recovery
(c) Internal inhabitation
Answer:
(b) Spontaneous recovery

Question 89.
Spontaneous recovery will grow weaker and weaker if no reinforcement is provided after?
(a) The U.S.
(b) C.S.
(c) C.R
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(b) C.S.

Question 90.
Once conditioning is firmly established for further conditioning the C.S. can be used as?
(a) Unconditioned Reflex
(b) Unconditioned stimulus
(c) Unconditioned Response
Answer:
(b) Unconditioned stimulus

Question 91.
Negative conditioning is also known as?
(a) forward conditioning
(b) Backward conditioning
(c) Reconditioning
Answer:
(b) Backward conditioning

Question 92.
Experiments on withdrawal conditioning were first conducted by Russian physiologist?
(a) Freud
(b) Pavlov
(c) Bechterev
(d) Watson
Answer:
(c) Bechterev

Question 93.
If differentiation is pushed too far the organism fails to discriminate between two stimuli becomes very nonadoptive and develops?
(a) Negative attitude
(b) Withdrawal symptoms
(c) Experimental Neuroses
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Experimental Neuroses

Question 94.
Many of our bad habits of day to day life can be removed by?
(a) Positive conditioning
(b) Classical conditioning
(c) Negative conditioning
(d) Generalisation
Answer:
(c) Negative conditioning

Question 95.
Irrelevant fear is removed by?
(a) Conditioning
(b) Negative conditioning
(c) Spontaneous recovery
(d) Backward conditioning
Answer:
(b) Negative conditioning

Question 96.
The concept of experimental neuroses which threw light on various aspects of abnormal behaviour has been studied in depth by?
(a) llilgard
(b) Meyer
(c) Pavlov
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Meyer

Question 97.
has remarked that establishment conditioning is not simply a matter of diverting nerve impulses from one channel to another?
(a) Tolman
(b) Hilgard
(c) Hull
(d) Bechterev
Answer:
(d) B echterev

Question 98.
has remarked that the whole situation under which conditioning is established is a specific one and we can hardly establish it in actual life?
(a) Koffka
(b) Sears
(c) Janguill
(d) Hull
Answer:
(b) Sears

Question 99.
Differentiation develops out of?
(a) Extinction
(b) Generalisation
(c) lighter order conditioning
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Generalisation

Question 100.
When the stimulus becomes too small for the organism to discriminate nervous breakdown?
(a) Obvious
(b) Reduced
(c) Extinguished
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Obvious

Question 101.
Internal inhibition is a kind of negative learning not to salivate and can be applied to the curve of?
(a) Learning
(b) Retention
(c) Forgetting
Answer:
(c) Forgetting

Question 102.
Pavlov for the first time conducted experiments on conditioning?
(a) Classical
(b) Operant
(c) Instrumental
Answer:
(a) Classical

Question 103.
In conditioning U.S. is always presented after the C.S.?
(a) Classical
(b) Operant
(c) Backward
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Classical

Question 104.
Pavlov was the founder of the most important theory of learning called?
(a) Conditioning
(b) Classical conditioning
(c) Instrumental conditioning
Answer:
(b) Classical conditioning

Question 105.
Pavlov was a?
(a) Physiologist
(b) Psychologist
(c) Neurologist
(d) Biologist
Answer:
(a) Physiologist

Question 106.
Bechterev was a coworker of?
(a) Hilgard
(b) Sears
(c) Meyers
(d) Pavlov
Answer:
(d) Pavlov

Question 107.
Wertheimer is famous as the founder of?
(a) Behaviourism
(b) Associationism
(c) First laboratory in Psychology
(b) Associationism
Answer:
(b)Associationism

Question 108.
Watson is remembered for his contribution to?
(a) Learning
(b) Associationism
(c) Thinking
(d) Structuralism
Answer:
(a) Learning

Question 109.
Thorndike is remembered for his famous contribution to?
(a) Insightful learning
(b) Conditioning
(c) Trial and Error
(b) Conditioning
Answer:
(c) Trial and Error

Question 110.
The Gestalt school of psychology is well known for its?
(a) Conditioning theory of learning
(b) Trial and error theory of learning
(c) insight theory of learning
(d) All the above
Answer:
(c) insight theory of learning

Question 111.
It is easier to conduct experiments on learning in the laboratory taking?
(a) Human subject
(b) Animal subjects
(c) Insects
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Animal subjects

Question 112.
More and more learning experiments have been conducted with the help of?
(a) cats
(b) dogs
(c) rats
(d) human beings
Answer:
(c) rats

Question 113.
Learning is a kind of behavior?
(a) Change
(b) Continuation
(c) Extension
(d) Inhibition
Answer:
(a) Change

Question 114.
Learning is a sort of modification of behavior is the light of?
(a) Present experience
(b) Past experience
(c) Future experience
Answer:
(b) Past experience

Question 115.
All modification of behavior is not?
(a) Performance
(b) Learning
(c) Thinking
(d) Activity
Answer:
(b) Learning

Question 116.
Law of the exercise was introduced by?
(a) I Iilgard
(b) Thorndike
(c) I lull
(d) Tolman
Answer:
(b) Thorndike

Question 117.
The Law of effect was advanced by?
(a) Freud
(b) William James
(c) Gvthrie
(d) Thorndike
Answer:
(d) Thorndike

Question 118.
Learning is an association between a stimulus and?
(a) Response
(b) Present experience
(c) Past Experience
(d) Behaviour
Answer:
(a) Response

Question 119.
Learning and performance are?
(a) Same
(b) Different
(c) None of these
Answer:
(b) Different.

Question 120.
Learning is a modified behavior that is mostly the outcome of?
(a) Intimation
(b) Inheritance
(c) Effort
(d) Practice
Answer:
(d) Practice

Question 121.
The experiment on Chimpanzee Sultan was conducted by Kohler and Kottke to demonstrate?
(a) Trial and Error I.earning
(b) Insightful Learning
(c) Stimulus-Response Learning
(d) Instrumental Conditioning Learning
Answer:
(b) Insightful Learning

Question 122.
Gestalt is a – word?
(a) German
(b) English
(c) French
(d) American
(e) None of these
Answer:
(d) American

Question 123.
developed a theory of whole part position in learning and perception?
(a) Structuralists
(b) Functionalists
(c) Behaviourists
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Structuralists

Question 124.
Insightful learning is mostly limited to?
(a) Higher Animals
(b) Lower Animals
(c) Insects
Answer:
(a) Higher Animals

Question 125.
Insightful learning is basically learning by?
(a) Intelligence
(b) Practice
(c) Conditioning
(d) imitation
Answer:
(b) Practice

Question 126.
Learning is a type of acquisition of new behavior which is relative?
(a) Temporary
(b) Permanent
(c) Sudden
(d) Quick
Answer:
(a) Temporary

Question 127.
Knowledge of result is?
(a) Advantageous to learning
(b) Adverse to learning
(c) Stops learning
(d) Retards learning
Answer:
(a) Advantageous to learning

Question 128.
Knowledge of the result is a type of?
(a) Positive reinforcement
(b) Negative reinforcement
(c) Reinforcement
(d) Secondary reinforcement
Answer:
(a) Positive reinforcement

Question 129.
Strong punishment?
(a) Retards learning
(b) Promotes learning
(c) Creates fear psychoses
(d) has no effect on learning
Answer:
(a) Retards learning

Question 130.
Watson viewed conditioning as the only method to?
(a) Learn
(b) Remember
(c) Imitate
(d) Unlearn
Answer:
(d) Unlearn

Question 131.
The Law of effect was introduced by?
(a) Pavlov
(b) Bechterev
(c) Kohler
(d) Thorndike
Answer:
(c) Kohler

Question 132.
Similarity, contrast, and contiguity are the laws of?
(a) Association
(b) Learning
(c) Action
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(b) Learning

Question 133.
Law of belongingness, readiness, and contiguity are laws of?
(a) Perception
(b) Learning
(c) Action
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Action

Question 134.
One who can drive a fiat car can also drive a Maruti car without difficulty. The above phenomenon is due to?
(a) Overlearning
(b) Relearning
(c) Transfer of training
Answer:
(a) Overlearning

Question 135.
A material is learned quickly because of the use of?
(a) Economical methods of learning
(b) Emotion
(c) Thinking
(d) Imagination
Answer:
(b) Emotion

Question 136.
Practice in the right hand interferes with learning in the left hand. This is due to the?
(a) Unilateral transfer
(b) Negative transfer
(c) Zero transfer
Answer:
(c) Zero transfer

Question 137.
When learning of one material does not facilitate or interfere with learning of another material, it is called?
(a) Negative transfer
(b) Bilateral transfer
(c) Zero transfer
Answer:
(c) Zero transfer

Question 138.
Habit interference is also known as _________?
(a) Unilateral transfer of training
(b) Bilateral transfer of training
(c) Negative transfer of learning
Answer:
(c) Negative transfer of learning

Question 139.
When the acquisition of a skill in one situation inhibits the acquisition of a skill in the subsequent situation it is called?
(a) Zero transfer
(b) positive transfer
(c) Negative transfer
Answer:
(a) Zero transfer

Question 140.
The bilateral transfer is also called _______?
(a) Cross education
(b) Associative education
(c) Acquisition of education
Answer:
(b) Associative education

Question 141.
Zero transfer is also known as _______?
(a) Negative transfer
(b) Neutral transfer
(c) Unilateral transfer
Answer:
(b) Neutral transfer

Question 142.
The theory of transfer of training was introduced for the first time by ________?
(a) Ililgard
(b) Hull
(c) James
(d) Thorndike
Answer:
(c) James

Question 143.
Does positive transfer greatly depend upon the presence of identical elements between the original and subsequent?
(a) Perception
(b) Attention
(c) Learning
Answer:
(b) Attention

Question 144.
There are types of transfer of training?
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
Answer:
(b) Three

Question 145.
A student who more often than not performs better in a simple learning situations belongs to the group have?
(a) High Anxiety
(b) No anxiety
(c) Middle-level anxiety
(d) low anxiety
Answer:
(d) low anxiety

Question 146.
Amount of learning depends upon?
(a) Meaningfulness
(b) Association
(c) Repetition
(d) Motivation
(e) All the above
Answer:
(d) Motivation

Question 147.
The amount of acquisition in verbal learning does not depend on one of the following?
(a) Meaningfulness of the material
(b) similarity
(c) Low Anxiety
(d) Defects in muscles
Answer:
(d) Defects in muscles

Question 148.
Does learning take place through _______?
(a) Problem-solving along
(b) Practice alone
(c) Conditioning alone
(d) All the three
Answer:
(d) All the three

Question 149.
When an organism learns something by observing stimulus in the environment and makes the response accordingly, it is?
(a) Discrimination learning.
(b) Problem-solving learning
(c) Signal learning
(d) Stimulus-response learning
(e) All the above
Answer:
(a) Discrimination learning.

Question 150.
An infant can develop an acquisition fear of a stimulus except for loud noise through?
(a) Conditioning learning
(b) Insightful learning
(c) Unconditioning
(d) All the above
Answer:
(d) All the above

Question 151.
Does much learning take place through _________?
(a) Problem-solving alone
(b) Imitation alonge
(c) All the above
Answer:
(b) Imitation alonge

Question 152.
In classical conditioning, the stimuli are presented in the following order?
(a) C.S. and US at the same time
(b) C.S. first C.S. again
(c) C.S. first US next
(d) CS first CS again
Answer:
(c)C.S. first US next

Question 153.
In instrumental conditioning, the reward or reinforcement depends upon the animals?
(a) Activity
(b) Response
(c) Correct response
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Correct response

Question 154.
Instrument conditioning is a happy union of classical conditioning and the law of _______?
(a) Exercise
(b) Contiguity
(c) Effect
(d) Association
Answer:
(c) Effect

Question 155.
B.F. Skinner, was a psychologist?
(a) German
(b) British
(c) American
(d) Swiss
Answer:
(d) Swiss

Question 156.
The procedure by which the withdrawal of reinforcement decreases gradually the occurrence of an acquired response is known as ___?
(a) Intentional reinforcement
(b) Secondary reinforcement
(c) Inhibition
(d) Extinction
Answer:
(d) Extinction

Question 157.
The process by which the desire to check a response becomes stronger and stronger is called?
(a) Extinction
(b) Withdrawal
(c) Negative conditioning
(d) Internal inhibition
Answer:
(c) Negative conditioning

Question 158.
The process by which the experimentally extinguished response reappears again after a period is called?
(a) Conditioned response
(b) Unconditioned response
(c) Spontaneous recovery
(d) Generalised response
Answer:
(c) Spontaneous recovery

Question 159.
The procedure by which a firmly established conditioning is further used as an unconditional stimulus for the establishment of further conditioning is called?
(a) Low-order conditioning
(b) Spontaneous recovery
(c) Higher-order conditioning
Answer:
(a) Low-order conditioning

Question 160.
The process through which a person learns not to make a response to a particular stimulus and make a response to another stimulus is called?
(a) Differentiation
(b) Generalisation
(c) Positive transfer
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Differentiation

Question 161.
When some 1 variety in content, technique and principle is found in two different learning materials transfer of training takes place?
(a) Positive transfer
(b) Negative transfer
(c) Zero transfer
Answer:
(c) Zero transfer

Question 162.
When a previous experience too much obstructs learning in a new situation, obviously there is?
(a) Zero transfer
(b) High positive transfer
(c) High negative transfer
(d) Low negative transfer
Answer:
(b) High positive transfer

Question 163.
In the conditioning technique introduced by Pavlov?
(a) Both stimulus and response change
(b) The same response is made to a different stimulus
(c) To the same stimulus a different response is made
(d) None of the above.
Answer:
(b) The same response is made to a different stimulus

Question 164.
When a particular response becomes in turn a stimulus for a further response this stimulus is called _____?
(a) Unconditioned stimulus
(b) Conditioned stimulus
(c) Dependent stimulus
Answer:
(b) Conditioned stimulus

Question 165.
In a situation where one is conditioned to show fear to while rabbit and this makes him show fear to any type of white animal like a white cat, or white dog, it is called?
(a) Discrimination
(b) Generalisation
(c) Substitution
(d) Distortion
Answer:
(a) Discrimination

Question 166.
A response is weakened through punishment and strengthened through ________?
(a) Reward
(b) Response
(c) Emotion
Answer:
(c) Emotion

Question 167.
The organization and coordination of different sequential habit patterns and acquisitions are called?
(a) A response
(b) A reflex
(c) A skill
(d) An act
Answer:
(a) A response

Question 168.
The concept among the following that is most kin to negative transfer is ________?
(a) Similarity
(b) Habit strength
(c) Massed practice
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Similarity

Question 169.
Generalization is the most important factor in ________?
(a) Positive transfer
(b) Negative transfer
(c) Habit strength
(d) Part and the whole learning
Answer:
(d) Part and the whole learning

Question 170.
strength Over learning occurs because of _______?
(a) Practice
(b) Speed
(c) Resistance to forgetting
(d) Allofthesee
(e) None of these
Answer:
(b) Speed

Question 171.
When one behaves differently in a slightly different situation it is called?
(a) Stimulus genralisation
(b) Stimulus discrimination
(c) Response discrimination
Answer:
(b) Stimulus discrimination

Question 172.
In withdrawal learning the ‘O’ learns to withdraw from ________?
(a) Positive Reinforcement
(b) Negative reinforcement
(c) Full avoidance of any reinforcement
Answer:
(b) Negative reinforcement

Question 173.
Any learning based on maturation and understanding is more or less?
(a) Permanent
(b) Temporary
(c) Efficient
(d) Inefficient
Answer:
(c) Efficient

Question 174.
Which of the following psychologists can be remembered for their contribution to learning theory?
(a) Titchener
(b) Anna Freud
(c) IIull
(d) Ebbinghaus
Answer:
(c)IIull

Question 175.
Better recall after a period of no practice is called?
(a) Retention
(b) Reconstruction
(c) Reminiscence
(d) Recall
Answer:
(c) Reminiscence

Question 176.
Punishing a child for his misbehavior is _______?
(a) Ineffective behavior reinforcement
(b) Positive reinforcement
(c) Negative social reinforcement
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) Negative social reinforcement

Question 177.
Which one of the following procedures is used in verbal learning?
(a) Paired associate learning
(b) Serial learning
(c) Cognitive learning
(d) Free recall
Answer:
(a) Paired associate learning

Question 178.
Learning is the outcome of _______?
(a) Practice
(b) Imitation
(c) Inheritance
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Imitation

Question 179.
Mi n or Drawing apparatus is used in ________?
(a) Verbal learning
(b) Sensory motor learning
(c) Serial learning
Answer:
(b) Sensory motor learning

Question 180.
Classical conditioning is associated with ________?
(a) Bechterev
(b) Pavlov
(c) Koffka
(d) Skinner
Answer:
(a) Bechterev

Question 181.
The gradual decrease in errors in a typing test is attributed to _______?
(a) Trial and error learning
(b) Memory
(c) Intelligence
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Intelligence

Question 182.
Any change in behavior through physiological growth is due to _____?
(a) Practice
(b) Leaming
(c) Maturation
(d) Environment
Answer:
(a) Practice

Question 183.
Avoidance learning is also called ________?
(a) Withdrawal learning
(b) Discrimination learning
(c) Forced learning
(d) Substitute learning
Answer:
(a) Withdrawal learning

Question 184.
Learning can not be possible without ________?
(a) Perception
(b) Imagination
(c) Emotion
Answer:
(c) Emotion

Question 185.
Learning cycling is a type of ________?
(a) Classical conditioning learning
(b) Insightful learning
(c) Trial and error learning
Answer:
(b) Insightful learning

Question 186.
Mirror drawing experiment is ________?
(a) Instrumental conditioning learning
(b) Trial and Error Learning
(c) Association learning ‘
Answer:
(b) Trial and Error Learning

Question 187.
Typing is a ________?
(a) Sensory learning
(b) Sensory motor learning
(c) Motor learning
(d) All the above
Answer:
(a) Sensory learning

Question 188.
Working out mathematical problems is ________?
(a) Problem-solving learning
(b) T & E-learning
(c) Conditioning learning
Answer:
(a) Problem-solving learning

Question 189.
The fear response is acquired through ______?
(a) Conditioning
(b) Trial and Error
(c) Insight
Answer:
(c) Insight

Question 190.
Repetition without motivation ________?
(a) Very much helps to learn
(b) Hinders learning
(c) Is not of much help
Answer:
(a) Very much helps to learn

True & False Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
The strength of recall is a measurement of creativity. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 2.
The memory trace of items entering short-term memory is liable to rapid decay. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Due to the mechanism of repression, a lot of forgetting related to personal matters takes place. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 4.
Efficient memory does not depend upon efficient learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 5.
Forgetting raises the probability of a wrong response. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 6.
The more similar the two materials are, the more the chance of confusion while recalling them. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 7.
Knowledge of results improves memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 8.
The incorrect responses are forgotten more quickly when it is pointed out that they are incorrect. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Ebbinghaus used meaningful materials for his experiments on memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 10.
Nonsense syllables were coined first by Irrion. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 11.
The curve of forgetting is based on the theory of Ebbinghaus. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 12.
Memory is always better for meaningful materials than for nonsense syllables. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 13.
Remembering depends upon learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 14.
Interference is minimum when the materials are extremely similar or dissimilar. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 15.
It is difficult to remember tilings in terms of theoretical concepts. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 16.
Examples and illustrations help in better remembering. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 17.
Forgetting is a decay of old impressions and associations because of atrophy through disuse. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 18.
There is a high degree of relationship between the R.I. and RI. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 19.
Newman found that forgetting is almost the same after the activity as memory before the activity. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 20.
The effects of retroactive inhibition are transitory in all amounts of interpolated learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 21.
The unpleasant, ego-dissatisfying materials are quickly forgotten because of repression. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 22.
Jenkins and Dallenbach conducted an experiment on the effect of sleep on retention. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 23.
During sleep there is a complete Psychological vacuum and forgetting is nil. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 24.
In the sleeping condition, some activity is present as the ‘ S ’ does not always go to sleep immediately after the learning is complete. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 25.
McGeoch for the first time studied the problem of reminiscence. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 26.
There exists some relationship between the Gestalt theory of forgetting and Bartlett’s constructive change theory of forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 27.
McClelland found the phenomenon of reminiscence while studying verbal discrimination learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 28.
During the retentional interval there is scope for rehearsal of the original learning, and reminiscence may occur. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 29.
In the case of nonsense syllables, verbatim and trigrams reminiscence is high. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 30.
Reminiscence may be noticed because of positive transfer. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 31.
In our daily life, we meet more short-term memory cases than long-term ones. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 32.
STM is more often experienced in nonverbal materials. (True /False)
Answer:
False

Question 33.
Ordinarily, the capacity of STM is limited to 6 to 7 items. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 34.
With organization of materials, the length of short-term memory becomes higher. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 35.
Short-term memory is also known as secondary memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 36.
Long term memory is also called primary memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 37.
LTM has limited storage capacity. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 38.
New information must undergo a period of consolidation to enter long-term storage. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 39.
Immediate and short-term memory supplies the code that we use to store materials in more lasting memory and later on to retrieve them. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 40.
The materials Of short-term memory are made ready for long-term memory through rehearsal. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 41.
Elaborate rehearsal is more effective for STM. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 42.
Words learned with meaning and association is better remembered than processed at a superficial level. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 43.
Nonsense materials are better remembered than digits. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 44.
Trigrams are better remembered than nonsense syllables. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 45.
For the first time, nonsense syllables were prepared by Bartlett. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 46.
A nonsense syllable consists of two vowels and one consonant. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 47.
In a trigram there is consonant. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 48.
Nonsense syllables have zero associative value. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 49.
Retention interval as such is not the cause of forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 50.
The interference theory of forgetting was propounded by Muller and Pilzecker. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 51.
Interference theory holds that forgetting takes place because of proactive inhibition and Retroactive inhibition. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 52.
Atrophy through disuse and the theory of disuse are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 53.
According to the interference theory, optimum retention occurs when interpolated learning is introduced in the middle of a long retention interval. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 54.
Interference explains most of our forgetting in day to day life. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question55.
Trace theory has been advanced by the behaviouristic school of psychology. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 56.
Gestalt have approached the study of memory from the side of perception. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 57.
According to Ebbinghaus our memory is more or less organized. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 58.
The unorganized and less structured materials have stable memory traces. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 59.
The unpleasant experiences associated with shame and guilt are forgotten because of the operation of repression. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 60.
The controversy between Bartlett and Ebbinghaus mainly arises due to the methods they use as models. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 61.
According to Ebbinghaus transformation is the chief characteristic of remembering. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 62.
Differences in transformation in remembering takes place because of the difference in the meaning of the materials. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 63.
Bartlett used three methods for measuring memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 64.
The method of repeated reproduction is also known as the method of successive reproduction. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 65.
The conditions necessary for efficient learning also determine efficient remembering. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 66.
An organized learning always produces better remembering as it leads to the development of patterns. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 67.
A need to learn is essential to make memory better and permanent. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 68.
Need is not essential for memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 69.
Practice is a better reinforcer than a need for remembering. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 70.
Pleasant materials are better remembered than unpleasant ones. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 71.
Under the prompting and anticipation method, paired associated learning and serial learning are performed. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 72.
Those factors which influence learning do not necessarily influence retention. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 73.
Different retention cur\ cs lut\ c by and large similar characteristics. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 74.
Ebbinghaus conducted a classic experiment to determine the rate of forgetting with the passage of time. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 75.
At first, forgetting is slow but as time passes, the rate of forgetting becomes rapid. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 76.
There is almost no loss in the number of materials after a good deal of interval. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 77.
Ebbing a conducted experiments on himself using nonsense syllables. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 78.
The experiments conducted by Ebbinghaus on the measurement of memory were based on qualitative methods. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 79.
The speed of forgetting is the same for all the materials. (True/ False)
Answer:
False

Question 80.
Retention curves on the whole indicate that forgetting is never complete. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 81.
The result of various studies shows that the rate of forgetting is slower with meaningful material. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 82.
Perceptual motor skills appear to be retained quite well in comparison to verbal skills. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 83.
Mirror Drawing learning is a type of perceptual-motor skill which is retained through practice. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 84.
Recognition is the easiest method of measuring retention. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 85.
As similarity between interpolated activity and original learning is reduced to a near identity, retention rises and then falls to a minimum again but with an increase in similarity, it never reaches the level obtained with maximum similarity. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 86.
The formula to calculate the percentage of savings is Xj 100. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 87.
The factors responsible for forgetting may be divided into
(a) the factors operating the time of learning
(b) the factors operating afterward. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 88.
Associated pairs of words are better remembered than unassociated pairs of words. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 89.
completed tasks are more rapidly forgotten than an incomplete one. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 90.
Isolated materials are forgotten more quickly than crowded materials. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 91.
Intra serial interference leads to more forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 92.
Learned helplessness affects the retrieval of unpleasant memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 93.
The disuse theory was challenged by Muller and Pilzecker. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 94.
Disuse and not the interpolated activity are the cause of forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 95.
The intensity of the interpolated activity causes more inhibition. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 96.
Maximum facilitation occurs when the learned materials are identical in the original learning and interpolated activity. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 97.
Any stimulus which is discriminated in a series by virtue of its quality is definitely favored in retention. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 98.
More forgetting occurs because of similarity in the method of learning during the original learning and retention interval. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 99.
Inhibition Is greater when the original learning and the interpolated learning are learned through the same sense modality than through different sensory modalities. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 100.
The longer the rest and relaxation between original learning and subsequent recall, the less is forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 101.
Proactive inhibition is the decrement in retention of a task as a result of other learning coming prior to the learning of the task on which the retention test is made. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 102.
Underwood has conducted quite a number of useful studies on proactive inhibition. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 103.
In the serial reproduction method, one person is involved while in the repeated reproduction method several persons are involved. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 104.
In our day to day life hardly any reproductive method of memory is found. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 105.
In immediate memory the processing capacity of the individual is limited. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 106.
Ebbinghaus method is called reproductive while Bartlett’s method is called constructive. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 107.
In part learning the material of learning is divided into different parts. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 108.
Iconic memory is an immediate sensory memory that lasts for a long period. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 109.
Deliberate use of reconditioning increases greatly immediate memory span. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 110.
Both echoic memory and iconic memory are examples of immediate sensory memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 111.
Grouping makes remembering easier. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 112.
The transfer of new information from short-term memory to long-term is promoted by processing it for meaning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 113.
Short-term memory holds verbal materials primarily in acoustic form. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 114.
Episodic memory is a memory for the temporarily dated autobiographical experiences. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 115.
Remembering one item in a category usually means that the majority of the other items in the category will come to mind. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 116.
Organization helps memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 117.
The ability to recognize an item seems to depend on a lesser degree of learning than the ability to reproduce an item actively. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 118.
Retention can not be measured by the speed with which an ‘ S ’ can relearn a task. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 119.
The method of relearning measures retention independently of the availability of specific responses. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 120.
The method of reconstruction is related to the method of saving but puts its main emphasis on the retention of serial position. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 121.
The method of reconstruction can be used only with materials that can be readily broken down into separate units. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 122.
The temporal characteristics of the responses of the subject in particular are sensitive indices of the degree of retention. (True /False)
Answer:
False

Question 123.
The most striking feature of the curve of forgetting Ebbinghaus is its decelerated drop. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 124.
The amount of retention increases indefinitely as a function of the degree of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 125
A whole, method of learning is always superior to the part method of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 126
The operant conditioning technique is not the same as the classical conditioning technique of Pavlov. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 127.
Aversive conditioning and classical conditioning are similar techniques in learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 128.
Thorndike made experiments on the conditioning method of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 129.
Interest is not a necessary determinant of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 130.
Intentional learning is always better than incidental learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 131.
Learning by insight simply means learning by habit. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 132.
Conditioning responses are nothing but a chain of habit patterns. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 133.
Insightful learning is gradual in nature. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 134.
Whole and part learning are equally beneficial. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 135.
Learning and Maturation are related concepts. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 136.
When we leam to ride a bicycle conditioning learning is involved. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 137.
Flilgard experimented on sultan to demonstrate insightful learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 138.
The Law of effect was introduced by Thorndike. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 139.
In trial-and-error learning emphasis is put on practice. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 140.
The Mirror Drawing apparatus is used to demonstrate insightful learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 141.
Maze learning is a type of trial-and-error learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 142.
Operant conditioning is otherwise known as instrumental conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 143.
Trial and error learning was introduced by Bechterev. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 144.
Leamingis are dependent upon practice.(True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 145
The Gestalt school for the first time conducted experiments on the laws of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 146.
Backward conditioning and escape conditioning are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 147.
Positive stimulus reinforces behavior while negative stimulus inhibits it. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 148.
The process by which a CR can be eliminated is known as unconditing. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 149.
Experimental extinction and experimental neuroses are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 150
The procedure through which a CR is excited by a stimulus that has similarity with the original stimulus is called response generalization. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 151.
A response may be more resistant to extinction if the reinforcement in the conditioning trial has been continuous. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 152.
Once conditioning is finally established the C.S. can be used as an unconditioned stimulus for further conditioning.(True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 153.
Negative conditioning is also known as backward conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 154.
Pavlov was a swiss physiologist. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 155.
The Gestalt School of Psychology mainly aims at finding the whole-part relationship. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 156.
Nail biting habits can be eliminated by trial and error method. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 157.
the concept of experimental neuroses has been studied intensively by Hilgard. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 158.
Delay in reinforcement stands in the way of strengthing S-R connections and habits. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 159.
There is a high positive relationship between immediate reward and amount of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 160.
Rein forcement is the motivating force behind all eating. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 161.
Thorndike’s concept of spread of effect provides the reinforcement theorists strong support. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 162.
In learning, through the error can be zero time can never the zero. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 163.
In all learning curves, there need not necessarily be a plateau. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 164.
Perception of the relationship between different parts of the visual field and the goal plays a significant role in learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 165.
Learning by insight takes a single attempt to solve a problem. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 166.
Learning and performance are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 167.
Kohler and Koffka conducted an experiment on chimpanzees Sultan to demonstrate learning by conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 168.
Gestalt is a German word.(True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 169.
The behaviorist school of psychology developed a theory of whole part position in learning and perception. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 170.
The unconditioned stimulus is always presented after the conditioned stimulus to classical conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 171.
Ebbinghaus is remembered for his contribution to learning psychology. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 172.
Learning is a process that starts from the delivery table. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 173.
When the stimulus becomes too small for the organism to discriminate a nervous breakdown is obvious. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 174.
Operant conditioning is usually studied in a laboratory using a Skinner box. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 175.
Behavior therapy is based on operant conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 176.
Spontaneous recovery will grow weaker and weaker if no reinforcement is provided. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 177.
Many of our bad habits can be removed by trial and error method. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 178.
Any learning based on maturation is more or less temporary. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 179.
Overlearning occurs because of practice. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 180.
Trial and Error learning is demonstrated experimentally in the laboratory by Tachistoscope. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 181.
In withdrawal learning the ‘ O’ learns to withdraw from negative reinforcement. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 182.
Titchener is remembered for his contribution to learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 183.
Punishing a child for his misbehavior is negative social reinforcement. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 184.
Cycling is a sensory-motor learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 185.
Typing is sensory learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 186.
Transfer of learning from the right hand to the right leg is called unilateral transfer of training. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 187.
Fear for dogs is acquired through trial and error, and learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 188.
Repetition without motivation is not of much help to improve learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 189.
Generalization and discrimination are opposite concepts.(True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 190.
Discrimination develops out of generalization. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 191.
Spontaneous recovery has lots of similarities with reminiscence. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 192.
The similarity in content, technique, and principle leads to zero transfer. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 193.
Spread up effect is an extension of the law of exercise. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 194.
Learning establishes a new relationship between the stimulus and the response. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 195.
Learning is defined as the modification of behavior. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 196.
Reinforcement is indispensable for learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 197.
Behavioral changes induced by drugs, brain injury, and maturation are not considered to involve learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 198.
Maturation occurs before birth as well as afterward while learning occurs after birth. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 199.
E.L. Thorndike was German Psychologist. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 200.
Animals mostly do not leam by reasoning but by trial and error. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 201.
In the conditioning technique as the number of trials increases, unnecessary irrelevant and random activities reduce. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 202
After 1933 law of effect was included by Thomidke along with the law of exercise. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 203.
Law “of readiness refers to the physical or psychological preparedness of a person to attend to a stimulus. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 204.
The Law of readiness has three parts. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 205.
Law ofçxcrcisc comprises the law of use and law of disuse. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 206.
The Law of effect is the cardinal principle of Thorndike’s theory of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 207.
The spread of effect was discovered by Guthrie. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 208.
In classical conditioning, reinforcement is used in a restricted sense. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 209.
Before ‘insight’ can occur the learner should be able to see the relationship among all the parts of the problem. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 210.
In insightful learning, integrating and reintegrating part processes into a new total pattern is observed. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 211.
When the solution comes after trying the elements present in the learning field, it is known as foresight. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 212.
When the solution to the problem occurs in the first attempt without actually trying the situation, it is called hindsight. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 213.
The non-reinforcement theorists are the advocates of latent learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 214.
The whole part phenomenon of learning and perception was developed by the Gestalt school of Psychology. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 215.
There are two types of transfer of training. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 216.
Low anxiety is necessary for efficient learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 217.
When a previous experience obstructs learning in a new situation it is called a positive transfer of training. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 218.
Insightful learning was advocated by Pavlov. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 219.
In insightful learning solution to the problem comes gradually. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 220.
For human learning, the first verbal material used was meaningful words. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 221.
Pavlov s studies on conditioning come under instrumental conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 222.
When we intentionally attend to something it is called habitual attention. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 223.
One of the most important characteristics of learning is change. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 224.
Learning is most effective if the learner is interested in participating in the learning experience. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 225.
Each and every learning direction is not necessary. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 226.
All learning can be possible by the conditioned response. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 227.
Watson believed that environmental influences have a secondary role in learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 228.
In learning past experience is not necessary. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 229.
Kohler developed insightful learning techniques. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 230.
Trial and error is the simplest form of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 231.
Pavlov was a Russian Psychologist. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 232.
Extinction means an increase in the probability of response. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Read More:

JUBLFOOD Pivot Point Calculator

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 4 Method of Teaching Odia Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Unit 4 Method of Teaching Odia Questions and Answers

Short Type Questions and Answers

Question 1.
General and specific aims of teaching mother tongue?
Answer:
General Aims :

• To increase knowledge through reading.
• To create content in reading,
• To develop their expression.
• To enable the students to collect facts and information.
• To increase the vocabulary and language skills in the subjects.

Specific Aims:

• To help the students to understand the idea of the passage.
• To add the vocabulary of the students
• To enable the students to read quickly with good pronunciation.
• To enable them to collect facts and information,

Question 2.
Aims of teaching Crdia poetry?
Answer:
To help the pupils so enjoy poetry. To help them to discover more in each poem. To get them to go on reading poetry. To enable the pupil to catch something of what the poet feels and expresses. To help the pupils to understand and appreciate the poet’s love of nature. To create an atmosphere to understand intellectually. To afford a keen and sincere pleasure in a new experience and to enlarge powers of sympathetic imagination.

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Explain the aims and objectives of teaching the mother tongue. What principles will you follow in order to realize these aims?
Answer:
The teacher must have a clear and correct notion of the objectives he wants to achieve in this important subject mother- tongue. These objectives may be expressive as well as respective in nature. That is why the knowledge of the aims and objectives of teaching mother-tongue is essential for the teacher, Mother-tongue has fourfold aims such as listening, writing, reading, and speaking. It is the responsibility of the teacher to give his pupils accessary command over these four important aspects:

• how to hear a plain thing in a plain way
• how to say a plain thing in a plain way
• how to read a plain thing in a plain way
• how to write a plain thing in a plain way

The teacher must of course be able to do these things before he .can teach to do them. In order to realize these aims, the teacher needs to have knowledge of some important principles of language teaching. Sound method of teaching language recognizes these as stand and principles of language study. We would borrow Palmer’s descriptive terminology to state these principles.

Initial preparation:
The pupil’s natural or spontaneous capacities for assimilating spoken language should be developed by means of various, types of exercises for initial preparation.

Habit Forming:
Language learning is a habit-forming process. In teaching the mother tongue the teacher has to form some linguistic habits and utilize the previous one’s already formed.

Accuracy:
Any form of work that is not going to help in forming accurate habits of language use should be discouraged.

Gradation:
The work of different aspects of the language study should be properly graded. The easy should precede the difficult words. Hence exercises that require hearing or speaking should precede those which require, seeing the same line reception and repetition immediate memory, chorus work should precede reproduction reading prolonged memory, and individual work respectively.

Proportion:
Each branch of the language should be given balanced, attention, none should be emphasized at the cost of the other.

Concreteness:
The teacher ought to start with what is concrete for the child. Examples before teaching any percepts, explanations, associations, definitions also should be concrete.

Interests:
The pupil must be interested in what he is doing. In order to secure his interest in use of play way devices, a variety of. exercises sympathetic to attitude and the teacher are desirable and effective means.

Question 2.
What are the aims and objectives of teaching prose? What steps are to be followed in teaching a prose lesson?
Answer:
Aims of teaching prose:
prose thus has two types of aims. They are as follows:
General Aims:
To increase1 knowledge through reading. To create interest in reading. To develop, their expression To teach correct pronunciation To enable the students to collect facts and information. To increase the vocabulary and language skills of the students.

Specific Aims:
To help the students to understand the idea of the passage. To add the vocabulary of the student. To enable the pupils to need quick passage and correct pronunciation. To enable them to collect facts and information.

Steps in teaching prose (Introduction):
The introduction is .an important part of the teaching of any subject. Before going to teach a lesson on the topic of prose the teacher should give a good and suitable introduction to that topic. Through a good introduction, the teacher should arouse the curiosity of the pupils. It gives the motivation to the pupils for learning that new lesson. Teachers can introduce the lesson in many ways. He may introduce the topic by showing some pictures of it. Some part of the topic has already been taught the teacher may ask some recapitulatory questions to the students after introductory questions the teacher will announce the name of the topic purpose to be taught.

Model loud reading by the teacher:
After giving the introduction of a lesson the teacher will read aloud the passage with proper pronunciation, intonation, phrasing, and with normal speed. But in higher classes model reading by the teacher is not necessary.

Loud reading by the students:
After the loud reading, the teacher should ask the students to read their lesson loudly. At that time teacher watches and guides students for correct reading with correct pronunciations.

Exposition of difficult words:
At this stage, the teacher will expose the difficult words! For exposing the difficult words the teacher may take the help of a blackboard and also illustrative materials. The teacher should write the model sentences using difficult words on the blackboard. He may encourage the students to get model sentences. He must verify whether the students are actually writing the meaning of the difficult words or not.

Silent reading by the students:
After the exposition of difficult words by the teacher, it is easy for the students to grasp the ideas contained in the lesson. So after exposing the difficult words the teachers should ask the students to read. the lesson silently. At the time of silent reading, proper discipline must be maintained.

Comprehension Test:
In order to know whether students have understood the subject matter, meaning, and ideas contained in the lesson, the teacher should examine the students by putting some comprehension-type questions them. The question should be distributed properly and equally among the students. If any student gives a wrong answer, it should be corrected by another student. If all the students fail to answer the teacher should give a suitable answer to the questions. Precaution should be taken to use the blackboard properly.

Application test questions:
It is the last step of teaching prose. At this stage, the teacher should put a number of questions regarding the main points of the lesson. He may give some home tasks, and home assignments to the students for revising the main points and the questions should be short and objective based.

Question 3.
Write a note on the story-telling method?
Answer:
Children like to listen to stories. So storytelling method has become effective in teaching Odia. For the age group of 8 to 10 the story should be woven with attractive descriptions. This would arouse the interest of pupils and provides scope for imaginative understanding enjoyment.

Advantages of the storytelling method:
Creative interest:
The storytelling method can give life to the dead facts. It is the most effective way for bringing out all the aspects – cultural, social, and economic of the ancient society.

Develops Imagination :
Stories develop the imaginative power of students. They take the pupils far away from the material world and after ample Scope for the play of their imagination.

Training of creative faculties:
Stories of historical happenings and literary materials provide scope for die children to utilize their creative ability in various ways.

Inculcation of virtues:
The teacher through storytelling pan inculcates in the children like play. truthfulness, valor, charity, etc.

Selection of stories:
The story should be selected to suit the mental age of the children. The teacher may take the stories from any source he thinks suitable, local or world history, cave life, hunting life, biography, etc. The story should be full of actions and details.

Role of the teachers:
Storytelling is an art. The teacher should possess the ability, of being full sympathy for an important person’s age when he narrated stories. He should be equipped with rich imaginative powers.

Question 4.
Discuss the different, methods of teaching like phonetic, method, look and say method, and sentence methods of teaching in teaching Odia?
Answer:
There are different methods employed in teaching Odia like the direct method. The structural approach, lecture method, phonetic, look and say method, sentence methods, etc. for teaching Odia: In the primary classes the phonetic method, look and say method, and sentence method are followed by the teachers.

Phonetic method:
In the phonetic method, the emphasis is given to word building, spelling, etc. The students use word by word. Reading is emphasized. The pupils go through word by word clearly, in pronunciation, of their meanings. The words are clearly uttered with their grammatical uses. Emphasis is given to structures.

Sentence method:
In sentences, method emphasis is given to sentence formation. In this method firstly emphasis is given to the rules of grammar. The students are asked to utter a full sentence and write a sentence with stress, and intonation. The teacher emphasizes sentence structure. The teacher uses a blackboard and grammar is emphasized.

Look and say method :
Look and say the method is used for teaching in primary classes. This method firstly helps in developing skills in speaking and writing. The children visit places, museums and leam experience. They leam new things and new words. They follow the teacher. By observation, they acquire knowledge and skill in reading and writing. This method is helpful in speaking and writing. This method is helpful in speaking and writing. They are able to express themselves through this method. The spoken and power of observation is developed.

Question 5.
Discuss lecture methods in teaching Odia/mother tongue in schools. Give its merits – and limitations.
Answer:
The lecture method involves teaching by means of spoken word, It is the formal talk of the teacher. This method is used in all stages with all classes. It may be known as the lecture method with higher secondary and college. At higher and college stages the lecture method is used to teach effectively. Each lecture will stimulate the interest and mental activity of the students.

They will also be prompted to ask questions at the end of the lecture which is sure proof of the success of the lecture. Generally lecturing is based on the traditional authority and is a time-honored device for imparting knowledge. But as a method for secondary school pupils, it has fallen into very ill repute. The good teachers of today are very careful not to talk too much.

He assumes a major share of the responsibility for planning and guiding functional learning for the group of pupils in the class. A lecture is taken with a technique of description explanation and clarification. So the lecture method is effective and useful for young and college students.

Merits:
It develops the power of concentration in the students and also their power of expression thinking and reasoning. This method is very useful in introducing. a lesson. It also throws light on the practical aspect of education. Elucidation of complicated thoughts and ideas is possible in this method.

The lower expression is fully developed. This method is economical and time-saving. In this method of teaching both the teacher and taught are active. This method is possible to establish direct contact with the knowledge between the teacher and taught. Language learning becomes fluency.

Demerits of lecture method:
This method kills the liveliness of the class. It is the teacher who reigns and the students remain passive partners. The lecture method is not useful and beneficial for lower-class students. The knowledge that is gained and acquired through their method is neither complete nor perfect nor stable. This method is unpsychological and unscientific.

But a slow learner’s curiosity remains unsaturated. It is not possible on the part of the lecturer to make the teaching lively. It strikes a blow to the originality of the students. The curiosity remains unsatisfied and the thirst for knowledge continued.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 4 Method of Teaching Geography Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Unit 4 Method of Teaching Geography Questions and Answers

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Discuss the aims and objectives of teaching Geography.
Answer:
Every subject of study has certain important aims and objectives. The aims and objectives greatly influence the learning experience. The method of teaching and the evaluation tools and techniques are used in the teaching-learning process. Man wants to know more and more about the vast domain and of all school subjects. Geography is the only subject that can give him a picture and an explanation of the world and its various features.

Geography can be defined as the physical, social science which describes maps and seeks to explain the relations between man and his physical environment. On the other hand, it deals with the physical environment as well as the cultural environment. Geography as a school subject has some specific aims. Geography also helps in the attainment of the objectives of education in general. The objectives of geography teaching are discussed below,

Development of child intellect:
Geography has a place in one’s intellectual development. The mental process of observation etc. is developed and directed in the proper direction through the study of Geography. Geography is the science of observation and understanding of the physical as well as the social environment in which one lives. He requires geographical knowledge by observing various maps, models, globes, photographs, drawings, and all other teaching aids. So geography develops the powers of observation of the child.

Geography aims at putting in the child’s mind an impression of the entire world. It is not possible to see everything in every place but the child can imagine many aspects of the world by studying maps, globes, charts, slides, films, etc. So geography tries to develop the power of imagination of the child. The child has to remember the names of many places, countries, and geographical features. So geography aims at developing, the memory power of the students.

Enrichment of knowledge:
A study of geography includes various physical phenomena, various geographical concepts such as valleys, deltas, deserts, islands, lakes, longitude, and latitude, etc. Thus, students know and understand the meaning of such terms and concepts which are large in number. This enriches their vocabulary and knowledge. Besides this, the students know the use of various geographical instrument as a rain gauge, barometers, thermometers, etc.

Inculcation and development of geographical attitudes:
The modem concept of education does not delimit itself in the acquisition of factual information rather it aims at the inculcation and development of proper attitude. Geography aims at the inculcation and development of proper geographical attitudes in the child through various teaching-learning experiences and activities. The child arrives, at the truth only after analyzing and verifying the cause-and-effect relationship of any natural phenomenon.

Development of the power of appreciation :
A geography student appreciates the beauty of nature which might cultivate a sense of responsibility care and pass time with the child. The natural scenery develops the power of imagination in the child and the child very often expresses his imagination in the form of power and pictures.

Development of intelligent citizenship:
Geography helps the child to become a responsible citizen.

Development of international understanding :
While studying about the different people of the world, the child knows the contribution of each nation towards world culture. He can realize the interdependences of making and able to understand the differences in the physical characteristics of the people of the world are due to the differences in their physical environments. He feels that international cooperation and understanding are essential for a peaceful world.

Development of the knowledge of geographical words and symbols:
Geography has its own language, specific symbols are used in globes and maps to represent specific objects. The students can understand many difficult geographical concepts by studying those worlds and symbols. So geography also aims at developing the skill of drawing and using maps and charts.

Integration of knowledge:
Integration of knowledge is possible by correlating geography with other subjects like history, literature, social science, etc.

Enrichment of travel experience:
Travel is more meaningful to developing the knowledge of the geography of the place of travel.

Question 2.
Discuss the direct observation method of teaching geography with its advantages and disadvantages?
Answer:
Direct observation helps the child to acquire first-hand knowledge. In this method, the children gather information on various geographical materials such as rivers, mountains, valleys, agricultural land, industries, etc by visiting such places on excursions. the method suggests that education is not confined to the four walls of the classroom. The students are acquainted with their environment and acquire knowledge about the place and materials having geographical importance. There a field trip on an excursion is often called an outdoor lesson.

The direct observation method has the following advantages :
It gives direct experiences to the students. They enjoy true geography by observing the places and materials of geographical importance. They acquire true knowledge. The knowledge acquired through direct observation is complementary to that gained from textbooks.

Education becomes lively and interesting to students when they observe when they read. The students become interested and imaginative. This provides motivation to the students to read geography. Qualities like patriotism, cooperation, national integration, leadership, etc. are developed through direct observation.

Disadvantages:
Very often students become indisciplined when they are taken outside to observe. Sometimes the parents and guardians do not permit their children to go out on study tours. The observation is obstructed. Something heavy expenditure is essential for arranging field trips and tours. Observation of the materials and places that are far away is very difficult and even sometimes not practicable.

Question 3.
Discuss the discussion method in teaching geography?
Answer:
There is a method in which the ideas of many pupils concerning a topic are gathered through discussion, both group and class discussion can be made use of by an encouraging and sympathetic teacher. Many geography topics related to the experience and conversations of the pupils can conveniently use this method. The geography teacher can conveniently use this method. He can use the method in combination with another method.

The most important advantage of this method is as follows. It helps the teacher to know more about the background of the pupils. It is helpful for promoting better participation of pupils. It helps the teacher to make the class more lively, active, and interesting. It encourages group thinking. It develops leadership qualities and responsibilities. Pupils are allowed and encouraged to put forward their viewpoints frankly.

The effectiveness of the discussion method- depends on the following factors:

• Age level and abilities of the students
• Class-size
• Subject matter
• Experience and skill of the teacher.

Role of the teacher :
The teacher has to play an important role in this method. His specific function is to introduce the subject. Allowing time for the group warm-up and keeping the discussion from deviation. Maintaining the spirit of the member high by encouraging informality case of discussion and humor. Observing the students in the discussion technique. Creating the proper climate for the interchange of the idea.

Question 4.
Discuss the method of assignment of teaching Geography?
Answer:
In the scope of education taking care of the individual child, the method employed is an assignment. In this method, the children are given full freedom. The children are divided into different smaller groups and given independence to continue their work. The assignment is done in the process of the experiment. Dalton worked out the assignment as experimentally in this school.

In this method, the annual course is divided into each month. It is also divided into weekly wise. In the assigned method, the teaching of geography is very much helpful. The assignment is given by the teacher by dividing the main subjects. The teachers solve the poem by writing. It helps not only, in the expansion of knowledge but also helpful.

The assignment is classified into the:

• Preparatory assignment
• Study assignment
• Recapitulatory assignments
• Corrected assignment

The school assignment method is equivalent to the home assignment Still there is a difference between the school assignment and the home assignment. In this assignment method, the teacher is the director, guide, and assist the children. How far the students become successful in assignments, the teacher prepares a map to see the assignment every week.

Advantages of the assignment method:
For the assignment method, there should be a good library and workshop at the school. Assignment totally depends on clear thinking and so the workshop and library will be helpful to them. There is a need for pre-knowledge to find success in the assignment method. The assignment method is attractive, and interesting and the children are very much interested to work in this method, The assignment report should be recorded.

To fulfill the aim of education, this method works. In this method, if the students execute the assignment in groups together by which the cooperation attitude develops. In this method, the children develop understanding and insight. They took an interest in re-leaming of the project or assignment. In the assignment work, the teacher should take proper care of it.

In this method, there is love and affection, and cooperation among the children. The children develop with the power of utterance language knowledge. All kinds of help are to be supplied to the pupil in the assignment. The children develop with the power of utterance and language knowledge. They become disciplined. There is no waste of time in preparing notes in the assignment method.

Disadvantages of the assignment method :
The assignment method, there are many merits. Still, the method has certain disadvantages. The method faces so many obstacles. The defects are given below. The method needs more labor. So the teacher and students have to do more labor in the method. It was time-consuming and expensive. In this method teaching in lower classes is impossible. More attention is given to this method and so the children can not achieve success in higher classes. The teaching is not done in specific steps and so the child could find no importance in this method.

Use of Audio-visual aids:
To make the assignment effective and successful so many aids and audio-visual aids and their use are helpful. In the assignment method in teaching, geography, maps, atlas, globe, world maps, and wall maps are used. The models used in the assignment method for effective teaching the aids are the most helpful.

Question 5.
What do you mean by a project? Explain the project method of teaching geography with its merits and demerits?
Answer:
The project method is an activity and pupil-centered method. This method helps the students to explore anything of interest to them and thus gain direct experience of the creative activity and the scientific investigation. The term project is defined differently, as given below:

Kilpatrick:
A project is a wholehearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment.

Stevenson :
A project is a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting.

Ballard :
A project is a bit of real life that has been imparted into the school.
Steps in project method:

Providing a situation:
The teacher has to provide an appropriate situation for the project. The teacher through his teaching and discussion should lead the students to various projects. During his discussions, the teacher should also notice the areas of interest of the pupils.

Purposing:
Every project should have a definite purpose. Unless the child knows the purpose he will not be very much interested in the activity. The students are to be encouraged to determine the purpose of the project with the help of the teacher. The teacher should not impose his ideas upon the children.

Planning:
After determining the purpose the students are to be allowed to plan their project. Sufficient freedom is to be given to the pupils for planning the project. The teacher should only work as a guide at this stage.

Executing:
In the next step, the actual education of the project takes place. During the execution, the whole team is to be divided into small groups and parts and the groups should be assigned duties according to their interest and ability. The students have to read, write and discuss many things and undertake many activities concerning the project. Thus, the child enriches himself with a wide range of experiences,

Evaluating:
At the end of work, the pupils should evaluate their own work. They should judge the effectiveness of their activity,

Recording:
According to the project, an activity should be prepared at the end of each project by the students.

Role of the teacher:
The teacher’s role is most significant in this method. The teacher should advance suggestions wherever necessary. He should have democratic attitude and a democratic atmosphere is very much The teacher’s teaching should follow systematic and psychological order so that the principles of the project are quite accessible to the pupil’s mind.

Advantages :
When efficiently used, this method helps in supplementary classroom activities It helps in fostering scientific thinking. It helps in inculcating a scientific attitude. It encourages group activities and develops their spirit and sense of cooperation among pupils. Individuals project provides scope for children to work independently. It helps nurture special talents in students. It helps in the development of self-confidence students in understanding scientific experiments and studies. The method helps the school to increase its resources for teaching science.

Limitations:
The method requires an expert teacher to be a resource and to be a guide. The pupils get superficial knowledge of many things but no proper groundwork. The method needs a well-equipped laboratory and visits. So the method is expensive. The development of the subject matter is not systematic, disorganized, or irregular. So the project sometimes failed to be successful.

Question 6.
What is a problem-solving method for teaching geography? Discuss its advantages and disadvantages?
Answer:
Problem-solving approach pre-supposes the existence of a problem in the teaching-learning situation. A problem is an obstruction difficulty that has to be overcome to reach a goal. A problem is a situation in which he felt difficulty is realized The problem method aims at presenting the knowledge to be learned in the form of a problem. It begins with a problematic situation and consists of continuous meaningful and well-integrated activity. The problems are self to students in a natural way.

Main features of the problem-solving approach:
It is a research-like method that involves scientific thinking as a process of learning. The essential features are the following Formulation and appreciation of problems at the emergence of a problem. Collection of data or information to solve problems. Formulation of hypotheses Analysis of the data Conclusion Applying the data to a new situation.

The problem:
The problem arises out of the felt need of the students. The problem must be stated clearly so that the class can understand it. The problem should possess the characteristics.

• The problem should be selected to the maturity level of the children
• The problem should be selected clearly.
• The problem should be properly delimited.
• The problem should be easy to solve.
• The problem should be valuable for the learners.

Collection of data:
After formulation and appreciation of the problem, the teacher should stimulate the students to collect data in a systematic manner from various sources. Students should be stimulated to collect data from textbooks, reference books, magazines, pamphlets, etc.

Formulation of hypothesis:
At this stage, the students should look the following regarding the solution to the problem. Selecting important factors related to the problem. Identifying the different relationships which may exist between the factors. Analyzing, selecting, and interpreting data.

Testing of hypothesis:
Checking the hypothesis with recognized authority. Devising experimental procedures suitable for testing the hypothesis. Organizing data Rechecking data for error interpretations Applying the hypothesis to the problem.

Analysis of the evidence and inferences:
Children should be taught to be scientific and reasonably ill in interpreting the data. It is essential to break the large area into different segments and then consider ways and means for analysis. Analysis of data should be accurate and up to the point.

Drawing conclusion:
The conclusion should be drawn by the pupils themselves and the teacher to see how far it is significant relating to the solution to the problem. Applying the idea to a new situation The students should be able to recognize the common, and identical elements in the principle of the problem and apply them in the new situation.

Advantages:
From the standpoint of learning principle of problem-solving is very valuable since they are the result of the cumulated and generalized experience that makes up the bases of knowledge and understanding. It is much easier to remember the facts through this method. It develops reflective thinking therefore it stimulates thinking, reasoning, and critical judgment in the students. It develops the qualities of self-dependent in the students.

It is a stimulating method that acts as a great motivator and directs the student’s attention and activity. It serves individual differences. It develops desirable study habits in the students. It is a method of experience-based learning. There is the possibility of close contact between the teacher and taught. Every student needs individual guidance from the teacher. The students get valuable social experiences patience, cooperation, and self-confidence, etc.

Disadvantages:
It is a time-consuming method. The progress of the students is, bound to be low. All topics can not be taught by this method. It is difficult to recognize the contents according to the requirements of the method. Textbooks written in the traditional style do not help in the use of this method. This method does not suit the students of lower classes. They do not possess enough background for scientific approach problems. It requires adequate resources.

Question 7.
Write a note on the use of the lecture method in the teaching of geography in schools. Give its merits and demerits?
Answer:
The lecture method “involves teaching by means of the spoken word”. Generally, it means a formal talk by the teacher. This method may profitably be used at all stages with all classes but its success will depend upon individual teachers. This very method may be known as the Telling of the story or the conventional method with primary and lower middle classes.

It may be known as the lecture method, with higher secondary and college classes. Primary school children have no patience to listen to long talks or lectures. They are interesting stories or questions and answers. Being full of activity small children can not remain passive listeners. Their interest should, therefore, be aroused by means of questions and answers or interesting stories.

But questions in this state should be related to their environment, Children should also be encouraged to put as many questions to the teacher as possible. At higher and college stages, however, the lecture method may be safely used. But even at these stages, the lecture must not be dry. It should be a well-prepared and well-presented lecture, such as a lecture will stimulate the interest and mental activity, of the students.

They will also be prompted to ask questions at the end of the lecture which is sure proof of the success of the lecture. Generally lecturing is based on the traditional authority and is. time-honored device for imparting knowledge. But as a method for secondary school pupils, it has fallen into very ill repute. The good teacher of today is careful not to talk too much a lie does not dominate the learning process.

He assumes a major share of the responsibility for planning and guiding a number of activities, experiences, and situations which result in functional teaming for the group of pupils in his class. He carefully selects a proper technique to meet the needs, interests, and capacities of his pupils at a particular time and in particular situations. In this case, a lecture is taken as a technique of description, explanation, and clarification. After all, it must then also be useful with the same students only a year or two before they enter college provided it is used correctly.

Merits:
The lecture method has the following merits. It develops the power of concentration in the students and also their power of expression, thinking, and reasoning. It is economical and saves time. It keeps both the teacher as well as the students active. Through this method, it is possible to establish direct contact knowledge between the teacher and the taught. Through this method, it is possible to elucidate difficult and complicated thoughts and ideas. This method is very useful in introducing a lesson. It also throws light on the practical aspects of education.

Demerits:
This method kills the liveliness of the class. It is the teacher who reigns supreme and the students remain passive partners. This method is not useful for students of the lower classes. In this method, it is the teacher who remains active while the students become passive listeners. In fact, it is the students who should be active listeners.

The knowledge that is acquired through this method is neither complex nor perfect nor stable. This method is not psychologically scientific. In this method, it is not possible to make the child the center of education. It is the subject that is the center of education while really speaking it should not be so.

In a country like India, its success may be retarded due to the good textbooks and able teachers. It is not possible on the part of the teacher to make the teaching lively This method has very little scope for evaluation and examination of the students by the teacher while he teaching them.

Question 8.
What are different audio-visual aids in the teaching of geography? Give examples?
Answer:
The audio-visual aids make the learning of geography interesting and attractive and in the absence of those, aids, the lesson is dry and ineffective. Various types of such aids are used in teaching geography, which can be classified as follows.

Audio aids:
Radio, Tape-record, Gramphone, etc. under this category of aids.

Visual aids:
Globe, maps, charts, graph specimens, models, photography, slides, filmstrip, etc. belong to the category of visual aids.

The following aids are usually used in teaching geography:
Globe:
A globe is a model of the earth. It gives the idea to the pupils that the earth is round. Topics like the rotation and revolution of the earth’s longitude and latitude situations of different places can be better taught to the pupils through a globe.

Maps:
Maps are the most essential tools in the hands of the geography teacher. Geography teaching is incomplete and is effective in the absence of maps. Maps are helpful following ways. The pupils can learn about the situation of a state country or continent, its rivers, lakes, mountains, soil, rainfall, cities, parts, communication facilities, agriculture, industry exports, and imports.

The distance and direction of a place from another place can be known from the maps. Various kinds of maps can tease. The most common kinds of picture maps are political maps, political maps, outlines, map weather maps, vegetation maps, weather maps, sociological maps, industry maps, commercial maps, geological maps, etc.

Educational films:
Films can be used for sharing some purposes, such as the manufacture of cotton, modes of irrigation, the life of people in a country, etc.

Film strips and slides:
Slides and film strips can be used to show some situations or processes such as typically dressed, tribal people and a typical animal, etc.

Pictures:
Great importance is attached to the use of pictures in teaching geography. A picture appeals to the imagination of the pupils. Picture of different Objects and places can be used.

Charts:
Charts usually give a comparative picture of anything. For example, a chart can be prepared by comparing the population of various nations.

Models:
Models are usually made of clay plaster of Paris, paper, etc. It resembles the real object, of the child. Radio, tape recorders, television, etc. are also occasionally used by the geography teacher for teaching geography.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Learning Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 3 Learning Short Answer Questions

Short Type Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Encoding?
Answer:
According to Baron Encoding is a process through which information is converted to a form that can be entered into memory. Encoding means putting material into a form.

Question 2.
Ret rival Failure?
Answer:
One fails to recall information because of failure to retrieve information from storage due to inadequate memory loss. Retrieve information was for retrieval.

Question 3.
Chunking?
Answer:
When by using an artificial grouping technique one learns to retain information where grouping is not provided, it is called chunking. Decided his strategy by grouping refers to each trial.

Question 4.
Sensory Memory?
Answer:
It is a non-conscious memory developed by Atkinson and Shifrmn which is also called a sensory register. Sensory memory is an impression formed from the input of any of the senses.

Question 5.
Storage?
Answer:
Storage refers to a process by which the encoded information is retained in the memory. Storage retains the encoded information for some time.

Question 6.
Numerical Pegs?
Answer:
Otherwise called number and letter peg. Numerical pegs serve as a good memory aid.

Question 7.
Reminiscence?
Answer:
Ruch (1970) defines reminiscence as “a continuous increase in skill after practice ceases.” In the usual pattern of forgetting cases.

Question 8.
Forgetting?
Answer:
Forgetting has positive and negative values in life. Forgetting is a great blessing to mankind.

Question 9.
Recall Method?
Answer:
The recall was made by the famous Ebbchghaus. In recall, the previously learned material is brought to the present consciousness in their absence, it is called recall.

Question 10.
Long-term Memory?
Answer:
Long-term memory constitutes each person’s knowledge of the word and knowledge of himself. Long-term organizations help in storing the memory in the C.T.M. for a long period.

Question 11.
Semantic memory?
Answer:
It refers to abstract knowledge. It is organized knowledge about the world including the verbal world of words. The information associated with a particular time or place is contained in semantic memory. When we gorget an incident but the knowledge or importance of it is remembered it is called semantic memory. Semantic memory is a memory of meaningful information which can be stored in L.T.M.

Question 12.
Retrograde Amnesia?
Answer:
Critics argued that lack of recall need not necessarily mean forgetting. This has been experimentally demonstrated in the laboratory and observed in practice. Soldiers on the battlefield after some shock forget the incidents experienced just before the shock. Lack of recall may also be due to associative interference. In spite of this criticism, the recall method is very much in use for the measurement of memory.

Question 13.
Recognition Method?
Answer:
Recognition according to Guilford(1917) literally means ‘knowing again’. Recognition simply means to identify. Recognition is the easiest method of measuring retention. It is easier to recognize a name or face than to recall it. The process of recognition is influenced by one’s attitudes, prejudices, values, and other
inner motives.

Question 14.
Reminiscence?
Answer:
According to Stevens “As against the curve of Ebbinghaus, sometimes retention curves show a period. In the usual pattern of the forgetting curve initially, there is a stiff decline. the phenomenon of initial rise is leveled as reminiscence. such (1970) defines reminiscence as a continuous increase in skill after practice ceases. Ballard, an English School teacher first studies the problem of reminiscence.

Question 15.
The Method of LOCI?
Answer:
LOCI is the plural of the Latin word Locus which means ‘place’. Through the method of LOCI, šinoncidcs could find out in his mind’s eye the seating arrangement of guests at a banquet hail. The method of LOCI is by having mental images of the spatial position of the stimuli. The method of LOC1 requires the person to place each item to be remembered at some definite location. Several experimental results indicate the effectiveness of methods of lock, particularly for visual memory.

Question 16.
Gestalt factor of forgetting?
Answer:
Gestalt psychologists have approached the causes of forgetting from the side of perception. According to the memory traces of particular learning are molded by the observers. Perception of the whole dominates over the perception of the part. Slight irregularities are overlooked which means a certain extent of forgetting. According to Kofika and others from the Gestalt school.

Question 17.
Recall?
Answer:
Recall means Made famous through Ebbinghaus’s experiments on memory and he used the recall method. This is required to make the response that he has learned previously. In recalling, the previously learned materials are brought to the present consciousness in their absence. This is called recall. When the recall is made immediately after learning it is called immediate recall. When the recall is made after an interval it is called delayed recall.

Question 18.
Storage?
Answer:
Storage refers to a process by which the encoded information is retained in the memory. storage retains the encoded information for some time. Those memories which are associated with some other memory are more often used and better stored or retained than isolated memory having no link with any other memory. The storage therefore can be short-term or long-term depending upon the degree of learning. Rehearsal or repetition is one of the means through which the encoded materials are stored in the memory.

Question 19.
Procedural Memory?
Answer:
Otherwise known as implicit memory procedural memory. Procedural memory is used to acquire retain and employ perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills. so procedural memory deals with the how of work or how of a procedure. Then the how of the memory remains within and comes without our knowledge. it is easier to perform the task than describe how to do it.

Question 20.
Law of Readiness?
Answer:
This principle refers to the preparatory set on the part of the organism to learn. The law emphasizes the fact that one learns only when he is physically and mentally.

Question 21.
Reinforcement?
Answer:
The reinforcement schedule refers to the arrangement of the delivery of reinforcement during conditioning trials. For example, receive a salary every month.

Question 22.
Cognitive Learning?
Answer:
The process of acquiring knowledge about the environment which has an internal mental representation is called cognition. The two terms are put together to generate the term cognitive learning.

Question 23.
Foresight?
Answer:
When the solution to the problem comes at once in the first attempt without actually trying the situation it is called foresight. When a person solves a mathematical problem suddenly without using trial and method error it is a case of foresight.

Question 24.
Law of Exercise?
Answer:
reveals that the strength with which a response will be connected with a situation depends upon the number of times the response has occurred in the situation. The Law of exercise does not operate in isolation.

Question 25.
Instrumental Conditioning?
Answer:
Classical conditioning is otherwise known as instrumental. This conditioning was first investigated by B.F. Skinner.

Question 26.
Primary Reinforcement?
Answer:
The primary reinforcers satisfy our innate biological needs. The organism does not require any training to respond to primary reinforcement.

Question 27.
Feature of Insightful Learning?
Answer:
The experimental situation is very important in insightful learning. In this type of learning, the organism reacts to the whole situation, not to its component parts.

Question 28.
Classical Conditioning?
Answer:
The conditioning technique developed by Pavlov. The following experiment conducted by Pavlov on a dog is known as the classical conditioning experiment. To start with the experiment, when food was placed in the month of the dog a brought saliva. Classical conditioning experiment on the C.S.U.C.Y.

Question 29.
Trial and Error Learning?
Answer:
Animals go on hitting the target by impulse or learn out of blunder or ‘hit and miss. This is called trial and error learning. Trial and error is the simplest form of learning. American psychologist E.L. Thorndike (1874-1949) for his first scientific study of leaming. It is also interesting to note that Thorndike has many followers as well as haters and rivals. He conducted a large number of experiments on animal learning.

Question 30.
Characteristics of Insightful learning?
Answer:
Insightful learning the ‘ O ’ reacts to the whole situation and not to some details only. The ‘O’ find out the relationship between the various stimuli within the situation as a whole. The relationship that the ‘ O ’ perceives is mostly between a means and the end or goal. While learning by the insight the ‘O ’ modifies and restructures the perceptual field. The solution of insightful learning can be readily repeated.

Question 31.
Maturation?
Answer:
Maturation simply refers to growth both physical and mental. Munn opines that maturation. Maturation greatly depends upon heredity. A lot of research on maturation has been conducted on animals and some on human infants. Arnold Gesell conducted a study to examine the importance of maturation.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 4 Method of Teaching History Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Unit 4 Method of Teaching History Questions and Answers

Short Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What advantages of the Dramatisation method?
Answer:
In the dramatization method, the students leam by doing. So their experiences are strengthened through mental and physical activity. It provides them an opportunity to acquire knowledge of historical happening through activity. It helps the students to develop their power of thinking and reasoning. It presents historical facts and events with human feelings and ideas. This method develops the art of speaking and self-confidence.

Question 2.
What advantages of the storytelling method?
Answer:
The storytelling makes the subject of history full of interest for the pupils. This method is useful for the lower classes as small children are interested in the stories. This method helps to develop the historical imagination of the students. Students are likely to imbibe good qualities of character.

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Explain the aims and objectives of teaching, history?
Answer:
The term history is derived from the Greek word “Historia” which means information or inquiry conducted into the account past conditions, occurrences, and events and the knowledge so obtained was called history. History is nothing but a continuous record of events of the past. History is the study of society as a whole in all its aspects changes and growth. History deals with the social development of man. Man’s growth from barbarism to a civilized state is the theme of history.

Aims and objectives of teaching history :
It provides knowledge about the social evaluation of man:
History is not a story of kings and queens but it is the story of a man and his development in society. The story of man’s progress from the beginning to the splendor of his present position is highly educative and satisfying.

To provide knowledge of social institutions:
It is not enough for a cultured or educated man to know the institutions by which he is surrounded and the conditions under which he lives, he must also have a knowledge of how they come to be what they are if he wants to understand them properly and to improve them in the future. In this connection, it should be made clear that our interest in the past is not for its own sake because it helps to explain the countless forms and forces of social life with the present and mold the future.

Cultivation of forward work:
The great aim in teaching history, the lack of which consists of the main defect in our .current educational practice is the cultivation of the forward look, which is encouraging the student to have a vision of the future with the idea of transforming and modifying. If you study history, you study the future, it is the welfare of our country.

To widen the mental horizon of students:
History helps to widen one’s mental horizons and develop a cosmopolitan outlook. The consciousness develops with mental development.

To develop patriotism:
History insists patriotism into the heart of the child and gives the knowledge, of the administration of his country. They become good citizens of the country.

To provide a conception of time and space:
History best reveals to the child the concept of time, space, and society and the link between the past and present. The current state of things has been produced by the events, of the past. History can serve as a compass to guide man into the future.

Intellectual development :
History is the vast state of knowledge that is accumulated through the centuries of the evolution of man. The study and the acquisition of knowledge help to bring about the intellectual development of the students. There is a controversial topic in history that leads to intellectual development.

To teach ethics and morality:
History describes vice it unmakes false virtue and exposes it. errors and prejudices It provides moral training Historical knowledge is practical knowledge History is the lamp of experience which shows a thousand examples of ethics and morality. The present curriculum is designed on ethical, moral, cultural, utilization, and intellectual grounds.

Question 2.
How History is related to other schools/subjects. Discuss, in brief?
Answer:
History is a subject that is related to almost all other subjects, In this connection history is not a subject at all but a house in which all subjects dwell. Here we will discuss the relationship of history with some other important school subjects:

History and literature:
Every branch of literature is the product of historical situations. History is the record of man’s deeds whereas literature is the product of historical situations. Literature is the record of man’s feelings, emotions, and imagination. Historical facts need languages for their expression. Many literary works provide a lot of historical facts. So history is related to literature.

History and Geography:
History, Geography, and Civics are included in social science. History stresses time whereas geography stresses space. Sometimes geography offers an explanation for people or countries that would be complete without some reference to the geographical account of that place.

History and Political Science:
Political science and history are closely related. Political science as a subject deals With the branch of historical studies which mainly gives an account of the growth and development of the administrative setup of different countries. Political science is the science of citizenship and such citizenship refers to good knowledge of history. History gives information about revolutions and political movements which helps political scientists in their study. History without the proper analysis of political events of the time is nothing but simple fiction.

History and Economics:
History describes the story of a man of different ages, which also includes the economic conditions of the people; Analysis of the growth of economic institutions is an important part of history. The history of past economic events throws an important light on the present economic policies and helps the formulation and verification of different economic laws and theories.

History and Science:
History is man’s story on earth. This includes the long chain of discoveries, explorations, and inventions that man has achieved through the ages. Science has its own history. Subjects like Anthropology include both history and science. Besides, those subjects of history is also related to music art, handy work, etc. which are taught in the class.

Question 3.
Write a note on the story-telling method in teaching history?
Answer:
Children arc wry fond of learning stories. That’s why the storytelling method has taken a special place in teaching history. Children derive pleasure in listening story and history taught in storytelling to become effective and easily understood the subject matter. It is suggested that for the age group of 8 to 10 history should mainly be carefully chosen graded series of written with attractive descriptive details.

This would arouse the interest of pupils and provide scope for imaginative understanding and enjoyment. For primary classes in teaching history, the teacher follows that method. He uses necessary aids to make teaching effective so the children feel easy to understand the subject matter and keep the man’s memory easily.

Advantages:
The storytelling method has become effective and fruitful in learning for lower-grade children. While telling the story the teacher makes movements of his body and followed them with actions. It has certain advantages. Enhancement of interest Storytelling can give life to the dead facts. It is a more effective way of bringing out all the aspects- cultural, economic, and social of this ancient society. Development of imagination Stories develops the imagination of people.

They take the pupils far away from this material world and offer ample scope for the play of their imagination. The teaching of creative faculties Stories in historical happenings and materials provide any scope for the children to utilize their creative ability in various ways. Inculcation of virtues The teacher through storytelling can include in the children virtues like pity, truthfulness, charity, etc.

Selection of stories:
The following principles should be taken into consideration for selecting stories. The story should be fully known to the teacher himself. The story should be selected to suit the mental age of the pupils. The teacher may take the stories from any source he thinks suitable, local or world history, cave life, hunting life, etc. but must take the necessary continuity into consideration.  The story should be full of action and details.

role of the teacher:
Storytelling is an art and the story teacher should know this art, the teacher should possess the ability such as historical personages when he narrates stories. He should be equipped with a rich imagination. power, accurate, varied, and wide knowledge of the past.

Question 4.
What is narration-cum-discussion method? Discuss the advantages of teaching history in the classroom?
Answer:
Narration-cum-discussion method is useful both for juniors and seniors. In this method, there is scope for both teachers and pupils for exchanges their opinions. Method, while presenting the subject matter the teachers ask for some anticipation and discussion with the students. Teachers put these questions in such a manner that their answers lead to the development of both discussion and narration methods.

When the teacher was narrating the subject matter, he takes the help of different audio-visual aids for making the teaching attractive and effective in die formation to the students about different events and trends. In order to motivate the pupils to study a new topic the teacher takes the help of narration, a technique for presenting the topic while narrating the teacher can indicate by modulating his voice through gestures and facial expressions, the exact meaning that he wants to convey to the pupils.

In order to aid the memories of children in the primary levels narration work is desirable to give through black-board summary. The children should be asked to take down the blackboard summary in the notebooks Advantages of the method. The method develops the imagination and insight of the pupils. It enables them to apply their learning in new situations. In this method, students do not become passive listeners. They take an active part in discussion and narration.

So the teaching becomes lively and effective. This method clarifies all doubts of the students. He gets a chance to discover what he did not know and what he has overlooked. Genuine potential students are judged by the teacher in this method. The method activates the learners of self-evaluation. It is also helpful in establishing an attitude of looking forward to progress and growth.

Question 5.
How the demonstration method is employed in teaching history. Explain?
Answer:
The demonstration is an important method for making the teaching of history interesting, effective, real, and lively. All children are acting and dramatic instinct young children, often do something quite spontaneously in imitation of others’ actions. By the technique, the natural tendency of the young mind is harassed from the educational end.

Thus historical dramatization is an attempt at presenting historical events with the help of the students. Hence, through role-playing, the students develop insight into the historical scene and actions. On the other hand history a subject for study offers great scope dramatization. So the history teacher should fully utilize this method for making the study of history interesting and real.

The technique of demonstration:
Demonstration of historical events can be of two kinds such as extempore dramatization and prepared dramatization.
Extempore dramatisation:
In this type of dramatization, the whole lesson may be presented in a dramatic fashion. It does not require any previous preparation fashion. It does not require any previous preparation on the part of the students no customer or stage effects are required. The presentation can be done in different ways.

The teacher himself may present the whole lesson in a dramatic style. The teacher may ask a few selected students to come to the front and act out the dialogues and monologues in a dramatic fashion. The teacher may write out home what has to be read by the students in the class.

Prepared dramatization:
In this kind of dramatization, preparation is made in advance. Students are taught to speak out dialogues and act accordingly. When the scene and action have been selected the teacher must help each with the appreciation of his part by rapidly reviewing the main points of the story.

Advantages of this method:
In the dramatization method, the students learn by doing. So their experiences are strengthened through mental and physical activity. It provides them an opportunity to acquire knowledge of historical happening through activity. It helps the students to develop their power of thinking and reasoning. It presents the historical event with human feelings and ideas.

The students find themselves involved in the activities of the past. It thus enables them to understand the persons and events in a historical perceptive. The device makes history teaching real. It makes the dead positive, interesting, and enjoyable for the students. The method helps the students to develop the art of speaking and self-confidence.

Question 6.
Discuss the project method in teaching History. Give its advantages?
Answer:
According to Kilpatrick “A project is a wholehearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment. A project is a unity of activity in which pupils are made responsible, for planning and purposing. So educational projects must be purposeful, life-oriented, and society-based activities that may be problematic and realistic.

Characteristics of project method:
Life oriented:
The project method aims at preparing students for life. It is related to day, today life and its problems. So the method is life centred.

Self-expressive:
A project seeks to bring out what is in the child and develop his innate potential. It gives an opportunity for self-expression and the school environment provides adequate scope for self-development.

Activity-based:
The project is implemented through activities, It is a method of working out the practical Solution to the problem.

Motor Activity in Nature:
A project must use manual or motor activities. The activities need skills and technical knowledge. The activities not only help in executing the project but also develop the personality of the children.

Play way Activities:
Children when engaged in physical activities get immense joy and contribute the most towards productivity. Any kind of imposed activities is uninteresting. In play way activities the monotony is removed and joy is enhanced.

Types of Educational Projects:
Produce type:
Projects when are related to production. Construction of a house, a road, a, garden or a factory, a picnic, or staging a drama are called consumer type of projects.

Problem type:
Projects which are related to a particular burning problem of the life or society are called problem types. Students take up projects to bring peace and harmony among the people.

Advantages of the project method:
Emphasis on:
Freedom The project method encourages adequate freedom essential for school life, and for the effective teaching-learning process. It gives self-direction, leading to successful learning experiences. Students develop creativity and productivity attitudes.

Learning through problem-solving:
In the project, method emphasis is given on practical life situations and their problems and students are unexposed to day, today life with adequate preparedness knowledge, interests, and attitude for learning from their experiences.

Training in citizenship:
Projects are planned and implemented dramatically. The project, method encourages students to cooperate, think, and act together for achieving common objectives. It provides them with training and democratic living sharing responsibility giving leadership, showing respect to individuals, and exercising citizens’ rights and duties properly. Such a program school may work as a kind of preliminary training for citizenship.

Psychological sound:
Organization of a project in school to the natural needs- and conditions promote learning outcomes. This is psychologically sound. The three important laws of learning the law of readiness, the law of exercise, and the law of effect are very well taken care of. In the implementation of the project, students get joy and motivation towards learning.

Social values emphasized:
The school as a society the project work develops social skills, social efficiency, and social cohesion. Through the organization of educational projects students jointly plan and execute the project and less front of each other at various phases of implementing a project.

Question 7.
Discuss the dramatization method in Teaching History?
Answer:
It is a common experience that history does not only deal with material objects but also with events, human ideas, and sentiments happening in time, which have been preserved through verbal symbols. It is impossible to transfer them into audio-visual symbols through models and even through puppets Moreover, historical happenings are not isolated events, but are sequences of happenings one having a connection with the other.

These concepts of casual sequences and movement cannot be represented by models of any kind. Hence, dramatization seems to be the most powerful audio-visual aid in history teaching. In dramatization, an individual acts as somebody had acted in the past. As a result of which the events become quite natural and lively.

In history demonstration means the reconstructing of an experience in the past that is of historical significance, It is the attempt to transcend the barrier of time and place and relieve the experience concerned. A child dramatizing a character has to feel like the character and to a degree must become the character. There is a better way at making historical experience real than through dramatization.

This is the only way of learning by doing in history. The pupils assimilate the essential facts of history by playing the different historical events in the connection. Those who do not directly participate in dramatization but witness it, also get in the way of the character. Their experience becomes almost as real to them as the action.

Kinds of dramatization:
Dramatization is of many kinds. They are as follows:
Full-length play:
It is a vivid, realistic, and full representation of the whole scheme, an idea emotion, a happening, or a situation. It takes hours in performance, and success in it requires one to come up almost to professional standards. Any way it requires detailed preparation and educational implication should be subservient to its beauty as a drama.

Class:
dramatization The teacher may undertake still more informal dramatization within the history class itself. It may not occupy the whole period and may be made to illuminate part of the lesson. To give the teacher a concrete idea of how this class dramatization could be done about half a dozen examples of each type from Indian history are given below. An attempt has been made to Include as many varieties as possible in the selection of topics for dramatization.

The pageant:
A pageant is an attempt to depict an idea or a feeling by arranging a spectacle. The appeal is solely visual, presenting a long and complicated event very effectively within a short compass forcing attention on key points.

Tableau:
Tableau is a picture like some composed of human characters against a background there may be a basic expression but no speaking.

Shadow play:
It is another technique for dramatization. In this technique, there is a thin screen between the actors and the audience.

Puppet shows:
Puppet enjoys a distinguished position as a dramatic art. There are many kinds of puppets.

Question 8.
Describe the different steps of the history lesson plan for class (VIII)?
Answer:
Like all other subjects, a history lesson plan has three steps:

• Introduction
• Presentation
• Evaluation Application

Before starting the introduction it is essential to mention general as well as specific objects, materials or instructional aids to be used and previous knowledge of pupils assumed by the teacher.

Introduction:
The teacher has to introduce the topic in the class. The introduction serves two main purposes. To enable the teacher to know the background knowledge of pupils and to arouse an interest in the children to learn the topic. A topic can be introduced in many ways. The teacher can ask, recite some, or the like to introduce a topic. At the end of the introduction step, the teacher announces the topic of the class.

Presentation:
It is the most important step in teaching history. The new knowledge is presented in the step. In the storytelling method, the teacher tells the story and asks a few thought-provoking questions in the middle of the story. In the narration method, the teacher goes on narrating appropriate points and asks some thought-provoking and anticipation questions to the students. During the narration, the teacher makes use of various teacher skills like narration, questioning, and using audiovisual aids.

using blackboard and the like Thought Provoking Questions:
Few thought-provoking or anticipatory questions are asked during narration. These questions are asked during narration. These questions are put usually when the teacher feels that pupils can anticipate the effect of a cause. These questions are generally indirect involving the insight and foresight of the pupils.

Comprehension questions:
A sufficient number of comprehensive questions are asked after the narration is over. These are small and direct questions. These questions are asked to, know the extent to which pupils comprehend the topic.

Summary Questions:
A few summary-type questions are asked at the end of the presentation step in step to draw the summary of the topic.

Evaluation:
In a third of the plan, a few objectives based objective type questions are asked to evaluate the extent to which the specific objectives of the lesson have been achieved.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 4 Method of Teaching General Science Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Unit 4 Method of Teaching General Science Questions and Answers

Short Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What advantage of demonstration-cum- discussion method?
Answer:
This method is economic from the point of view of money and time. This method obeys the rule of learning by doing. It is useful When the apparatus required for practical work is costly. There the teacher can improve the apparatus and demonstrate it. Through this method, free discipline is seen. The method develops skills in handling apparatus free thinking and cooperative spirit among students.

Question 2.
Main features of the demonstration method?
Answer:
Demonstration-cum-discussion method is not a single method, It is a combination of two methods, This method involves active participation of teachers and students. It encourages a maximum amount of participation among students than other methods. Through the group, participation develops observation and scientific reasoning in students which is not possible either in lecture or the Heuristic method. Demonstration-cum-discussion method is the only method in which the interest of students is mentioned. It develops skill in scientific thinking.

Question 3.
Aids used in science teaching?
Answer:
Audio Aids:
Audio aids include the radio, tape recorder, gramophone, and speeches. Through the radio, scientific facts, news, inventions, etc.

Visual Aids:
The visual aids include samples model, pictures, graphs, etc. The samples give the real thing. Pictures, charts, diagrams and graphs and maps give clear knowledge.

Audio-visual aids:
Through T.V science films are seen. Scientific facts are known.

Magic lantern and epidiascope:
Through these arts valuable things and distance, things are seen in a real manner and in big size.

Activity Aids:
Science fairs and exhibitions are arranged with seminars, discussions, and debates. Through traveling industries. agricultural fields, radio centers, T.V centers, and mine, the children can leam better.

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What are the aims and objectives of teaching general science?
Answer:
Science has occupied a valid place in the school curriculum. Education of science which emphasized physical law and properties of matter and the application of scientific principles met in our daily life is an essential supplementary to general education. Science should be taught not with a view to making each pupil a future specialist but make him a useful citizen.

Thus, the school science course should form part of a sound general education. It should train the mind of students to reason about things he has observed and develop their power of weighing and interpreting evidence. It should also make him acquainted with the broad outlines of great scientific principles with the ways these are exemplified in familiar phenomenons and with their application to the service of man.

The objectives of science teaching may be classified into some categories. The first aim of science teaching is that students shall demonstrate a knowledge of the fundamental of science that may be brought into use in daily life. The knowledge will bring positive change in students, behavior. The second objective of science is that students should demonstrate abilities that are the by-product of knowledge.

These abilities will be exhibited in their behavior scientifically. The third most important aim of science teaching in high school is to make the students into more citizens and better equipped to improve community life. In order to achieve this aim, the course content in science should have practical applications to daily life. The fourth aim of science teaching is that the students shall demonstrate knowledge of the contributions made by our Indian scientists, in the science world.

The science teacher must stress their achievement science in class to that students must develop pride in their scientifically rich heritage. Thus, the science program should be aimed at causing the level of scientific knowledge, skill, and attitudes of the students to make them more productive in their home environment.

The other objectives of science learning are as follows:
Knowledge:
This means pupils should acquire knowledge of scientific terms and concepts, natural phenomena, modem inventions of science animal life and plant life human-machine and functioning, and so on. The knowledge is realized if the pupils recall and recognize scientific terms, facts, concepts, and symbols.

Understanding:
This means the pupils can explain and discriminate between facts, concepts, and data, illustrate specific terms, and concepts phenomena, locate errors in faulty statements, and so on.

Application:
Having realized this aim a pupil can give reasons for scientific conclusions, analyze the given data, formulate and test hypotheses, and predict new happenings and soon.

Skills:
Having realized this aim the pupils are expected to develop three types of skills.

• drawing skills
• manipulative skills
• observational and recording skills.

Interest:
It creates interest to read scientific literature, collect specimens, take scientific hobbies, visit places of scientific interest, and participate in science clubs and science fairs.

Ability:
This activity of the pupil’s ability to use scientific terminology, improvise and manipulate the scientific instruments, collect suitable data from relevant sources, interest in the given data, and so on.

Attitude:
Having developed a scientific attitude the pupils will become free from bias and prejudices and they will become honest and truthful in recording and collecting scientific data.

Appreciation:
This means the pupils will be able to realize the importance of science in human progress appreciation. The contribution made by scientists to human progress and appreciation of the history of scientific development through the ages.

Utilization of leisure:
Having developed manipulative skills the pupils will be able to engage themselves in useful leisure time activities as making things of daily use such as ink, soap, candles, cosmetics, boots Polish, etc.

Vocational opportunities:
Vocational preparation is an important aim of science education. Science will open up career opportunities in such professions engineering, medicine, agriculture, and so on.

Question 2.
Write a note on the use of lecture methods in the teaching of science in schools. Give its merits and limitations?
Answer:
The lecture method involves teaching by means of spoken word, a format talk by the teacher. The method may profitably be used at a higher level and also at a lower level and its success will depend on individual teachers. This method is also known as the storytelling or conversational method. The teacher is well prepared and will present lectures that will stimulate better learning. In the lecture method, the lecture is taken as a technique of description, explanation, and clarification. This method is useful and effective with young and college students.

Merits:
The lecture method has the following merits:
It develops the power of concentration in the students, and also their power of experience, expression, thinking, and reasoning. economical and time-saving. It keeps both the teacher as well as the students active. Through this method, it is possible to establish direct contact knowledge between the teacher and the taught. Through this method, it is possible to elucidate difficult and complicated thoughts and ideas. This method is very useful in introducing a lesson. It also threw light on the practical aspects of education.

Demerits of lecture method:
The method kills the liveliness of the class. It is the teacher who reigns supreme and the students remain passive partners. This method is not useful for the students of the lower class In this method it is the teacher who remains active and the students remain passive. This method is not psychological and scientific. The knowledge that is required through ‘this method is neither complete nor perfect nor stable.

Through this method it. is not possible to provide practical education to the students because there is little creativity or activity in this method. This method has very little scope for evaluation and examination of the students by the teacher while he is teaching them. It strikes a severe blow to the originality of the students. Their curiosity remains unsatisfied and the thirst for knowledge continues:

Question 3.
What are the main features of the demonstration cum discussion method in teaching science? What are the advantages and disadvantages?
Answer:
The main features of the demonstration and discussion method are as follows:
Demonstration-cum-discussion method is not a single method. It is a combination of two methods, more clearly a result and method resulting from the combination of discussion method as well as demonstration method. This method involves the active participation of the teacher and students at the same time which is unlikely in other methods say, the lecture method. The teacher is in active the laboratory work and heuristic methods are active and so on.

Demonstration-cum-discussion method through group participation develops keen observation power and scientific reasoning in students which is. not possible either ill the lecture method or in the Heuristic method. Demonstration-cum-discussion method ‘ of teaching science encourages a maximum amount of participation among students than other methods.

The demonstration-cum-discussion method through group participation develops keen observation power and scientific reasoning in students which is hot possible either in the lecture method or in the Heuristic method. Demonstration-cum-discussion method is the only method in which the interest of the students is measured. Through this method force, and discipline is maintained. This method develops skills in handling apparatus, free-thinking, and cooperative spirit among students.

Disadvantages:
If deconstruction-cum-discussion method is not properly used then all students get a chance to take part neither in a discussion nor in experimentation: Thus, the principle of learning by doing is not aided by the method. The student’s donor gets the direct experience of doing experiments. So their skill in apparatus handling is not properly developed. If the teacher does not take care of students to become undisciplined. through this method.

Question 4.
What do you mean by laboratory method in teaching science? How can you make use of this method? What are the merits and demerits?
Answer:
The laboratory method is one of the best methods of teaching science. In this method teaching the subject is done in a laboratory. The students are given an opportunity to carry out experiments independently. The teacher observes their activities. He asks them to write out their observations. Theoretical studies get verified through laboratory work and thus learning experiences are gained.

In the laboratory method, the student performs a particular work of the experiment. He learns to follow directions, conduct experiments are record observations to find out results. While the student performs experiments, the Demonstration-cum-discussion method develops skills in scientific thinking. These are some of the main features of demonstration-cum-discussion method.

Advantages:
This method is economic from the point of view of money and time. The method obeys the rule of learning by doing what the students do or see they learn. So this method is very much psychological. It is useful when the apparatus required for practical work is costly. There the teacher can improvise the apparatus and demonstrate it.

If the teacher wants to revise some of the principles of science subject, he can do it by demonstration-cum-discussion method. the teacher is free to help students to perform experiments. The teacher is free to help the students having difficulties in their work. The teacher acts as a friend, philosopher, and guide in laboratory work.

How to use it effectively:
Laboratory methods should be used when a class can be divided into small groups. A good laboratory method is guided by a heuristic approach; The teacher should take the help of students in showing up for laboratory demonstrations. The students should be trained in the art of observing and recording reporting. The reporting of the laboratory, work includes areas like a statement of the problem procedures used observations made and conclusions drawn, etc.

Advantages:
It is based on the principle of learning by doing. It is interesting and joyful for students. It develops skill and efficiency as the students do experiments by themselves. An activity when performed is remembered for a longer time. Team teaching can be possible with this method.

Limitations:
It is not economical. It requires resources like a laboratory, equipment, furniture, etc. which, can not be made available in each school. It requires a small teacher-pupil ratio. It has been criticized as wasteful because of students in the high school stage. Sometimes this method does not develop the heuristic talents of students.

Question 5.
What are the main features of the problem-solving method? Discuss the merits and demerits of this method?
Answer:
Problem-solving approach presupposes the existence of a problem in the teaching-learning situation. A problem is a difficulty or obstruction which has to be overcome to reach, the goal. A human child has to meet and solve problems as he grows older and older. the problem-solving method aims at presenting the knowledge to be learned in the form of a problem. It begins with a problematic situation and consists of continuous, meaningful, and well-integrated activity. The problems are set to the students in a natural way and it is ensured that the students are genuinely interested to solve them.

Main features of the problem-solving approach:
It is a research-like method lt involves scientific thinking as a process of learning the essential features are as follows Formulation and appreciation of a problem or the emergence of a problem or selection of a problem. Collection of data or information to solve the problem. Analysis of the data. Formulation of hypothesis Conclusion. Applying the idea to a new situation.

The problem:
The problem arises out of the felt needs of the students. The problem must be familiar to the students. Before setting the problem the teacher should look at the following things. The problem should be suitable to the maturity level of the students. The problem should be easily solved. The problem should be worthwhile for the reader.

Collection of data:
After formulation of a problem, the teacher should stimulate the students to collect data in a systematic manner from various sources like textbooks reference books, magazines, newspapers, and from other sources like observation, discussion, and interviews,s, etc.

Formulation of Hypothesis:
At this stage, the students should look to the following regarding the solution to the problem. Selecting important factors related to the problems. Identifying the different relationships which may exist between the factors. Analyzing, selecting, and interpreting the relevant data. Judging the significance of data.

Testing of Hypothesis :
Checking the hypothesis which recognizes authorities Division experimental procedures suitable for testing hypothesis. Organizing data. Applying the hypothesis to the problem to determine adequacy.

Analysis of evidence and drawing inferences:
Children should be taught to the scientific and reasonable in interpreting the data. It is essential to break the large area into different segments and then to consider ways and means for analysis; the analysis of data should be accurate and to the point.

Drawing Conclusions :
The conclusion should be drawn by the pupils themselves and the teacher is to see how far it is significant relating to the solution to the problem.

Analysis of the data in a new situation:
The students should be able to recognize the common and identical elements in the principle of the problem and apply them in the new life situation.

Advantages:
From the standpoint of learning principle of problem-solving is very valuable since they are the result of the cumulative and generalized experience that makes up the basis of knowledge and understanding. It is much easier for members than the facts through the method. It develops reflective thinking. So. it stimulates thinking, reasoning, and critical judgment in the students.

It develops qualities of dependence on the students as they are to face the problematic situation themselves. It is a stimulating method. It acts as a great motivating force and directs students, attention, and activity. It serves individual differences. It develops desirable study habits in the students. They get engaged in the analysis of the problem, reflective thinking, and systematic.

data gathering, verification, and critical study. It is a method of experience-based learning. Problem-solving is done by self-experience. There is the possibility of close contact between the teacher and taught. The students get valuable social experiences like patience, cooperation, self-confidence, etc.

Disadvantages :
It is a time-consuming method. The progress of students is very slow. It is difficult to organize the contents according to the needs. All topics cannot-be-taught by this method. All require adequate resources. The method does not suit the students of lower classes. They do not possess enough background for a scientific approach to problems.

Question 6.
What are the different steps of the project method in teaching science? Discuss each of the steps and state the merits and limitations of the method?
Ans:
The project method is a pupil-centered method carried out in school or outside the school. The essence of this method is to carry out a useful task on a ground in which all the students work co-operatively learning by doing and learning by the living are the two cardinal principles of this method. Children learn through association, cooperation, and activity.

The various steps of the method are as follows:

• Providing a situation
• Choosing and purposing
• Planning
• Executing
• Evaluation
• Recording

Providing a situation:
The teacher should provide such a situation to the students which may create some problems for them and in which they feel interested to work.

Choosing and purposing :
The children should be tempted to choose a project. The teacher should stimulate discussion through suggestions. The project chosen should be to the need of the pupils. The purpose of the. project be clearly defined and well understood by the pupils.

Planning:
The success of a project depends upon a good planning. The students should plan out the whole scheme under the guidance of the teacher. The teacher should prepare two to three plans in his mind and guide the students Every child should be encouraged to participate in the discussion and to make suggestions. All the students are taught to write the plan properly.

Executing:
The teacher should assign duties and distribute work among the pupils of a group to their interests and abilities. Every child should contribute actively towards the execution of the project. The teacher should guide them.

Evaluating:
The students review the project and find out the mistakes if any. self-criticism is an important training and should not be neglected. The teacher should see that the objective of the project has been achieved.

Recording :
The students should keep a complete record of work, how they planned, what discussions were held, how, duties were managed, etc. and finally criticism of their own work.

Merits of the project method:
The project method is based on the laws of learning, the law of readiness, law of exercise, and the law of effect. It promotes cooperative activity and group interaction.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 1 What is Psychology? Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 1 What is Psychology? Long Answer Questions

Long Answer Essay Type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the nature and scope of psychology.
Answer:
Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behaviour. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including relating to an individual’s daily life and the treatment of mental illness. Psychology differs from the other social sciences anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology in that psychology seeks to explain the mental processes and behaviour of individuals.

Whereas biology and neuroscience study the biological or neural processes and how they relate to the mental effects they subjectively produce, psychology is a priority concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behaviour on a systemic. subfield neuropsychology studies the actual neural process while biological psychology studies the biological bases of behaviour and mental states.

Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behaviour mind and thought and the subconscious neurological bases of behaviour psychology also refer to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals’ daily lives and the study of mental illness.

It is largely concerned with humans, although the behaviour and mental process of animals can also be part of psychology research, either as a subject in its own might i.e. animal cognition and ethology, or somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison (including comparative psychology).

Scope:
Psychology is a scientific study that relies on conspiracism, the use of experimentation, evidence and observation to draw conclusions. It is not based on common sense, reasoning or logic alone. There are two general grouping of psychologists: research psychologists and applied psychologists. Research Psychologists experiment and gather observations to improve understanding of the nature of the mind and behaviour.

Applied psychologists take these observations and leave the lab to deal with everyday problems. In order to obtain responses from individuals a number of psychological tools or instruments are used psychology has various methodological ways or approaches to understand and explain psychological phenomena.

Question 2.
How is psychology a science?
Answer:
Wundt gave psychology a scientific status by opening the first psychological laboratory at Leipzig. Thus, psychology as a science has its beginning in the psychological institute at Leipzig and it went through several phases to reach the status of current psychology. Critics from different quarters, however, questioned the scientific status of psychology.

They asked, “Is psychology a science line physics chemistry ?” Even people make sarcastic remarks when we describe psychology as a science. Science is a systematic body of knowledge gathered by careful observation and measurement of events. The things and objects are systematized mostly by classifying them into various categories.

The general laws and principles are established which describe and predict the events as clearly as possible. Science seeks to explain the phenomena within its scope. The explanation is the ultimate aim of science. Psychology deals with oriental processes and activities of the organism in relation to its environment. It deals with experience and behaviour. Psychology seeks to explain the law of mind.

The aim of psychology precisely is to describe, understand, predict and control conditions and situations both in the world around him and within himself. As indicated earlier, it is mainly the scientific procedure adopted for the study of psychology that gave it a scientific status. Science uses methods like observation experiments, manes comparison and classification to investigate and collect data.

Psychology uses both observation and experimentation; which are scientific processes. The scientific procedure, according to mum (1950) “involves making systematic rather than aimless observations, being impersonal in one’s search for truth, seeking information to test rather than to prove ideas already had making it possible for others to repeat one’s observations under essentially the same conditions and to confirm or modify them.”

Science, in other words, uses experimental methods for the purpose of investigation. Instead of mere observation, certain conditions or variables of the object of study are changed (independent variables) and the effect of these changes on the subject matter of study is noted. Science starts with some assumptions or hypotheses and postulates about its subject matter.

Psychology as a science usually starts an experiment with some assumptions or hypotheses. In a scientific procedure like the experimental method, all variables are controlled except the independent variable of science should be quantitative. In other words, results obtained from a scientific study should be quantified or measured. Psychology uses statistical methods for the analysis of results.

Question 3.
Examine the contributions of Wundt and Titchener to Experimental Psychology?
Answer:
William Wundt (1832-1920) opened the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, German. Thus he took the first step in making psychology a science. He gave the first touch by assembling the parts together formulated by the earlier investigations. It is, therefore, rightly called the father and founder of modem experimental psychology.

The psychological institute at Leipzig thus started programmes of making psychology an independent science. Though prior to Wundt the attitude towards scientific psychology was growing in the minds of various investigators. Wundt alone gave it an independent status by separating psychology from philosophy and giving up speculation and armchair observation in favour of scientific methods of study.

Wundt, a German physiologist took a lot of interest in the subjective and personal experiences of the organism, a response to sensory Stimulation. After publishing “fundamental of psychological psychology (1871)”. Wundt opened his psychological institute at Leipzig.

A large number of students from all over the world came to Wundt’s institute to conduct research on scientific psychology under his able guidance. Wundt defined psychology as the science of immediate experience with consciousness being the main subject matter, which simply means the science of consciousness.

E.B. Titchener:
Titchener, the English psychologist who went to Leipzig to work under Wundt, propounded the structural school of psychology. Like Wundt, he was also determined to establish psychology as a pure and perfect science. Thus, he established a laboratory at Cornell, in America, to develop a structural school of psychology.

He based his work and research on the pattern of Wundt. He was a staunch believer in the experimental approach towards the study of mental science. He published a number of books on psychology and thus helped in the enrichment of psychology as a science. In fact, it is Titchener who owes the credit for establishing Wundt’s concept of psychology in the U.S.A.

Titchener defined psychology as the science of conscious experience which is dependent upon the experiencing person. He developed a monistic approach towards psychology with the view that all sciences have more or less the same content, which refers to some aspect of the human experience. Only the approach is different.

Mind according to him is the sum total of human experience and the subject-matter of psychology is conscious experience. Titchener was a very devoted worker. He sincerely tried to develop fully the concepts of psychology put forward by Wundt. The above two psychologists’ contributions are discussed.

Question 4.
Discuss briefly the different branches of psychology?
Answer:
Modem psychologists have developed certain conceptual approaches to the understanding of psychology keeping in view the current needs. Zimbardo and Member (1997) have identified six broad conceptual models which are normally used in the study of human behaviour.
They are:

• Biological
• Behaviouristic
• Cognitive
• humanistic
• Psycho-dynamic and
• Evolutionary.

We will discuss below the first three models widely used by psychologists.

Biological Approach:
The biological approach is basically interested in the functioning of genes, the nervous system, the brain and the endocrine glands to trace the causes human behaviour. Zimbardo (1997) views that the biological approach makes four assumptions. Psychological and social phenomena can be understood in terms of biochemical processes.

Complex behaviours can be understood by analyzing them into smaller and more specific units. All behaviour or behavioural potential is determined by physical structures and hereditary processes. Experience can modify behaviour by changing these underlying biological structures and processes.

a conglomeration of these two sciences has led to the development of a biological approach to psychology. The biological approach also includes the Biophysical; or Neuroscience approach. Which attempts to find out the physiological or biological changes that take place in the nervous system. brain, glands and chores when we learn, perceive, think, emote, became angry, hungry see a movie, dream or engage in daydreams.

Behaviouristic Approach:
Structuralism was too mentalistic because it attempted to deal with mental processes. In the early twentieth century, some scholars pioneered an approach in America popularly known as Behaviourism which placed importance or the overt behaviour of organisms. The propounder of behaviourism was Y.B. Watson.

He and his associates reduced psychological understanding to a simple ABC formula:

• first, identify the antecedent (triggering) stimulus conditions, that elicit behaviour,
• secondly, measure changes in observable behaviour and friendly,
• record the consequences that the behaviour has on the environment.

All these three, ABC elements, antecedent conditions, behaviours and consequences or change must be objectively observable. Watson viewed drat mental events could not be studied scientifically and that psychology must look not within the individual for the causes of behaviour, but outside the individual at the environment and the observable stimuli that lead to behavioural responses.

Another learning theorist, B.F. Shinner restricted the domain of psychology to the study of how behaviour and environment operate on and affect each other. Modem scientific psychology has however accepted to quite an extent the behaviouristic approach of Watson, particularly those aspects of behaviour that are carefully and objectively measured by contemporary.

psychology because of its scientific orientation still consists of overt behaviour. According to Baron (1999) “Behaviouristic approach to psychology has stood the test of time and continues to remain as an important approach to modem psychology”.

Cognitive Approach:
The behaviouristic approach seems somewhat limited because it excludes mental processes. Cognitive psychology stands as a direct challenge to the limited view of behaviourism that scientific psychology is only the study of the overt behaviour of the organism. The cognitive model is a very broad one encircling consciousness, attending perceiving or knowing, thinking, problem-solving, even numbering etc.

Cognition means knowing or knowledge modem psychologists hold that emphasis on human thought, perception, knowledge and all the processes of cognitive functioning centre around the heart of psychology.

Question 5.
State the subject matter of psychology. How is it related to biology and medicine?
Answer:
The subject matter of psychology includes air branches and all aspects of psychology, particularly those which deal with human behaviour, internal and external experiences and various mental processes. The mental processes include physiologist bases behaviour, sensation, attention, perception learning, memory process, thinking reasoning and creativity, personality, intelligence and emotional and motivational processes etc.

Among the above, learning is the core of psychology and its central subject matter. Humans’ adjustment to a tired environment is impossible without learning and the ability to learn and remember things. Psychologists study human behaviour as used as a mental process exploring the thinking process, ability creativity and reasoning capacity.

Cognitive psychologists, therefore, put emphasis on the cognitive behaviour of the organism as an important subject matter of psychology. I Human being is an intelligent person. His cognitive ability or intelligence determines his mental activities to a great extent and hence the complete without the study of intelligence or cognitive behaviour the subject matter of psychology subject matter related to Biology and medicine.

Biology :
Biology is life science. It studies the life of plants and animals which includes the study of the growth and development of living beings and how they reproduce and continue to exist. The scope of biology is very wide in the sense that it is concerned with the study of genetics physiology, zoology, neurology embryology etc. Since psychology has an intimate relationship with physiology, animal psychology and neurology, it is logically related to biology.

Animal experiments truly speaking, have enriched our knowledge in understanding human behaviour. Animals are of then used in research and experiments in psychology, for instance, Pavlov experimented on dogs, Thomdive on cats, Kohler on chimpanzees, Lashley on rats and Skinner on pigeons. The laws and principles of learning drawn from these studies have provided valuable chees to the psychology of learning and motivation.

Medicine:
Medical science deals with both physical and mental disorders. This knowledge is a must for psychologists because both deal with the human organism, medicine, however, is more concerned with physical disease and psychology with mental disease. Since mind and body can not be separated from, each other and are interrelated, one influencing the Other, medicine and psychology are just like the coils of a rope, interwoven and interrelated.

Just as it is essential for doctors to know about human psychology and behaviour patterns it is equally necessary for psychologists to have knowledge of physical diseases and the various physiological organs and their functions. Both psychologists and medical men take each other’s help in the conduction of research on human beings.

Question 6.
Discuss the observational methods and their advantages?
Answer:
The methods which a particular branch of knowledge uses, determine its scientific nature. Psychology as already indicated is described as a social science. In order to clarify the fact that psychology is a science. It is necessary to examine the methods used in psychology to study the behaviour of the organism. Methods in psychology refer to the ways or procedures to study behaviour, both inner and outer.

Methods are also used to analyse, predict and control behaviour in a given situation. Thus psychology like any other science subject uses observation and experimental methods. The introspective method comes under the observational method unique in psychology and not used in any other science for the purpose of investigation. That is why Morgan and King have said that psychology is both Science and Arts.

Observational Method:
Psychologists have attempted to divide observational methods into various categories which are given below.

Subjective observation (Introspection):
Self-observation is popularly known as introspection. It is a unique method used in psychology, which is not found in any other science. Titchener developed the introspective method. Wundt also suggested as a method of studying conscious experience. According to Titchener, psychology must deal with the inner states of consciousness in order to find out its structure. As already pointed out introspection means slef-observation or ‘to look within.

In the case of introspection, the person observes his own feelings and experiences at a given tinie and reports the same to the investigator. By self-observation, only the experiencing person says what he is feeling or experiencing. To introspect means to attend to one’s own experiences. If a person is having a headache or toothache, only he can report it.

If one is thinking of somebody it is he who can make it overt. Thus the person himself can give an account of his experiences. That is why it is called self-observation. But, the inner mental activities can be made public by the experiencing person. Whatever one is feeling experiencing or thinking, he can only – give a report of same.

Here the job of the psychologist is to encourage the person under observation to look within and observe his own thoughts feelings, and experiences and report the same psychologist. Introspection as self-observation. But every self-observation is not introspection. Self-observation of one’s mental activities only refers to introspection.

Advantages:
Psychology is the study of behaviour and experiences. Behaviour is studied by observation technique. In fact, there is no other method by which private and personal experience can be studied except the method of introspection. Introspection is an easy, simple and traditional method. Many psychologists gathered lots of valuable information, particularly in the field of sensation with the help of the introspection method.

When the other scientific and objective methods fail to serve the purpose, introspection solves the problem. Specific principles are followed for the use of other scientific methods; no rules are to be followed for observing one’s own feelings and experiences. Introspection can be applied at any time and at any place. Further, no laboratory or test materials are necessary for introspection.

Introspection provides direct and first-hand knowledge to the person about one’s mental state. The data obtained by the introspective method can be compared with the data obtained by the observation method, later on, both the subjective and objective data can be synthesized. Attributes of sensation can be known through introspection.

A number of impressions and experiences about the tactual, auditory, gustatory and factory sensations can be known by introspection. Similarly experiences about like and dislikes applying the self-observation method. The subject’s response to a stimulus is revealed through introspection. How he registers the stimulus and his reaction to stimulation can only be known by introspection.

Question 7.
Define observation methods used in psychology?
Answer:
The observation methods are defined below:

• Naturalistic observation
• Participant observation
• Non-participant observation

Naturalistic observation:
Naturalistic observation is made in an environment which is uncontrolled and unrestricted but natural. It is incidental and unplanned. The attitude of the teachers towards their students can be observed in classroom situations where the observer plays a passive role. Piaget’s studies on the cognitive development of children were frequently preceded by naturalistic observation which he called the clinical method.

Advantages
This method does not require the cooperation of the subject. The ‘ S ’ is completely kept ignorant that he is being observed. The artificiality of the laboratory is completely absent here.

Disadvantages
Data collected by the naturalistic method are different to reproduction, standardisation and quantity. It violates the standards of specificity, quantitativeness and standardisation of the observational procedure.

Participant Observation:
When application of the experimental method and use of the naturalistic method may not be feasible the method of participant observation comes into the picture. In this method, the observer actually takes part of participating with the ‘O’ in a particular act and simultaneously observes his behaviour. For example, while studying the play activity of children, the observer also plays with them, and the child never knows that he is observing him.

Advantages
For studying cases on a large scale, when experimental methods are not practically possible, this method is used to sort out various problems of the employees, in industries and organisations and in a classroom situation.

Disadvantages
In addition to the disadvantages and limitations of the observational methods, the additional disadvantage of this method is that once the subjects start suspecting the participant observer’s motive and the situation they may become furious considering him a spy.

Non-participant Observation:
As the name implies it is the opposite of participant observation. In this method, the observer does not participate in the activities of the subject being studied but he tries to observe the behaviour from an observable distance through a One-way vision screen.

Question 8.
What is the case history method? Define its limitations?
Answer:
Psychology has adopted the use of a number of investigative methods for the understanding and analysis of human behaviour. Case history is one of these methods which is being used particularly by clinical psychologists for the diagnosis and treatment of behaviour disorders. Otherwise known as the life history or case study method. It involves making observations for a considerable period of time to trace the cause and development of a particular behaviour pattern.

This method actually has been borrowed from medicine and it has got special implications t in the study of problem children and in the study of problem children and in the treatment of abnormality. It is a two-way process in which the investigator uses tests, checklists questionnaires like the survey technique.

Under case study method :

• the day book method,
• clinical method.
• Biographical method

are includes case history is a very comprehensive and useful method. But it requires specialised skills for the collection of information. The main purpose of the case study method is diagnosis and prognosis. In other words, it aims at finding the cases underlying human behaviour as well as making recommendations about rectifying the present behaviour.

Limitations:
It is held by some that the case study method is highly subjective. Unless trained and competent investigators conduct the interview collect case history, it may lead to erratic and erroneous findings. However, the subjective nature of the case history method can be reduced by using a particular format of a case study which can provide guidelines to the person collecting the information.

He can thus have the scope to add or to subtract very little and this can ensure objectivity and reduce subjectivity to a minimum. Some have argued that case study is retrospective in nature. It is based on the contemplation of an event after it has occurred. Thus many valuable experiences from that standpoint of psychological analysis are forgotten, disturbed or actively.

Question 9.
Discuss the characteristics of the experimental methods in psychology?
Answer:
According to Ruch (1970) “The most highly developed, formalised and accurate of all scientific methods is the experimental method”. It is the most reliable of all the methods used in psychology. In 1879 Wundt started the first psychological laboratory at Leipzig and since then most psychological data are collected through well-designed and scientifically conducted experiments.

The experimental method is a procedure in which certain hypotheses framed on the basis of previous findings are tested by systematically varying certain conditions and controlling some other conditions. In other words, it is observation used in pre-arranged conditions. When the behaviour of a person is not studied under natural conditions, or in the field, but under artificially controlled conditions in the laboratory it is called an experiment.

The E should use the proper method for the presentation of the stimulus and should see that he gets the necessary cooperation from this. He must have a procedure for collecting data and testing the hypothesis. Proper instructions to the “S” must begin before starting experiment. The verbal and introspective report of the subject should be taken to interpret and verify the obtained findings.

Characteristics of the experimental method:
Variable Slid Conditions:
The experimental method involves certain variables. A variable is a factor which varies or changes in the experiment. A variable is any aspect of a condition that can vary or any quantity that can change in a valve.

Independent Variable :
The independent variable is the factor which is manipulated or changed in an experimental design. It is the factor whose effects are being studied on the result.

Dependent Variables:
It is also called the response variable. According to such, “The dependent variable in an experiment is the factor which the experimenter predicts will change in some way as a result of changing the independent variable.

Relevant Variable:
The relevant variables are those variables which are kept constant throughout the experiment except the independent variable. For example, in the experiment on memory for meaningful words and nonsense materials except for the nature of the material all other factors are kept constant in both conditions.

Question 10.
Show the significance of survey and statistical methods in psychology.
Answer:
Survey While attempting to understand the dynamics of human behaviour one may come across certain problems which are difficult to study by observations experiments or case history methods. Political attitudes, consumer preference, attitudes towards family planning, dowry, marriage, and divorce, women’s liberation, health care, etc. Are studied by survey method. The survey method used questionnaires, interviews, rating scales, checklists, etc. to obtain information about the problem of the study.

In other words, the survey method is a procedure of connecting certain information from the population by carefully prepared questionnaires. The information is obtained from a scientifically selected sample which represents the view of the entire population. For social surveys, the sample must be randomly selected and it must be large enough to represent the population.

Currently, the survey method has extended from mere administration of questionnaires and tests and interviews to a Telephone ‘survey’. survey by postal questionnaires, etc. This is done for quick collection of data. Although the personal interview technique is more popular and extensively used in survey methods, it is very costly and time-consuming. A report is necessary at the first place.

Statistical Method:
Psychologists have borrowed the statistical method from mathematics as they felt that it is indispensable for psychological research. The design and interpretation of any data obtained by psychological research are incomplete without statistical analysis. To determine the average performance of a group or a person in a test or tests, the application of statistics is a must.

Similarly to find out the difference and relationships in the performance, intelligence score, anxiety, aptitude, and prejudice of two groups or members of groups, say, boys and girls, rural and urban children, of different age groups, the psychologists have to take the help of statistical procedures. Mum, therefore, comments “statistical analysis is an application of mathematics which enables the psychologist to arrange his findings so that he can discover their significant trends and relationships.”

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 1 What is Psychology? Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 1 What is Psychology? Short Answer Questions

Short Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Watson?
Answer:
J.B. Watson (1878-1958) developed the Behaviouristic school of psychology, otherwise known as Behaviourism. Watson advocated the S-R approach towards psychology instead of the S-O-R approach.

Question 2.
Freud?
Answer:
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), was making his contributions to the study and treatment of abnormal behaviour. Freud who was a neurologist and a psychiatrist developed a “school of psychology”.

Question 3.
Behaviouristic Approach?
Answer:
The behaviouristic was influenced by Russian physiologist Pavlov’s principles of classical conditioning and other related works in the area of learning. The behaviouristic perspective deals with overt or external behaviour that can be objectively recorded and manipulated.

Question 4.
Legal Psychology?
Answer:
It is also a branch of applied psychology. Legal psychology is concerned with the discovery of motives behind the crimes and methods required for the detection of crimes.

Question 5.
Kohler and Loffka?
Answer:
Kurt Loffka (1856-1941) and W. Kohler (1887) were the founders of the Gestalt School of Psychology (1914). They mainly did research on the area of perceptual and learning processes.

Question 6.
Jung and Adler?
Answer:
Alfred Adler (1870-1937) and C.G. Jung (1875 – 1961) were the earlier associates of Freud. Adler developed the school of individual psychology “Jung’s school of Psychology” is known us the school of Analytical Psychology.

Question 7.
E.B. Titchener?
Answer:
He was an English Psychologist who wait in Leipzig to work under Wundt and propounded the structural school of psychology. He was also determined to establish psychology as a pure and perfect science.

Question 8.
Participant Observation?
Answer:
When the application of experimental and use of naturalistic methods may not be feasible, that is called participant observation. In this method, the observer takes part or participants with the ‘O’ in a particular and simultaneously observes the behaviour.

Question 9.
Introspection?
Answer:
Self-observation is popularly known as introspection. It is a unique method used in psychology which is not found in any other science.

Question 10.
Experimental Method?
Answer:
According to Ruch (1970) “The most highly developed scientific method is the experimental method. The experimental design is important aspect of an experiment.

Question 11.
Non-participant observation?
Answer:
It is the opposite of participant observation. In this method, the observer does not participate in the activities of the subject being studied but he tries to observe the behaviour from an observable distance through one vision screen.

Question 12.
Field study method?
Answer:
Application of experimental technique requires a well-equipped laboratory it can not be earned to different fields of life. The field study is used as an alternative to laboratory investigation.

Question 13.
Survey method?
Answer:
Political attitudes, consumer preference, attitudes towards family planning, dowry, marriage and divorce, women’s liberation, health care etc. are studied by survey method. The survey method used questionnaires, interviews, rating scales, checklists etc.

Question 14.
Independent Variable?
Answer:
The independent variable is the factor which is manipulated or changed in an experimental design. In complex experimental designs, more than one independent variable is introduced particularly when it is necessary for the investigation.

Question 15.
Health Psychology?
Answer:
Health psychology has gained tremendous importance as an emerging branch of psychology. Health psychology’s main purpose is to make people conscious that “prevention is better than cure”. Health psychologists can give counselling for a lifestyle characterised by high levels of commitment, flexibility in attitude and a strong motivation to change one’s irrational and anti-health activities. Health psychology also aims to maintain a harmonious and cordial relationship between the doctor and the patient. Several channels of T. V. have regulated programmes on health and health care.

Question 16.
Cognitive Psychology?
Answer:
It is originally based on Gestalt Psychology, it has developed in recent years into a separate field of psychology. Cognition means knowing or knowledge. Modem psychologists hold that emphasis on human thought, perception, knowledge and all processes of cognitive functioning centre around the heart of psychology. Cognitive psychology stands as a direct challenge to the limited view of behaviourism that scientific psychology is only the study of the overt behaviour of the organism. The cognitive model is a very broad one encircling consciousness, attending, thinking, problem-solving etc.

Question 17.
Social Psychology?
Answer:
Social psychology has been accepted as a major branch of psychology. Social psychology like clinical, educational and industrial psychology is an applied branch of psychology. It deals with the behaviour and experience of an individual in a group situation, in a community and in society. Social psychologists are taking a tremendous interest in the study of mass communication, cognitive dissonance and population research. Social psychology mainly aims at solving the various social, political, and economic problems of our life.

Question 18.
Abnormal Psychology / Clinical Psychology?
Answer:
Abnormal psychology also studies the topographical aspects of the mind, the id, ego, superego, conscious, subconscious and unconscious, and the psycho-sexual development of the child. The credit for extending the scope of psychology to the study of abnormal behaviour duly goes to If Freud, Jung and Adler. Clinical psychology applies its principles and therapies to deviants and mentally disordered persons. The clinical psychologist is mainly engaged in the classification, diagnosis and treatment of behaviour disorders. According to Morgan and King (1978), clinical psychology is now the largest field of specialisation.

Question 19.
Developmental Psychology?
Answer:
Developmental psychology studies the physical and mental development of human organisms from conception to old age. According to Morgan and King (1978), developmental psychologists attempt to understand complex behaviours by studying their simpler beginnings. Child psychology occupies a large place in the study of developmental psychology. Developmental psychology includes the study of sensory and motor development of the child and his specific abilities. Developmental psychology also deals with superior, disturbed, disadvantaged and backward children.

Question 20.
Sports Psychology?
Answer:
It is also an emerging branch of psychology. Sports psychology helps athletes to concentrate their attention on competitive goals, makes them more motivated and enables them to deal with their anxiety and fear successfully which often accompany competition in a sports field. Sports psychology is used as a therapeutic technique in hospitals and psychological clinics. The sports psychologist has a very crucial role to play particularly when the player is discouraged because of missing a ball or a catch or losing a match. A sportsman may be in high physical form but if he is psychologically unfit he cannot be a successful player.

Question 21.
Field study method?
Answer:
Psychology has extended itself to various spheres of life. Since application of experimental techniques requires a well-equipped laboratory. It can not be carried to different fields of life. The field study is used as an alternative to laboratory investigation. The method is free from artificial nature. The field study method is used in this study of children, industrial employees, animals etc.

Question 22.
Experimental Design?
Answer:
A traditional experimental design involves two groups or conditions, such as :

• Experimental condition
• Controlled condition

The independent variable is manipulated in the experimental condition. Subjects of the experimental conditions will not be given only rest during the retention interval. Experimental conditions would indicate the effect of interpolated activity on remembering. There are different designs one balancing another factor.

Question 23.
Limitations of experimental methods?
Answer:
For the application of the experimental method, a well-equipped laboratory, tools and equipment, and subjects are necessary. Human beings and animals are the subjects used in the experimental method. The artificial arrangement of the experimental set-up. The artificiality of laboratory experiments is a source of strength and a source of weakness. On the side of weakness, this control may make experiments so different from real life that the results do not apply to real situations.

Question 24.
Dependent variable?
Answer:
It is also called the response variable. According to Ruch “The dependent variable in an experiment is the factor which the experimenter predicts with change in the same way as a result to changing the independent variable. The dependent variable is better memory in the case of meaningful words. The dependent variable is the effect while the independent variable is the cause. The effect of the independent variable is observed in the results which are called the dependent variable.

Question 25.
What advantages of Naturalistic observation?
Answer:
This method does not require the cooperation of the subject. The ‘S’ is completely kept ignored that he is being observed. the artificially of the laboratory is completely absent here. Spontaneous reactions of the ‘S’ are observed and the ‘S’ makes no change in his response same to the presence of the observer.

When it is not possible to study the behaviour of children, adults, human beings and animals. Under artificially constructed laboratory situations the naturalistic observation method becomes extremely useful. Pinget feels that only through the naturalistic observation method one can get into the heart of the child’s various problems.

Question 26.
Survey Method?
Answer:
Political attitudes, consumer preference attitude towards family planning, dowry, marriage and divorce, women’s liberation, health care etc. are studied by survey method. The survey method used questionnaires, interviews, rating scales, checklists etc. to obtain information about the tire problem of the study. The survey method is a procedure of collecting certain information from the population by carefully prepared questionnaires.

The survey method has extended from mere administration of questionnaires and tests and interviews to telephone surveys, surveys by postal questionnaires etc. The personal interview technique is more popular and extensively used in survey methods. The survey method is extremely useful in social sciences like psychology, providing carefully prepared questionnaires, well-trained interviewers, carefully and cautiously selected samples and appropriate methods of data analysis and reporting used.

Question 27.
Case study method?
Answer:
it is qualitative research used mostly by clinical psychologists. A case study or case history is an in-depth look at a single individual. Mainly case studies are performed by clinical psychologists. A case study provides information about the person’s fears, hopes, fantasies, traumatic experiences, upbringing, and family relationships, herewith. A case study is the most exhaustive method of collecting data about the behaviour of a person. The case study has a clinical orientation with a focus on helping the individual self-improvement.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 1 What is Psychology? Objective Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 1 What is Psychology? Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Type Questions

Question 1.
Psychology as a science is studied _____?
(a) Systematically
(b) Methodically
(c) Analytically
(c) observationally
Answer:
(a) Systematically

Question 2.
Psychology is the science of ________?
(a) soul
(b) mind
(c) brain
(d) body
Answer:
(b)mind

Question 3.
Does behaviour mean _______?
(a) experience
(b) learning
(c) reaction
(d) activities
Answer:
(d) activities

Question 4.
Watson defined psychology as the science of ______?
(a) behaviour
(b) experience
(e) soul
(d) mind
Answer:
(a) behaviour

Question 5.
_____ is the father of experimental psychology?
(a) Watson
(b) Wundt
(e) Williams
(d) Freud
Answer:
(b) Wundt

Question 6.
The first psychological laboratory was established in _______?
(a) 1779
(b) 1879
(c) 1789
(d) 1889
Answer:
(b) 1879

Question 7.
_____developed the behaviouristic school of psychology?
(a) Woodworth
(b) William James
(c) Watson
(d) Wertheimer.
Answer:
(c) Watson

Question 8.
Titchner was a psychologist?
(a) English
(b) German
(c) American
(d) French
Answer:
(c)American

Question 9.
Does social psychology study the psychology of the________in groups?
(a) children
(b) adults
(c) old people
(d) individuals
Answer:
(d) individuals

Question 10.
Psychology is a____ science?
(a) natural as life
(b) environmental
(c) social
Answer:
(c) social

Question 11.
Psychology as a science study the experience and behaviour of _______?
(a) human beings
(b) animals
(c) organism
(d) plants
Answer:
(c) organism

Question 12.
The functional school of psychologý was advanced by _______?
(a) Watson
(b) Thomdive
(c) William
(d) James
Answer:
(c) William

Question 13.
Wundt established the first psychologist laboratory at _______?
(a) Frankfort
(b) Paris
(c) Leipzig
(d) Berlin
Answer:
(c) Leipzig

Question 14.
Jung was a _____ psychiatrist.
(a) Japanese
(b) German
(c) Swiss
(d) American
Answer:
(c) Swiss

Question 15.
Sigmund Freud emphasized the role of in causing neuroses?
(a) suppression
(b) repression
(c) subconsciousness
(d) consciousness
Answer:
(b) repression

Question 16.
That branch of psychology which studies men at work is known as psychology?
(a) consumer
(b) advertising
(c) industrial and organisational
(d) social
Answer:
(c) industrial and organisational

Question 17.
The role of the unconscious in mental illness was advanced for the first time by____?
(a) Jung
(b) Adler
(c) Karen homey
(d) Freud
Answer:
(d) Freud

Question 18.
The behaviour of children in the classroom is studied by_____ psychologists?
(a) child
(b) developmental
(c) educational
(d) social
Answer:
(c) educational

Question 19.
Are we thinking is a branch of _______?
(a) work psychology
(b) education psychology
(c) consumer psychology
(d) general psychology
Answer:
(d) general psychology

Question 20.
_______ does not come under the branches of psychology.
(a) psychopathology
(b) medicine
(c) consumer psychology
(d) advertising psychology
Answer:
(b) medicine

Question 21.
Wundt was a _______?
(a) physiologist
(b) sociologist
(c) mathematician
(d) psychologist
Answer:
(a) physiologist

Question 22.
Psychology is the science of _______?
(a) the mind
(b) the unconscious
(c) the soul
(d) the behaviour
Answer:
(a) the mind

Question 23.
Weber was a ________?
(a) Biologist
(b) Psychologist
(c) physicist
(d) Philosopher
Answer:
(c) physicist

Question 24.
That branch of psychology which studies the behaviour of an individual in a group is called _______?
(a) Anthropology
(b) Social Psychology
(c) Consumer Psychology
(d) Developmental Psychology
Answer:
(b) Social Psychology

Question 25.
Psychometry is a branch of ________.
(a) medicine
(b) psychology
(c) psychiatry
(d) biology
Answer:
(c) psychiatry

Question 26.
The main aim of the _______ method is to obtain the past history of the person?
(a) observation
(b) experimental
(c) survey
(d) case.
Answer:
(d) case

Question 27.
Objective observation and experiments are essential in _______?
(a) Arts
(b) Political Science
(c) Philosophy
(d) Science
Answer:
(d) Science

Question 28.
While testing a hypothesis if the results are significant, then it will be _______?
(a) Accepted
(b) Cancelled
(c) Rejected
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Accepted

Question 29.
A hypothesis is a _______?
(a) theory
(b) theory to be verified
(c) theory to be reviewed
(d) theory to be rejected.
Answer:
(b) theory to be verified

Question 30.
In the experimental method, the variables that are manipulated are called _______?
(a) independent variable
(b) dependent variable
(c) relevant variable
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(a) independent variable

Question 31.
In a psychological experimént the independent variable functions as a / an _______?
(a) effect
(b) constant
(c)cause
(d)result
Answer:
(c)cause

Question 32.
In a psychological experiment, are the dependent variables are influenced by the variable?
(a) independent variable
(b) relevant variable
(c) experimental variable
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(a) independent variable

Question 33.
The independent variable i&an experiment differs from the dependent variable in _________.
(a) that it is a response eLiciting a stimulus which is so strong so as to mark the intervening variable
(b) that it is a variable which comes between the stimulus and response.
(c) that it is a stimulus within an experiment which is expected to cause a specific response to occur.
(d) It can not be controlled or changed.
Answer:
(c) that it is a stimulus within an experiment which is expected to cause a specific response to occur.

Question 34.
an important difference between an experimental group and a control group is that ______?
(a) the independent variable is introduced to the experimental group but not to the control group.
(b) the independent variable is introduced to the control group and not to the experimental group.
(c) none of the above
Answer:
(a) the independent variable is introduced to the experimental group but not to the control group.

Question 35.
The most scientific method used to study the behaviour of organisms is ________?
(a) observation
(b) experimental
(c) case history
(d) survey
Answer:
(b) experimental

Question 36.
Introspection was developed and advocated by ________?
(a) Kohicr
(b) William James
(c) Thorndike
(d) Titchener
Answer:
(d) Titchener

Question 37.
The first psychological laboratory was introduced in the year?
(a) 1989
(b) 1879
(c) 1789
(d) 1878
Answer:
(b) 1879

Question 38.
Introspection can also be called ________?
(a) self-observation
(b) to look within
(c) retrospection
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(a) self-observation

Question 39.
The first psychological laboratory was established as ________?
(a) Sweden
(b) Tokyo
(c) Leipzig
(d) Hongkong
Answer:
(c) Leipzig

Question 40.
In the experimental condition, the variables are ________?
(a) kept constant
(b) manipulated
(c) both kept constant and manipulated alternatively
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(b) manipulated

Question 41.
The introspective method can be used only to study the behaviour of ________?
(a) Human beings
(b) Higher animals
(c) lower animals
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(a) Human beings

Question 42.
The short history of psychology as a science started with _______?
(a) MC. Donegal
(b) Watson
(c) Titchener
(d) Wundt
Answer:
(d) Wundt

Question 43.
The first psychological laboratory of the world was established under the leadership of ________?
(a) Freud
(b) Titchener
(c) Fenchner
(d) Wundt
Answer:
(d) Wundt

Question 44.
The introspective method is unique in ________?
(a) sociology
(b) anthropology
(c) psychoanalysis
(d) psychology
Answer:
(d) psychology

Question 45.
Observation of others’ mental activity includes?
(a) perception of behaviour
(b) conscious or subconscious inference
(c) interpretation of the behaviour of other persons in terms of own experience
(d) all the above
Answer:
(d) all the above

Question 46.
Introspection as a method of psychology has received the support of _____?
(a) Wundt
(b) Miller
(c) Brief
(d) Titchener
(e) All the above
Answer:
(d)Titchener

Question 47.
The Aim Chair and biographical methods were used by _____?
(a) scientific psychologists
(b) the prescientific psychologists
(c) statisticians
(d) sociologists
Answer:
(b) the prescientific psychologists

Question 48.
Besides fetching introspection was considered as a method of studying conscious experience by ________?
(a) Fuicd
(b) Wundt
(c) Skinner
(d) Angell
Answer:
(b) Wundt

True And False Questions With Answer

Question 1.
Abnormal psychology deals with the study of gifted children. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 2.
Plato’s’concept of psychology as the science of the soul is unscientific. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Descartes was an eminent physicist. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 4.
Helmut for the first time propounded theories of colour vision and audition. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 5.
Wundt a German Psychologist published a book on the fundamentals of physiological psychology. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 6.
J. B. Watson’defined psychology as the science of conscious experience. ______ (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 7.
Behaviourism developed as a reaction to the contrüversy between structuralism and functionalism (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 8.
Freud was a Neurologist. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 9.
The concept of collective unconsciousness to the brainchild of Adlet. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 10.
Psychology as the science of behaviour is the most acceptable definition of psychology. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 11.
Psychologyasascienceonlystudieshumanbeings. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 12.
Psychology is a social science. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 13.
Psychology studies the activities of the organism in relation to its environment _____ (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 14.
Psycho1ogy sociology and anthropology are sister disciplines. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 15.
Psychology only studies normal. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 16.
Clinical psychologists and psychiatrists have similar educational qualifications (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 17.
Comparative psychology is the same as animal psychology. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 18.
Most of the experiments in the field of psychology have been conducted on animals________. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 19.
Educational psychology is basically the psychology of the teacher and the teacher. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 20.
Social psychology is applied psychology. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 21.
Industrial psychology studies men and women at work. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 22.
Legal psychology is not a branch of applied psychology. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 23.
Wundt established the first psychological laboratory at Leipzig (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 24.
Psychology has a long past but a short history. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 25.
Groen philosophers like Aristotle and Plato have no content PSyChologY. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 26.
Aristotle as a swiss philosopher (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 27.
Descartes recognised the iríterætion process between mind and body in the pineal gland. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 28.
Physicists line weber and Fechnerbied to quantity psycho1ogj. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 29.
Wundt’slaboratoiy at Leip7ig was the stalling point of physiological psychology (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 30.
Titchener owes the credit for establishing Wundt’s concept of psychology in U.SA (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 31.
Watson advocated the S-O-R approach towards psychology instead of the S-R approach. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 32.
Gestalt psychologists are opposed to the perception of any stimulus part by part. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 33.
Sigmund Freud propounded the school of psychology is. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 34.
The schools developed by Freud, Jung and Adler are known as schools of Depth. Psychology. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 35.
The term psychology is derived from two “reek words” ‘psycho’ and ‘logos’ which means soul and science respectively. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 36.
The dependent variable is the cause and the independent variables are the effect. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 37.
Introspection can not be used to study animal behaviour. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 38.
The functions of introspection and retrospection are the same. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 39.
The major difference between an experimental group and a control group is that the independent variable is introduced in the control group, while no independent variable is introduced in the experimental group. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 40.
In an accurate experimental design, the independent variable is always one. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 41.
Independent variables and dependent variables have a cause-effect relationship. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 42.
Frcüd is considered the father of experimental psychology. (True/ False)
Answer:
False

Question 43.
The experimental method is only used in the study of human behaviour. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 44.
Psychologists in general prefer introspection to experimental methods. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 45.
Watson accepted introspection as a method of psychology. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 46.
A variable is a factor which varies or changes in an experiment. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 47.
Self-observation is popularly known as introspection. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 48.
The field study method is used as an alternative of laboratory investigation. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 49.
Methods in psychology are used to study both inner and outer behaviour to analyse predict and control behaviour in a given situation. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 50.
The introspective method is not unique in psychology. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 51.
The observation method was developed in psychology to avoid the limitations and disadvantages of the introspective method. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 52.
The experimental method indicates the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 53.
Prescientific psychology was using certain speculative methods like armchair and biographical to study behaviour. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 54.
The observation technique includes objective observation and self-observation. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 55.
In the observation technique, there is a tendency to project one’s own thoughts and feeling into another’s mind. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 56.
Introspection is self-observation. But every self-observation is not introspection. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 57.
Psychologists like Freud, James, Woodworth and Skinner have cited evidence in favour of introspection as a method of psychology. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 58.
No psychological experiment can be completed without an introspective report. (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 59.
The experimental method is a procedure in which certain hypotheses are tested by systematically varying certain conditioning and controlling some other conditions. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 60.
The dependent variable is also called the response variable. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 61.
The dependent variable is the cause while the independent variable is an effect (True / False)
Answer:
False

Question 62.
The artificiality of the laboratory experiment is a source of strength and a source of weakness. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 63.
Field study is used as an alternative to laboratory investigation. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 64.
The case study method is the same as the biographical method. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 65.
The introspection method is usually used as a supplement to experimentation and observation. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 4 Method of Teaching English Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Unit 4 Method of Teaching English Questions and Answers

Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.

Last night Mr. Khanna _______ a noise. He ________ a torch from his table, he _________ the light and saw ________ thief. The thief was taking Mr.Khanna’s clothes ________ and ________ hold of the man’s collar and ________ I am going to call the police.
Answer:
signed, caught, heard, switched on, picked up, about, quietly

Multiple choice:
This type consists of test items that are to be answered by choosing a correct answer from among several possible answers.
Example:
The following questions have four distractors. Choose the appropriate one and rewrite the sentence.

Question 1.
They could scarcely believe their eyes when they saw the violets. Here the word scarcely means _____________?
(a) reading
(b) not at all
(c) hardly
(d) quickly

Question 2.
It was the man who _______ the killing?
(a) has done
(b) is doing
(c) done
(d) did

Question 3.
Delicious food was served at the feast. Here the best meaning of the word, delicious is?
(a) sweet
(b) fragrant
(c) is happening
(d) had happened

Completion Test:
The test consists of sentences to be completed with the use of the correct form of verb indicated with the brackets. This can be reliably used to test the knowledge of the sequence of tense and such other abilities.
(a) Mohan (seem) tired today.
(b) You (remember) the name of the boy who (walk) on the other side of the road.
(c) You (look) very thoughtful what do you (think) about?
(d) You (see) this box? It (contain) watches.
(e) He will meet me when I _____ arrive.

Substitution Table For example:

Mohan	had	his trousers	tailored
Gopi	got	his watch	painted
We	our	house	repaired
I	got	him	punished

 

The test can reliably be used to assess the pupils, ability to use sentences correctly.

Matching Test:
Match the words in column’ A’ with the appropriate words in column ‘B’.

A	B
right	soft
black	soft
beautiful	wrong
beautiful	ugly
hard	bad
good	white

Joining the sentences:
Example:- Join the sentences using the words in the brackets. It was time for dinner. They went on talking up to time till.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What advantages of the Structural Approach?
Answer:
It facilitates the learning of English by imparting knowledge of its structures. The structural approach promotes the use of everyday English As such it stimulates the activity and interest of the pupils. It enables the children to speak English which is more important than to be able to read and write it only. The pupils listen to sentence patterns as spoken by the teacher.

By learning the structures of sentences child automatically learns some grammar, word order, and use of words. Thus, he avoids common errors in grammar and composition. It teaches four language skills to children. They are listening and understanding, speaking, reading, and writing.

Question 2.
Explain the principles of the structural approach?
Answer:

• Importance is given to the child’s activity rather than the activity of the teacher.
• Importance of the speech for family foxing all groundwork.
• Importance of the formation of the language habit to arrange words in suitable English sentence pattern of the child’s mother-tongue.

Question 3.
Principles of direct method?
Answer:
Direct Teaching:
Teaching by the direct bond between foreign words and their meaning.

Oral practice:
Oral practice will give the children fluency in English speech.

Inductive Approach to Grammar:
In the direct method, there is the functional use of grammar rather than formal grammar learning precedes grammar.

Inhibition of mother tongue:
It prevents the intervention of the mother- tongue. The foreign language is directly associated with its meaning without the use of the mother tongue.

Limited vocabulary:
The method works on the principle of graded teaching of vocabulary.

Question 4.
What advantages of the direct method?
Answer:
Pupils acquire good speech skills, including the use of proper pronunciation, stress and intonation, Pupils acquire a reasonable mastery over correct spoken English. Good command over the spoken language. Lack of interference of mother-tongue results in quick and economical learning of English. Grammar is learned without the help of rules through repetitions of various patterns.

Question 5.
What disadvantages of the direct method?
Answer:
The direct method emphasizes only the teaching procedure irrespective of language material which must be controlled and graded. Skills of reading and writing neglected. Banishment of the mother tongue altogether makes teaching difficult in many situations. The method can be employed effectively only by efficient teachers but such teachers are not available in large numbers.

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Explain the aims and objectives of teaching English?
Answer:
In the process of teaching and learning aims are more important. When the teacher is clear about the aims his teaching becomes more meaningful and planning 1 becomes more effective. In the present system of education, the teacher should be clear about the aims and objectives. The objectives of teaching differ from the lower class to the higher classes and different linguistic activities general aims of teaching English.

There is four general. aims in teaching English in the school stages. They are as follows:

• To hear and understand English
• To speak in English and to understand.
• To read English with understanding.
• To write English with understanding.

The four aims correspond to the four language skills such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These skills are the foundation of language learning.

The specific objectives of Teaching English:
The Semantic Aspect:
This aspect emphasizes the structural approach and usage of rudimentary grammar and fundamental principles of making sentences. The child is taught how to know the meaning of words and writing.

Pronunciation of English:
Pronunciation of the English language is the most important aspect. The spelling of words in English is a paradox speaking well in English is an art. To speak English correctly requires a good deal of practice. So a student should be carefully taught to speak English with the correct pronunciation.

The graphic aspect:
Writing makes a man perfect. To acquire the habit of writing in English the student should listen to the language, understand the theme and then write.

The phonetic cue-graphic aspects:
The success of learning the English language depends on both reading and writing side by side.

The literary aspects:
The beauty of the language lies in representing the things in which there is a lucid style and appropriate meaningful words. Most of the books are translated into English.

The linguistic aspects:
English is a world language. The linguistic aspect of the approach helps students to acquire a working knowledge of the language.

Specific objectives in primary classes:
As the child in the beginner’s stage, they should be devoted to oral exercise in the English language. The children are to be acquainted with simple words by drilling. The words should be expressed through simple sentences like Rama is a boy. I am going etc. By the end of class (IV). In Class V the pupils should be able to count the numbers, figures, and oral work, and able to answer the questions from textbooks. In Classes VI and VIII, the pupils are able to read, write, speak correctly and write correctly. In this stage, English is considered a skill subject rather than a context subject. The child is able to construct various sentences.

In secondary classes, the aims of teaching are as follows:
Understand English when spoken. Speak English correctly with correct pronunciation and fluency. Write English correctly with good handwriting. Read English silently and in a low voice. The pupils acquire knowledge of elements of the English language. The pupils develop an interest in English.

Question 2.
What is the translation method in teaching English? Write the merits and demerits?
Answer:
The translation method is the oldest method of teaching English. Though this method is outdated still it is continuing in most of the classrooms of Indian schools. Mother- tongue or the regional language is maintained as a reference system in teaching English in this method. It means English is taught in the mother tongue. In the translation method English words, phrases, and sentences is taught by means of the word for word translation into the mother- tongue. In this method unit of speech or reading is not sentenced.

Principles of Translation Method:
The translation method is based on the following three principles. They are:
Translation interprets foreign phraseology best. In the process of interpretation foreign phraseology is assimilated. The structure of a foreign language is best learned when compared and contrasted with that of the mother- tongue.

Merits of Translation Method :
Method:
There are certain merits of translation. The pupils proceed from known language to unknown language. English is best interpreted through this method. The method gives better clarity and easy understanding. English is best assimilated in the process of interpretation. The pupil leams the accurate meaning of the words and sentences.

It develops the knowledge of grammar and the mother tongue. In the translation method the pupil’s associates with the foreign word, with the word spoken by him, and a strong memory bond is established. The child proceeds from known to unknown and derives better comprehension of English.

Demerits and Limitations:
This method does not promote speech training in English. It obstructs the pupil’s thinking of English. Language learning is difficult with this method. All the objectives of teaching English are not achieved by this method. The method does not encourage direct thought expression in the language to be learned. The structure of the English language is different from that of any Indian language. This method is dull and mechanical and the learner does not take part actively in the learning process. Objectives of teaching English are not achieved by this method.

Question 3.
What is the direct method of teaching English? What are the principles underlying the method? Explain. Give, its merits and demerits?
Answer:
The direct method of teaching language consists in teaching words and phrases of the target language by associating them with objects. It consists in establishing a direct relation between a word and its meaning, between an. experience and its expression. Thus in English, the direct method consists in teaching English through the medium of English.

In this sense, the use of translation is totally out of question. To Webster’s New International Dictionary any direct method is a method of teaching a foreign language especially a modem language through conversation, discussion, and reading the language itself without the use of the pupil’s language, without translation, and without the study of formal grammar.

The word is first taught by pointing to an object or picture or by performing the action. For instance, when the teacher wants to explain to the students the meaning of the word’ book’ he should not bring in the mother- tongue. He should show a picture of the book and present the symbol (that is a book) and the real object (that is a book).

Characteristics of Direct Method:
It proceeds from simple living situations too complex abstract situations. It lays emphasis on oral work. The sentence is the unit of teaching. There is the use of the situation, action, and audio-visual aids. Grammar is taught functionally. Emphasis on pronunciation.

Principles of the Direct Method:
The principle of Direct Bond:
The method is based on the principle of creating a direct bond between foreign words and their meaning. The learner is initiated into thinking in a foreign language and then expressing themselves by using the same medium.

The principle of oral practice:
Oral practice will give children fluency in English speech.

The principle of an inductive approach to grammar:
In the direct method, functional use of grammar rather than formal grammar is emphasized. learning grammar is not a precondition to learning the language. In the direct method, learning precedes grammar.

The sentence as the unit of speech:
In the direct method sentence and not a word is taken as the unit of speech. Emphasis is laid on speaking in full sentences.

Inhibition of mother tongue:
Everything in a foreign language should be directly associated with its meaning without the intervention of the use Of the mother tongue.

The principle of limited vocabulary:
The method works on the principle of gradual teaching of vocabulary.

Merits of Direct Method :
Pupils acquire good speech skills including the use of proper pronunciation, stress, and intonation. Pupils acquire a reasonable mastery over correct spoken language. Good command over spoken language prepares the ground to lay the foundation for the development of the skills of reading and writing. Lack of interference of the mother- tongue results in quick and economical learning of English. Grammar is learned without the help of rules, through repetitions of various patterns. It offers direct learning of foreign languages.

Demerits of Direct Method :
The direct method emphasizes only the teaching procedure: The language materials are to be controlled and graded. Skills of reading and writing are neglected. Only listening and speaking have a dominant role. The banishment of the mother tongue together makes teaching difficult in many situations. Efficient teachers are not available to teach the indirect methods.

Question 4.
What is the structural approach? Give its principles characteristics and advantages/ disadvantages?
Answer:
In order to learn a language effectively, one has to master the tools of language. These tools are sounds, words, and structures. Working with these tools and teacher has to develop the foretold skills of language-skill in reading skill in writing. Structures are important tools of language, words are put and arranged in a particular order to make their structure.

Hence, we should approach the problem of its learning through structures. In the structural approach to the teaching of English, the learner will learn some of the structures of their preliminary stage some at their later stage. This requires the selection and gradation of structures. The advocates of the structural approach say that in the learning of a foreign language mastery of structure is more important than the acquisition of vocabulary.

Characteristics of structural approach:
Every structure embodies an important grammatical point. The structures are carefully graded to give the young learner a working command of spoken and written English. In grading structures, attention is paid to both meaning and form. Only one meaning of a word is taught at a time and is established by practice before another meaning is taught.

Principles of structural approach:
The importance of forming language habits, the habit of arranging words, in English standard pattern. The importance of speech as the necessary means of fixing firmly all groundwork. The importance of pupils, activity rather than the activity of the teacher.

Advantages :
The method facilitates the learning of English by imparting a language of its structures. Promotes the use of everyday English as such stimulates the activity and interest of the pupils. So it is called English through play way. In this method, oral practice is done. It helps the students to acquire the habits of language and helps to communicate language. In this method language, learning becomes stable.

Disadvantages:
In this method, the selection and gradation of structures do not solve the problem of teaching English. It only helps the teacher to know what he has taught and what he should teach next. The method is suitable for students of lower classes. It is not applicable to higher classes where many branches of the English language are taught. We cannot successfully apply the method in overcrowded Classes. It does not help that the teacher how should present a new teaching point or give drills for assimilating it.

Question 5.
Discuss different types of Evaluation. Explain the need for objective-based test items with examples?
Answer:
The examination is one of the evaluations of English language teaching. It is used for testing the objectives of language learning i.e. knowledge skill and attitude.
There are mainly 3 kinds of examinations such as:

• oral
• practical
• written

Oral examination:
In the oral examination, the teacher makes some questions and the children answer them orally.

Practical examination:
ln practical examination child is given some task to perform such as preparation of flash, cards or cutting the letters from newspapers etc.

Written examination:
In written examinations, the students give written answers of 3 kinds such as:

• long answer type,
• short answer type and
• objective tests.

Different types of questions:
There are three kinds of questions as there are three kinds of written examinations, such as

Long answer type or essay type questions:
This type of question requires some descriptions etc. Example: What do you do on Children’s Day?

Short answer type questions:
These questions are answered with one word or so. There are two types of questions objective-based oral and written, English vocabulary is tested through objective tests.

Vocabulary Test:
Oral test:
Objective type written test in English is designed to test the different linguistic abilities of the specimen of some questions are given below.

Comprehension type:
This type consists of a sentence or paragraph from which some words and phrases are omitted. The pupil is to fill in the blanks with suitable words or phrases. Correct use of prepositions and vocabulary can be tested with the type.