Class 11

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 4 Teaching Learning Materials Purpose and Uses.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Unit 4 Teaching Learning Materials Purpose and Uses

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is the importance of Audio Visual aids? Explain?
Answer:
Sensory experiences form the foundation of intellectual growth. It is a common practice with teachers to communicate knowledge by means of written and oral languages. But language has some limitations which result in bearing difficulties. The modem educationist, therefore, recognizes of audio-visual aids to remove learning difficulties by ensuring concreteness and dynamic interests. The most abstract concept can be presented to the pupils in a concrete way by means of more than one aid. Some of the distinct advantages claimed for audio-visual aids are discussed below.

Audiovisual aids are the best attention compellers:
Those arouse interest and motivate the pupils to action and stimulate physical and mental activity.

Audio-visual aids give variety to the classroom atmosphere:
Variety is always attractive and attention-getting to the child. It breaks the monotony and sustains the attention of the child for a longer period.

Audio reduces verbalism:
Audio-visual aids reduce verbalism or the use of unnecessary language, words and phrases and contribute towards clearness of perception and accuracy in observation

Aids extend freedom:
Aids provide some freedom to the child. The child may freely observe, talk, laugh, question, and comment and may act in a natural manner. An atmosphere of friendliness and cooperation proves inside the classroom between the teacher and the students.

Aids provide first-hand experience:
Audio-visual aids provide first-hand experience when the students see a demonstration, handle the apparatus, perform, the activity operates a model specimen, draw a picture or diagram and manipulate the situation.

Aids being a vivid reality in the classroom:
Aids provide some naturality end reality in the classroom. The students from some images of real objects when they observe. This reduces abstractness and increases Concentrate concepts.

Aids may represent actual sources :
In many cases, actual objects may not be brought to the class for various reasons expensiveness, oversize, danger in handling or difficulty in the collection. In such a situation, the teacher may improvise some aids to represent the real object. For example, it is not possible to bring an elephant to the class, but the teacher can use a mode of the elephant past objects, and distant objects represented through improvised aids.

Aids provide an opportunity to inculcate a scientific attitude and give training in the scientific method:
Children become more sincere, industrious and systematic, they develop the powers of critical thinking, reasoning, and judgement. They develop an enquiring bent of mind through questioning and argument.

Question 2.
Discuss the different types of audio-visual aids and their functions?
Answer:
For using the senses children different aids may be used by the teacher. On the basis of the senses, the teaching aids may be broadly divided into the following three categories:

• Auditory aids
• Visual aids and
• Audiovisual aids

Auditory aids :
These aids involve the use of the auditory sense or the ear. The children by hearing various sounds can gain some experiences. Instruments used in such auditory aids are radio, tape recorder, and gramophone records.

Visual Aids:
These aids are meant to utilize the sense of vision, (eye) and therefore are called visual aids. Examples of such aids are many
(a) Charts, globes, specimens
(b) Motion pictures, slides, films
(c) Maps, diagrams, sketches, .models, pictures
(d) Flannel graphs, bulletin board
(e) Printed materials, newspapers

Audio-visual aids:
These aids involve the use of both auditory and visual senses and can be simultaneously heard and seen. Therefore, these aids are called as Audio-visual aids. These includes
(a) Sound motion pictures
(b) Television
(c) Dramatic plays

Broad classification of instructional aids:
Broadly Instructional aids can be classified into three categories, as
(a) Projected aids
(b) Non-projected aids and
(c) Activity aids

Projected Aids:
When a projected aid is used an enlarged image of the material is t projected on a screen kept at a distance from the projector. The room is either totally or partially darkened. A projected aid is bound to be more effective since a darkened room reduces destruction and the bright image on the screen secures the attention of the audience. Colour will make the aid more attractive motio^ more dynamic and motion associated with sound will be most effective.

Projected’aids are suitable for small as well as large groups. Projected materials are shown viewers by means of various projectors. A list of the projected materials is given below. Projected materials include, books, diagrams, pictures, then opaque objects, slides, motion pictures etc. and projectors like Epidia scope, slides projectors, film projectors, motion picture projectors etc.

Non-Projected Aids :
These aids cannot be projected on the wall or on the screen. Such aids individually or in groups can be shown to the students teaching. These can be too, used on the blackboard or classroom walls. All these non-projected aids generally are visual aids.

Examples of these aids are as follows :

• Graphic aids – line graphs, bar graphs, histograms, pictorial graphs
• Diagrams with symbols and labels
• Pictures with various colours, shapes and sizes.
• Maps, illustrations, flat pictures
• Posters, cartoons, sketches
• Charts, models, specimens
• Globes, improvised materials
• Display boards, flannel graphs, bulletin board

Activity aids:
Modern educations give stress on learning by doing or learning by experience. The students can get three types of experience during the teaching-learning process.

Direct Experiences:
It consists of having, immediate sensory content with the actual object or place. It is the purposeful experience that is seen handed tested, touched, felt and smelled. Such experiences give first-hand information and are thus the most educative type of experience.

Various experiences :
It refers to the experience gained through the represented or substituted materials models, pictures and specimens, photographs, exhibits and posters. It is not always possible to get direct experiences.’There are situations, objects and phenomena where a representation is better for instructional purposes. For, example, an atom cannot be seen directly but can be studied only through a model or diagram.

Symbolic experience :
Symbolic or abstract experiences are afforded through verbal symbols – oral or written. These experiences occur at the conceptual level. The verbalism is the quickest method representing an experience, at times it becomes more confusing and abstract. These sensory experiences are such effective than, verbal ones. The more will be the number of direct experiences, the more effective will be the learning of a child. Therefore, the teacher must plan activities that can provide first-hand information to, the learners.

Question 3.
Discuss the activity aids and activities that provide direct experiences to pupils in their learning?
Answer:
From activities, the sensory experiences are gainer which becomes more effective for the learning of a child. The activities that provide direct experiences are as follows.

Field trips:
The learning process should not confine to the four walls of the classrooms. The pupils should be taken away from the school to visit places of educational importance located nearby the school or in the community. They can get some first-hand information regarding the objects or places written in the book or told by the teacher.

Such field trips may be organized to enable the pupils to visit local schools, museums, hospitals, gardens, parks, radio-station, TV stations, telephone exchanges, forests, airports, factories, agricultural and industrial forms, natural spots, and places of such categories situated in the locality. Through field trips, children gather experiences of locality and community life.

Excursions:
Excursions are undertaken mostly for recreation, and pleasure learning experiences outside the local community. The pupils have some knowledge and information the visiting places and the educational information becomes first-hand. They correlate school life with the outside world. Generally, children can be taken to visit lakes, rivers, mountains, forest parks, historical towns, monuments, places of historical importance, airports, zoos, etc. scientific and industrial farms and other places.

Exhibitions:
The exhibitions arranged in schools are usually planned to communicate something interesting educative and valuable to students, parents and the public. Parents and visitors can have an idea of the talents present in the pupils. Self-activity is fostered in the children who take part in the exhibition.

Individual interests, fancies, and skills are exhibited by the participants. Exhibitions are effective models of mass communication instruction on a large scale. The exhibition must be an annual affair. All students of the school must cooperate and contribute something valuable. Students must be trained as to what features of the exhibit must be stressed while giving explanations.

School museums:
Museums are the wonderful media for mass education. These institutions collect passive original objects and specimens available in the locality. The students must be encouraged to contribute exhibits to the museum. Each exhibit kept in the museum must be properly labelled giving details about the exhibit and the names of the donor.

Nature study:
The pupils can leam many things from the nature and environment through observation. They can get a comprehensive idea of plant and animal life.

Community study:
Community resources provide educational learning situations to the pupils. Through community study, the pupils can understand the value of social life, develop citizenship and civic responsibility achieve vocational understanding and economic self-sufficiency. The child leams what is relevant to him. The school must provide a chance for children for talks to and visit postmen, policemen, political leaders, social workers, farmers, and other people, who help the community. Community study must include visits interviews, participation, field trips and journeys Resource persons may be invited to the school to deliver talk to the pupils.

Creative activities:
Creativity in children is manifested in a number of activities. By observing these activities the pupils can leam many things and can also get many direct and concrete experiences are as follows.

• Music, dancing, songs
• Dramatisation
• Arts and crafts,
• Play way. activities, like mock

parliament, and assembly, mock elections, students, self govt., school co-operatives, folk music and folktales etc.

Question 4.
What are objective-based and objective-type test items? What are the different types of objective tests in Mathematics or any subjects?
Answer:
Tests are essential features in the teaching-learning process. They are used for various purposes. The main purpose is prognosis, diagnosis and survey. Very often we talk of objective-based tests and objective tests. They are not the same. The meaning is different objective-based tests are there which are based on specific objectives. At the beginning, based on specific objectives. At the beginning of the teaching-learning process set certain objectives.

In the end, we have to assess the extent to which broken pupil behaviour patterns and test items asked to evaluate each behaviour pattern. Such test items are called objective-based tests. But, objective test items are those which elicit answers in either a word or in number. Now adays educationists put emphasis on objective test items instead of essay-type items. Various types of objective tests are used.

Alternative response type test :
It is the testing situation in which a pupil has to choose one of the two persons. The items can be answered either ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or by true or false. Such items can even be answered by putting either a tick mark or a cross mark. Example – Some of the following statements are true as some are false. Write ‘T’ against the statement and ‘F’ against false statements in the space provided for Q.

• The three angles of a triangle are 360°.
• The sum of two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side.
• The difference in the length of the two sides of a triangle is smaller than the third side.

Completion type :
In this type, items consist of a sentence or statement in which there is a blank space which is to be filled up by the pupils. Alternate responses may be supplied in the bracket among which the pupils have to choose the correct one.
Example – Fill in the blanks:

• The square root of 256 is _____.
• The sum of three angles in the triangle is equal to ______.

Matching type :
In this type of test, two-column of items are given. Each item on the first column is to be matched with the corresponding items on the sound column.
Example Match each item in column ‘A’ with its related item in column‘B’

Multiple choice tests :
In this type of test items with each question are given 4 to 5 possible answers among which only one is the correct answer. The pupils have to choose the correct answer. This type is considered to be the best of objective-type test items.
Example – Choice the correct answer from the four alternatives given below which of the following is correct is a right angle triangle?
(a) All angles are right angles
(b) Two angles are right angles
(c) Only one angle is a right angle
(d) No angle is right angle:

Question 5.
What are the different types of items used in classroom evaluation? What is objective-based evaluation?
Answer:
Objective-based evaluation :
The evaluation process should be based on the intended learning outcomes. The evaluation process should be organized to access the extent to which the instructed objectives are achieved through instruction. If it is found through evaluation that some objectives have not been achieved to the desirable extent.

It will be inferred that the learning experiences and activities provided and the methods of teaching adopted have not been sufficient or appropriate from this consideration evaluation becomes the basis for continuous review and revision. the entire process of education fills the desired level of efficiency is reached.

Types of test items :
A variety of evaluation tools and techniques are needs to be used for making the evaluation process effective. The most frequently used tests that have a direct relationship with classroom instruction, are the achievement tests. The teacher makes use of these tests to access the achievement of pupils in various school subjects.

A science teacher in a similar manner constructs and uses achievement tests at different times. A variety of test items can be asked by the teacher. The different types of test items can be classified in the following manner. The test items include Essay type short answer type, very short answer type and objective types.

The objective-type test questions include:

• Simple recall/fill in the gaps type.
• Alternate response type
• Multiple choice type
• Correct the error type
• Matching type
• Master lost type
• Analogy type

Essay-type tests :
The items that require a long answer are called essay-type items.
Example:
Describe the preparation, properties and uses of carbon dioxide. Explain with a suitable diagram, the cell division (mitosis, in plants and animals)

Short answer type:
The short answer type items usually require answers within a paragraph of about 50-75 words.
Example:
Write down the chemical proportion of chlorine, Distinguish between a solar eclipse and a lunar eclipse.

Very short answer type :
These items require answers within 10-20 words. State two physical properties of oxygen gas, Define buoyancy.

Objective tests :
The objective-type items require answers in a word or a number or a tick mark or the like. As has been mentioned in the classification tables are a large variety of objective-type items. Some of such items with examples are discussed below.

• Simple recall fill in the gaps type – Hydrogen is prepared in the laboratory by the reaction of _______
• A rod made of _______ and H, SO. is, used as an electrode in the dry cell.

Fill in the gap:
Type questions alternate words may also be given in the bracket.
Example: In a dynamic energy is transformed into electric energy (Kinetic, potential, chemical, light)

Alternate Response type:
In this type of item, the examine has to choose the correct answer from among the two alternative answers. The same of each type are yes / no type, right/wrong type (V/x) mark type etc.
Example:
Please write ‘R’ for the correct statement and ‘W’ for incorrect statements in the box provided for the purpose.

• Graphite is an amorphous carbon
• The chemical formula of lime is CaO

Multiple Choice type:
This type is considered one of the best types. objective test items. Usually, four or more alternate answers called distracters are given under each question. The examine has to point out the most appropriate answer from among those alternatives.
Example – Which of the following is used in the extraction of iron?

• Graphite
• Diamond
• coal
• charcoal.

Correct the Error type :
In this type, the examinee has to correct the error if any in a statement
Example – Correct the error if any in the statement without changing the underlined portion. Jupiter is the nearest planet to the sun.

Classification type :
This is also called to find the odd man out type item.
Example:
Underline the item which does not fall under the groups. Iron, copper, rubber, aluminium, zinc

Matching type :
In this type of item, there are usually two columns, one acts as a stem and the other as an alternative. The number of items in the alternatives column should be more by two / three items them of the item to avoid the chance element.
Example – Join each word of column ‘ A’ with the appropriate word of column ‘B’

Analogy type :
In this type of test item, the examinee has to find out an analogous response having the same relationship as in the case of a known relationship.
Example: Fill in the blanks

• C02 : CaC03 = H2:
• Anophelis : Malaria _______ : Philaria :

Question 6.
Discuss the merits and limitations of objective-type tests?
Answer:
The merits of objective type test:
It can be scored objectively and easily. The scoring will not vary from time to time, from the examiner. In this test, examiner a more extensive and representative sampling can be obtained. This reduces the role of luck and cramming of expected questions. As a result, there is greater reliability and better content validity. It possesses an economy of time, for it takes less time to answer than the easy test, and comparatively, many test items can be presented to students.

It eliminates extraneous factors such as speed of writing, fluency of expression, literacy style good handwriting, neatness etc. It creates an incentive for pupils to build up a broad base of knowledge, skills and abilities. It measures the higher mental process of understanding, application, analysis, predictions and interpretation.

Limitation of objective type test:
Objectives like the ability to organize matter ability to present matter logically and in coherent fashions etc. cart not be evaluated. Guessing is possible. No doubt, the chances of success may be reduced by the inclusion of a large number of items. The construction of the adequate type of test items is difficult. It requires special abilities and is time-consuming. The printing cost is considerably greater than that of an essay-type test.

Question 7.
Discuss the advantages and limitations of short answer items (T/ F) items, matching tests and multiple-choice items?
Answer:
Short answer items – A short answer item is classified as a supply type/recall type objective item.
Example: Who succeeded Akabar?
Advantages:
A relatively large sample of content can be covered. It is easy to construct. It provides little opportunity for guessing. It is useful in evaluating the ability to interpret diagrams, charts and graphs. It is useful in evaluating spelling and knowledge of a foreign language. It is mathematics and science where a computational answer is required or where a formula or equation is to be written. Objectives understanding, application and problems during skill can be measured with short answer items.

Limitation:
It is less objective than the other type of objective item. It is almost impossible to write good short answer items that require a student to exhibit synthesis and interpretation so that one and only one answer will be correct. It is limited to questions that can be answered with a word, phrase, symbol or number. Its excessive use may encourage a student to memorise and develop poor study habits because short answer items are best for measuring highly specific facts like dress, names, places and vocabulary.

True / False items :
Here the student is presented with a declarative statement that is true or false.
Example:
T / F – The sun rises in the east T/F – Columbus discovered America.

Advantages of T/ F items:
They are good for young children who have poor reading habits. They can cover a large portion of the subject matter in a relatively short space and a short period of time. They provide high reliability per unit of testing time. They can be scored quickly, reliably and subjectively. They are adaptable to most content areas. They can be more easily constructed than other objective-type items.

They can be conveniently used to measure :
The ability to identify the correctness of the statement. The ability to distinguish fact from opinion and The ability to recognize the cause-and-effect relationship. It is carefully constructed they can measure the higher mental processes of understanding, application interpretation.

Limitations :
Pupils’ scores on T/F items can be unduly influenced by good or poor luck in guessing. They are more susceptible to ambiguity misinter pretation than any other selection type objective item and here therefore low reliability They lend themselves most easily to cheating.

They tend to be less discriminating Matching tests :
A matching test consists of two columns ‘A’ and ‘B Each item in column ‘A’ is to be paired with an alternative given in column ‘B Usually with the columns containing an unequal number of items.
Example:
Match the dates in column ‘B’ with the events in column ‘A’ by writing the number of items in ‘B’ in the space provided.

Advantages of Matching Test:
Because they require relatively little reading time, many questions can be asked in a limited period of testing time. They afford an opportunity to have a large sampling of the content, which ultimately increases the reliability of the test. The matching test can be Constructed relatively easily and quickly. The matching test gives less opportunity for guessing than, T/F items or M.C. items. Like T/F or MC items they are amenable to machine scoring.

Limitations:
If sufficient care is not taken in their preparation, they may encourage serial memorization rather than association. It is sometimes difficult to get clusters of questions that are sufficiently alive so that a common set of responses can be used. They cannot be very successfully used for measuring understanding of the ability to discriminate because of the difference in finding a homogenous response.

Multiple Choice Items :
Multiple choice test items have stems in form of a statement or a question and more than one option is provided. The examinee has to point out the correct answer.
Example: Stem which of the following men invented the telephone Responses or options,
(a) Marcone,
(b) Edison,
(c) Bell,
(d) Morse

Advantages of MC items:
They can measure learning outcomes with respect to factual recall, ability to apply to understand, ability to interpret the data ability to reason, ability to exercise judgement, ability to justify methods etc. They can be scored objectively, quickly, and accurately by machines, clerks and even students themselves. The degree of difficulty of the test can be contained by changing the degree of homogeneity of the responses.

They provide valuable diagnostic information especially if all the responses are plausible and vary only in their degree of correctness. They are easier to respond to and are better liked by the students than T/F items. They can be conveniently used for numerous subject matter areas.

Limitations:
They are very difficult to construct. More skill and more time are required. They are not well adapted for measuring the ability to organize and present ideas. They require more space for items.

Question 8.
Discuss different kinds of Evaluation. Explain the need for objective-based test items with examples?
Answer:
In the evaluation of English language teaching, it is needed of the testing the objectives of language learning i.e. knowledge, skill attitude. Therefore mainly three kinds of examination such as
a) Oral,
b) practical,
c) written
a. Oral Examination:
In the oral test, the teacher make some questions and the children answer them orally.

Practical examination:
In the practical examination, the child is given some tasks to perform such as preparation of flashcards or cutting the letters from newspaper etc.

Written examination:
In written examination students are given written answers of 3 kinds such as
(a) Long answer type
(b) Short answer type
(c) Objective tests

Different types of questions:
There are three kinds of questions as there are three kinds of written examination

Long answer type or Essay type questions:
This type of question requires some descriptions etc.
Example: Write what you do in children’s day.

Short answer type questions:
this type of question requires short answers. The child answers each question within two or three sentences. ;
Example:
Write an answer within two or three sentences – who was Nehru

Objective test questions:
These questions are answered with one word or so. There are two types of questions in an objective test. Like oral and written English vocabulary is tested through objective tests.

Vocabulary tests :
Oral test:
In the oral test, the teacher assesses recording comprehension and expression.

Written test:
Objective type written test in English is designed to test the different linguistic abilities of the specimen of some questions are given below.

Comprehension type :
This type consists of a sentence or paragraph from which some words and phrases are omitted. The pupil is to fill in the blanks with suitable words or phrases. Correct use of prepositions and vocabulary can be tested with the type.

Fill in the blanks with the words from the box:
(Sighed, caught, heard, switched on, a packed up out, quietly)
Last night Mr Khanna ______ a noise. He _______ a torch from the table. lie _______ the light and saw the thief. The thief was taking Mr Khanna’s clothes
_______ and ________ hold of the man’s collar and _______ I’m going to call the police.

Multiple choice
This type consists of test items which are to be answered by choosing a correct answer from among several possible answers.
Example:
The following questions have four characters choose the appropriate one and rewrite the sentences.

Question 1.
They could scarcely believe their eyes when they saw the violets. Here word scarcely means
(a) reading
(b) not at all
(c) hardly
(d) quickly

Question 2.
It was the man who the killing
(a) has done
(b) is doing
(c) does
(d) did

Question 3.
Delicious food was served at the feast Here the best meaning of the word, delicious is
(a) sweet
(b) fragrant
(c) testy
(d) dainty

Question 4.
The little girl asked what to here ice-cream
(a) happen
(b) has happened
(c) it happened
(d) had happened

Composition Test :
The test consists of sentences to be completed with the use of the correct form of the verb indicated within the brackets. This can be reliably used to test the knowledge of the sequence of tense and other abilities.

• Mohan (seem) tired today.
• You (remember) the name of the boy who (walk) on the other side of the road.
• You (look) very thoughtful. What do you (think) about
• You (see) this box? It (contain) watches.
• He will met me when I ____ (write)

Substitution Table :
In this test parts of sentences are put in different columns of a box and the pupils are asked to make sentences by joining these parts

The test can be reliably used to assess the pupil’s ability to use sentences correctly.

Matching Test:
Match words of the column – A with the words in the column – B with its,
appropriateness.

Joining the sentences :
Example: Join the sentences into one using the words in brackets. It was time for dinner, they went on talking up to time (will)

Question 9.
Discuss the instructional aids with their use in teaching general science?
Answer:
The aids are necessary for successful teaching. Science apparently provides sensuous experiences to the students known as visual aids. The instructional materials used for successful teaching are as follows.

Magic lantern:
It is a good device presenting sides useful for projecting pictures and cinema films.

Epidiascope:
It is more costly than a magic lantern through epidiascope, it is possible to project pictures in much brightness, and by diminishing light, it is also possible to project pictures and sides etc.

Cinema:
It is a very important aid for education. The aid is not available everywhere. We can make arrangements for the techniques through cinema projectors. Projectors are helpful in representing films which are shown in the techniques of cinema. This is again a technical teaching aid.

Graphs:
It is also helpful in the teaching of science. These graphs show the temperature, the pressure of the air, rainfall etc.

Maps:
Maps are also helpful in science teaching. Through these maps, it is possible to explain to the location of things of scientific importance.

Diagram:
Diagrams are very helpful in giving the correct ideas about scientific instruments and objects to students. These diagrams may be of scientific apparatus.

Television:
In the present day, world television has become an important mass media in education and also indoor cheap and best entertainment. Through TV talks and films, important scientific topics are seen and discussed.

Graphic:
This is an instrument through which recorded programmes are displayed before the students. It is not a possibility to get an important doctor or a scientist always to lecture with the class but his voice can be heard through experience.

Radio and Broad Cast task:
Radio is an important medium of education as well as a device of entertainment helpful in science programmes.

Question 10.
Discuss the use of Aids in teaching the mother tongue?
Answer:
In present-day primary schools to make teaching effective a number of teaching aids and illustrative materials are used. The trained and skilled teachers handle the aids and illustrative aids with great care. To make influential teaching uses the aids while imparting teaching aids, teaching materials are broadly classified into three parts. They are as follows :

• Audio Aids
• Visual Aids
• Audio-visual aids

Audio aids:
Which aids we can hear and learn, as known as audio-visual aids. Audio aids include a tape recorder, radio, and gramophone. Tape recorders and gramophone help in teaching language and literature. Through such instruments, talks lecture songs, speeches, discussion seminars etc. are recorded and used in the classrooms when required. This develops the skill aspect of the children.

Radio:
In modem times Radio is also used as an aid for teaching. Through Radio, programmes on different study items of school subjects are prepared and propagated. The role of Vidyalaya programmes stands important. The subject matter being discussed was dramatically understood by the children. The children can easily comprehend the subject matter.

Visual aids:
Those aids on teaching materials being seen the children get experience is known as visual aids. It is educative. Example of such visual aids is Blackboard, picture, drawing sheets, picture, films etc.

Blackboard:
In every classroom, there is a blackboard. The teacher uses the blackboard. Frequently with chalks, he exposes difficult words. Pronunciation of words, model sentences and solutions to mathematical problems. Without the blackboard, teaching cannot be effective.

Projector:
In small pieces of glass written and drawn things are reflected through the projector light. A good teacher presents the teaching points before the students. Through the projectors, small picture drawings are seen in big sizes and visible to all. It is expensive but still used in schools for a clear understanding of children.

Picture:
To give direct experience to the children the teacher prepares drawing, and pictures of historical characters, and things either handmade or collected from the market are shown to the children. It draws their attention towards learning,

Film strip:
In film strips just like a projector, the picture is drawn on the glass pieces exhibited before the student’s small pictures and drawings are seen in large sizes. It also affects the teaching-learning process a lot

Audio-visual aids :
The aids by which we can hear and see are known as Audio visual aids. This type of aid has become very popular among people students. Every primary school is supplied with a TV set to benefit the children to see different school programmes. Vidyalaya programmes like ideal teachings of different school subjects. Such programmes is having a definitely fixed table, as a result, the students are more benefited.

Utility of Audiovisual aids:
In teaching the pupils actively participate In helping in the development of the power of understanding. In the classroom sweet sound peaceful environment is set up. Learning experience develops permanently. It motivates children towards learning. It keeps teaching lively and interesting With the help of AV aids the teacher is able to present the new subject matter quickly.

Question 11.
Discuss the aids and instructional materials used in teaching history?
Answer:
While teaching History a teacher in History uses a number of aids and instructional aids and materials for the success of teaching. A number of aids are discussed below.

Models:
Models are the substitute for a thing such as a temple, mosques, forts, persons etc.
for example, Taj Mahal, while teaching Tajmahal a teacher uses a small mode! of Tajmahal which gives a clearcut Understanding of the Tajmahalat Agra

Pictures:
While teaching history the teacher uses the. pictures of historical characters. It may be the historical place, fort temple, kings, queens rivers, oceans, etc. the movement pictures of persons are seen to the students as they can easily memorise it. Likewise, stories and samples of different metals and dolls are, used in the classroom.

Radio:
For entertainment, radio has used the news of distant lands, talks, discussions, criticisms and cultural programmes are also high-lighted through radio. The historical facts, speeches and discussions are also learnt from radio. So radio is used as an aid in teaching history.

TV:
Television is also used as an audio-visual aid. It is. one of the aids used by the history teacher. It makes it easy to understand historical facts in school programmes.

Dramatisation:
If historical facts dramas are arranged by the students they will learn better suppose, the Haladighat war, and Kalinga war the discussion of historical characters gives lively knowledge to the students.

Excursions:
Sometimes the students go on an excursion along with the history teachers to places of historical importance when they will get a clear picture of it.

Films:
Historical films are now prepared. lt makes historical facts clear and understanding lively. Through films, the historical facts, are clearly understood by the students.

Timeline:
Timeline and history teaching is interrelated. To provide knowledge of the concept the time of incidents of historical facts timeline is used. It also gives the knowledge of BC and AD in which period the facts occurred. They can easily memorize it.

Question 12.
Discuss the use of teaching Aids in teaching English?
Answer:
In teaching English in the upper primary and secondary stages the teachers use so many aids to make the teaching effective and successful. The important aids in teaching English as follows:

Auditory aids:
These aids need the sense of learning and the aids are radio gramophones and tape recorders.

Visual aids:
In sense aids of sight are used. The items filling for them are class chalkboard, charts,-sketches, models, graphs, diagrams, bulletin board and flannel graph, motion picture, and film slides.

Audiovisual aids:
These aids need require the senses of hearing as well as sight. These are included in their films, television and video etc.

Activity Aids:
In these aids activity is the main function these are museum, excursion, nature study, garden, field trip, visits etc.

Graphic aids:
Photographs, and pictures flashcards, posters, charts, diagrams, graph maps etc.

Display boards:
Blackboard, planned board, bulletin board, magnetic etc.

Three-dimensional Aids:
Models, objects, specimens, puppets etc.

Projected Aids, Films, Film strips and slides:
In the modem times, radio and television are used as programmes for school subjects. The students can get a clear knowledge of the subjects studied. In English teaching field trips, excursions, fours and travelling develop the knowledge of concepts. Demonstration helps in speech development.

While teaching English the teacher uses pictures, models, graphs, charts etc. the develop their knowledge in language learning. Debates, seminars and discussions are necessary to develop language and pronunciation. So in English teaching, aids are essential to leam & a foreign language.

Question 13.
Give the main apparatus and tools used for teaching geography?
Answer:
To make the teaching of Geography effective, lively, interesting, and understandable instructional materials as well as aids, audio-visual aids are used by skilled teachers With the use of such aids the students take a keen interest in learning geography. It becomes memorable to them and remains in their memory. Such aids are used in teaching the different fields of geography. The aids used in teaching geography are as follows

A number of blackboards:
A number, of blackboards, are used for drawing outlines, sketcher pictures and graphs and developing blackboard summaries.

Study materials:
The study materials include to “government prescribed textbooks, coloured magazines globes etc. These study materials help in the study of geography.

Written materials:
Written aids like graphs, maps, etc. help in the teaching of geography,”stick aids are helpful in providing the knowledge of earth, the natural things of the world the global view.

Wall pictures:
Sharing the life of the people of different1 regions should be preferable kept hanging and be changed according to the heeds of the class. Sets of pictures showing. vegetation and cultivated products.

Visual aids:
Visual aids include globe, samples, model, pictures; maps, graphs, photographs, slide etc; helps in teaching geography. The teacher remains careful in handling these materials. The child has seen this and gets geographical knowledge and a concept of the earth.

Audio-aids:
In teaching, geography teacher uses audio aids such as radio, gramophone, jape recorder, discussion, speeches, lecturers, conversations etc. the geography special teaching are given by experts in geography through radio programmes.

Audio-visual aids:
The teacher “of geography while teaching in the class uses certain audiovisual aids for effective teaching; The concept becomes clear. Model teachings by experts are also provided to the students. The audio-visual aids that function in this respect are like TV, Films, documentary films etc. The child gets the chance to hear and to see and gets practical knowledge about the subject of geography.

Activity Aids:
The activity aids and materials that help in the study of geography includes study pictures, travelling, excursions, study tour, and visiting zoo & exhibitions, the collected and presented materials help the child to develop knowledge of geography. Thermometers, barometers, crashes etc. also provide knowledge of geography. These aids are very much essential for practical knowledge of Geography.

Projected aids:
The projected aids chart assists, the teacher to impart teaching to geography including magic lantern pictures* films, slides etc. these aids attract children towards study.

Display Aids:
The display aids include cloth, blackboard, newspaper, panel board etc. the newspapers pictures and paper cut news gives fresh news of the geography of the world.

Models:
the role of the model is important in teaching geography. The teaching shows the models of the snow house Eskimos, large van, Paradip port and each other interesting things like Konark temple, Jagannath temple etc. for clearcut knowledge.

Chart:
In the charts, the comparative data given is prepared through geometrical or arithmetical knowledge. For example, in the chart, a comparison of the length of different rivers, and oceans is given and there is a comparison chart, a chart of Odisha state. The children derive direct experiences of comparison.

Maps:
Different maps like physical, relief maps, are helpful to the teacher to teach the places of the world the geographical situations, the forests, hills, mountains mines, and rivers oceans etc. The physical knowledge of the world and the situation of the states. Continents, subcontinents are known from maps.

Globe:
Globe is a mini form of the earth. The students in this aid can derive ‘the knowledge of the geographical places, the population habitation. It also gives the knowledge of the North pole, Southpole, different places of the world etc. if develops a geographical outlook.

Question 14.
What are the general principles of teaching? Explain?
Answer:
There are some general principles which need to be followed by a teacher for successful teaching in the classroom. They are as follows:
Principles of motivation :
Motivation is the driving force behind all kinds of purposeful activities and most learning is the outcome of motivation. The learner has to be motivated to learn and to react to the stimulus whether it is an object or situation or information self-motivation is the best motivation. It is the duty of the teacher to arouse interest in the teacher before any teaching is done.

There are some natural angles in the child and sometimes the interest is also created or required. The teacher has to utilize natural urges as well as acquired interests for teaching different topics. Curiosity is another strong urge for motivation. If a child is curious to know how people in different parts of the world live it is natural on his part to read the relevant books and journals, listen to suitable radio programmes or view TV. Programmes, programmes dealing with the people of different lands.

Principle of Activity :
Learning by doing is the basic principle enunciated by Froebel who successfully implemented c. it in the kindergarten system. It is found that learning becomes more effective if the child is physically and mentally made active in the teaching-learning process. The head with the hand should work together for making learning easier and more interesting.

For example, for effective teaching about Odisha to different children, we can ask them to draw a map of the state, dramatic scenes from Odisha history and so on. All these activities must create interest as well as curiosity among children and enrich learning experiences about Odisha. Similarly, in science teaching the principle of learning by doing is very well applied and students are required to observe.

the garden, make experiments in the laboratories and the activity methods are followed by teachers not only at the primary stage but also at the higher stages of education. The project method, the problem-solving method, the Heuristic method and so on are all based on activities in and outside the classroom. Students’ participation and involvement in the teaching-learning process make their education.

more relevant and meaningful. The principles of learning by doing is not only adopted in teaching various curricular subjects but also applied in organizing co-curricular activities, the programmes like sports and games, debates and discussions drama and music fieldwork and excursion etc. emphasize such activities.

Principle Relating to life :
All educationists and psychologists insist that teaching should always be related to life and its problem. While teaching children of pre-primary and primary schools their environment home, village, community-related to learning experiences. Education has been accepted as a preparation for life, teaching should be related to life and students be prepared to face the challenge of life with success.

The educational institution should satisfy individual and social needs teaching is linked to life and the issues to be effective and useful. The education commission 1964-66 also emphasized that our education has to be related to the life needs and aspirations of the people.

Question 15.
Explain the maxims of methods of teaching?
Answer:
Various methods of teaching have been developed by educationists around the world b. through the ages for teaching students effectively.
But there are certain basic principles of teaching which are called the maxims of methodology and from the basis of the method of teaching. Adequate “knowledge of these maxims is essential for a teacher quality to perform his teaching activity with proficiency; They are as follows:

From the known to the unknown :
The most common way of teaching a lesson is to proceed from known to unknown. The pupils are taught end reminded about which they are already familiar and acquainted with them the facts and figures, which are not c. known but useful to them. They move from the familiar, concepts to the unknown and unfamiliar.

For example, to teach about warm deserts, we can draw a picture of the hot summer, with which they are acquainted. For teaching about freedom struggle, we can start with the Independence Day or Republic day celebration. Secondly, for teaching a lesson on profit and loss,- children may be reminded about their experiences in buying.

a certain thing and the Sale of goods in the local shops Thirdly in the teaching of new and difficult words in a language, the already known and familiar words with similar meanings can be recapitulated and made of it. Thus we proceed from known to unknown and from knowledge to experience.

From the simple to complex :
The topics to be taught are arranged according to the degree of complexity. In teaching a topic we divide various aspects or units of the topic according to the degree of simplicity so the teaching can be easier from the point of view of learning. The concepts which are simple to one may be complex to another so the experience of pupils is given importance while planning the teaching of a lesson. Topics are thus arranged according to the principle of proceeding from the simple to the complex.

From the concrete to the Abstract :
The abstract or vagueness of a topic poses a problem in understanding. Children find difficulty in understanding an abstract object or concept due to vagueness or lack of preciseness. For example, if we ask a pre-scholar to make a total of 2 and 3, he may find it different but if weask him to count 2 sticks after country 3 ones, then it may not be a problem.

Thus, manipulation with concrete things is easier than with abstract ones for children. In teaching a Geographical topic like Australia, the land and people, adequate use of maps, charts, models, and illustrations will be useful. Rather the use of radio and video programmes in Australia can make teaching more effective and interesting by going lively ideas and . experiences to the learner.

From the Indefinite to definite :
In the child’s mind, all concepts are indistinct, and unclear the interest and attitudes of children are also indefinite. But teaching aims at making all these ideas distinct and precise. In Indian schools, we emphasize blind memorization without understanding the meaning and implications which does not help in clarifying the concepts and removing the vagueness. We should give more emphasis on teaching concepts clearly and definitely. Teaching with the use of audio-visual aids should help on making the ideas distinct.

From the particular to the general :
Some students can easily comprehend particular of specific objects and ideas teaching should be started from the particular knowledge and proceed to give general knowledge which are comparatively vague and abstract in nature. The observing the specific objects, generalizations are drawn. In teaching various topics in arithmetic, sciences, geography and the like, this principle can be effectively applied in inducting method of teaching.

Induction followed by Deduction :
Induction is found more useful for teaching different subjects. In this method, teaching starts with particular examples then the conclusion is drawn. We accept a general principle or formula as valid which is then applied to individual or specific cases.1 This method is not proven sound and scientific for children’s learning. Both inductive and deductive methods have their advantage and can be used in teaching Suitable subjects.

For example, in teaching a new formula or a new theory the Inductive method can be used effectively. After teaching the formula of theory in the method it is easier to use the deductive method for teaching most of the exercises in arithmetic algebra and geometry and other subjects. So inductive teaching is always followed by deductive teaching.

Psychological vs logical :
The successful teacher teaches everything according to the psychological needs and conditions of pupils. But in the text-books topics are arranged logically. It is the duty of the teacher to arrange them Psychologically in the scheme of lessons as he is aware of the behaviours, needs, and interests of the students. Even in teaching a lesson a group’s teaching is to be done to their psychological needs and conditions. The remapping power is understood from the logical presentation. The teacher should apply the general principles and maxims in a psychological manner more effectively.

Question 16.
Discuss the relationship between teaching and learning. Discuss the factors affecting the teaching-learning process?
Answer:
Prior the 20th century, teaching is considered a rigid, formal and stereotyped process of transmitting knowledge, facts and figures. Education was taken as a Bipolar process in which teachers are giving and pupils are receiving end. Teachers are the source of knowledge and schools are knowledge shops. Methods of teaching are logical and routine without the psychological needs and conditions of learners, their interests, curiosity, freedom and flexibility emphasis was laid on rigid discipline blind memorization and hard reinforcement.

Verbalism was enforced and no audio-visual aids or materials were utilized in the field of education. The learner is considered an empty vessel to be filled up with knowledge and information, facts and figures. But in the 20th century, the child is considered a tender plant and a teacher as a gardener. The child is taught according to his abilities, attitude interests and aptitude.

He is helped to learn to teach nourish, and cultivate the growing child and guide his growth. Children are motivated to search experiments, gathering facts and information. Various media and materials are used for making learning more interesting and effective. Now, learning has assumed more importance than teaching.

There has been a change in the learning process. New theories of learning highlight the principles of contiguity and the importance of the environment etc. Multimedia systems and educational technology.  Now, stress is given in the principle of learning, than traditional teaching. There are three types of effectiveness in teaching such as pre-stage effectiveness, process effectiveness and product effectiveness.

The quality of learning depends on the quality of teaching. The end result of the teaching process determines the product’s effectiveness. The important teaching results in the outcome of learning. It is evaluated through achievement tests, and personality tests administrated to students. The input of teaching is results in the outcome of learning.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part 1.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Define the meaning and definition of thinking.
Answer:
Thinking is a very often used psychological term in our daily life. The importance of thinking is evident not only for the wide use of the term but also because thinking helps in the solution of all our day-to-day problems. Thinking is the most complex of all psychological processes and it is thinking that normally differentiates man from lower animals.

The reasoning is different from mere thinking of something, as it involves a sequence of symbolic activities. Reasoning also differs from the free association of ideas as in reasoning recall and the sequence of associations is more or less controlled. Thinking helps in solving a problem, and in fulfilling a need or motivation.

Ruch (1970) observed that thinking is always directed toward preparation for action towards producing new meanings, towards producing beliefs, and towards attending enjoyment. The graphic and verbal symbols are mentally manipulated in order to solve a problem, plan a building a decorate a drawing room. Thinking is, therefore, called ‘mental trial and error’.

The motor activities are minimum in thinking. Thinking is also called a symbolic process. Earlier we have discussed how thinking has been described in different ways by different psychologists on the basis of its characteristics such as thinking as a mental exploration, symbolic process, cognitive activity, problem-solving, behavior, mental or implicit trial and error, subvocal talking, and so on.

However, Warren has attempted to give a more comprehensive definition of thinking which embraces most of its characteristics. According to him “thinking is an activity concerning in cell. It is symbolic in character initiated by a problem or task which the individual is facing involving some trial and error but under the directing influence of that problem and ultimately leading to a conclusion or solution of the problem.”

Thinking is possible without immediate stimulus, with the help of ideas. An idea or an image stands as a substitute for an object in its absence. This is called a symbol. A symbol is said to be anything that stands for something else. All thinking deals with substitutes for things. That is why thinking is called a symbolic behavior. Hence, symbolic representation, and manipulation are the most important characteristics of thinking.

Question 2.
Define the pre-operational period.
Answer:
The preoperational period extends from two to seven years. The first part of this stage is also known as the pre-conceptual period. It is characterized by the use of language and symbolic function. These two are built upon the systematic use of representation which begins in the last stage of sensory-motor operation.

Pre-conceptual refers to the beginning of symbolization in thinking. It is the period prior to the use of symbols in thinking or the preparatory stage for the same. Actually, the pre-operational stage extends from the end of the sixth stage of the sensory-motor period i.e., about 18 months to -1 year of age to 6 or 7 years.

The pre-operational period is sub-divided into

• Pre conceptual period roughly lasts for 2-4 years and
• Intuitive 4-7 years.

By the time the child reaches the pre-conceptual period he has mastered some language, constructs symbols, and is engaged in make-believe play like preparing food for mama in small covers of tins and bottles getting their dollars married, giving injections to their dollars, etc. It is the period when the child develops his symbolic function, imagery, and genuine representation.

He starts differentiating between words and images and perceptually absent events. The connection between these two is made by images that intervene in the development of imitation, play, and cognitive representation. Piaget thus states “Towards one half to two years, the symbolic function appears, language, symbolic play (the beginning of fictional invention) deferred imitation i.e., occurring sometime after the original event and that kind of internalized imitation which give rise to mental imagery occurs.

However the child cannot immediately construct such an operation, several years of preparation and organization are still required. In fact, it is much more difficult to reproduce and act correctly in thought than to carry it out on the behavioral level. The child of 2 years, for example, is able to coordinate his movements from place to place (when he walks about the room or in the garden) in a group, as well as his movements when he turns objects around.

But a lengthy period of time will elapse before he will be able to represent them precisely in thought in reproducing, for example, from memory with the help of objects, a plan of the room or garden, or in inverting the positions of objects in thought by turning the pan around.” Another important characteristic of the pre-operational stage is showing a response to a new stimulus considering it as if a previously known stimulus.

For instance, a two-year-old child may use a stick as a candle and try to light it putting it on the candle stand, or taking several matchboxes he may try to construct a two-story building. It is commonly seen that children consider their toys or dolls as brothers, sisters, and playmates and talk with the term, feed them, make them sleep on their laps sing a lorry, etc.

HoweverAnurag the two-year-old grandson of this author while playing with dolls “Anu and Sweta clearly express that they are not real Anu and Sweta. He says, “real Sweta is at Bangalore and real Anime. “These two are false ones.” However, pre-conceptual thinking at this stage is not of a high order compared to older children and adults. The child during the pre-operational stage only possesses preconceptions.

Question 3.
Define the sensory-motor period.
Answer:
Sensory-Motor Period:
The sensory-motor period is the period that starts before the language development of the child. Piaget distinguished between two major stages in cognitive development i.e., sensory-motor intelligence (0-2 years) and conceptual intelligence (0-to Maturity). During the sensory-motor period, the child’s adaptations and activities do not involve extensive use of symbols or language.

For example, the ability of a 9-month-old baby to search for a missing toy under the bed or to move a blanket towards him to get the toy that is kept on the other end of the blanket is an act of intelligence that does not require any language. In this manner through various sensory-motor acts, the baby solves and adapts to various demands of life.

These acts are considered pre-verbal. The sensory-motor period extends approximately from birth to -2 years of age approximately. It is divided into six phases. Through these six stages, a gradually complex pattern of intellectual behavior develops. The first four stages of the sensory-motor period are generally achieved during the first year.

Reflex – (0 – 1 month):
During this stage, innate and simple reflexes like sucking movements become more prominently seen, for the first month the infant only exercises the reflexes present at birth. This is the only mental organization at this age according to Piaget. Besides sucking (reflex) the nipple put inside the infant’s mouth, other reflexes are crying, grasping, movement of arms, trunks, and head, etc.

All stimuli the infant faces in the environment are reacted through these reflex activities present at birth. These unlearned inborn reflexes constitute the major adaptive behavior of the infant.

Primary Circular Reaction (1-4 months):
This stage extends roughly from the age of one month to 0-4 months after birth. During this period simple activities are characterized by repeated acts. The same activity or reaction like sucking, fingering the bed sheet, and opening and closing of the fists are done repeatedly. These activities the child does without any purpose or intention.

He also appears not to be interested in the effect that his behavior has on the environment around him. His activities lack purpose and he makes simple coordinated movements. Particularly thumb sucking becomes habitual. Thus the primary circular reaction stage involves the coordination of responses and reflexes. There is eye-hand coordination. When he hears something he looks in that direction which is called orienting reflex. He grasps objects and sucks them.

Secondary Circular Reaction (4 to 8 months):
This is the third stage of the sensory-motor period, which extends from four to eight months approximately. In contrast to the second stage in this phase, the child is able to anticipate the consequences of his actions. After about four months of postnatal age, the infant starts making purposeful movements and intentionally repeats responses to achieve some end.

For instance, grasping activities are extended to pulling and shaking, etc. He may kick his legs at a toy to make astringing movements hanging in front of him. The child repeats responses to get some meaningful and interesting results. Most of the movements of the hand-eye and mouth are coordinated. His interest and attention are now shifted to objects outside his body.

Intentionality is the main characteristic of this stage which differentiates it from the second stage of the sensory-motor period. He repeats various activities to produce changes in his environment. He looks for toys and Other objects in which he is interested in places where he has seen them being kept earlier.

For instance, if he is interested in a pen kept on the small table, he may try to reach for it there. In the second stage, the act was repeated for its own sake without any intent or purpose while here the aim is to produce an interesting stimulus effect. Piaget names this act as reproductive assimilation meaning the child tries to reproduce events with an intention.

Now he is more interested in the objective world around him of which he was not aware in the earlier stages. These are all signs of intellectual development. Actions of this stage are called secondary as they are an amalgamation of images previously developed. Reactions are called circular because they are repetitive and self-reinforcing (Philips -1969).

Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (7-10 months):
In this stage, there is further development in the child’s mental activity. He starts solving simple problems and shows capability for the same. He uses already-learned responses to achieve a goal. A cigarette packet kept in daddy’s shirt’s front pocket earlier was hidden behind a pillow. Now when he does not sec it in daddy’s, he will try to search for it behind the pillow.

Here he uses his earlier learning of moving the pillow to get an object. The child understands that means are separate from ends and also forms a means-end relationship which is a sign of developed intellectual behavior, in this stage, he uses his learned response as a means to attain the desired goal (getting the toy) and not as an end in itself.

In this stage, he will with all seriousness do the job to achieve something in mind. He will try to overcome all obstacles to get the desired object. Thus his behavior shows greater intentionality. he shows the ability to anticipate. New objects are incorporated into the already existing schemata of the child. He shows lots of interest in different objects and play materials, and examines those in which he is interested.

He learns the shape, and size of the objects thus acquiring constancy of the shape and size of objects. He leams that an object exists in space even if it cannot be seen directly. This is a very important sign of improvement in the cognitive ability of the baby. This type of reaction indicates the rudiments of reasoning and anticipatory behavior.

Tertiary Circular Reactions (11-18 months):
This stage is characterized by active trial and error, experimentation like exploration, variation, and change of behavior. By the age of one year, the child seems to be really interested in new things and demonstrates a great deal of curiosity which indicate his operations at a higher level. He starts forming new schemata to solve new problems.

He will not play with the same toys again and again. In the earlier stages, he was repeatedly playing with the same toys. Now he wants new toys every day to play with and explore. He breaks toys to see what is inside. He would try to open toy cars, telephones, piano, etc, and then again would try to put them in order.

The child tries to experiment through trial and error methods to develop new means of reaching the end. Develops curiosity about different objects around him, and tries to know about them by asking questions like “what is this”, in the case of every object. He tries to solve various simple problems like opening a small pencil box, opening.

Question 4.
What is the period of institutional thought and concrete operative stage?
Answer:
Period of Intuitive Thought:
This stage lasts for 4 to 7 or 8 years, concepts develop more at his stage. He elaborates his concepts, thoughts, images and more complex representations are constructed. Now he is capable of grouping objects together into classes as per his own perception of similarity. Now he gathers some ideas about class membership and objects included in that particular class.

The child uses quantifiers such as some, all, more little, less, etc when Anurag who is now 26 months old eats a mixture, we put them one by one in his mouth, but he wants to eat more, says give me more or when a full spoon of rice is put inside his mouth, he says “give me less otherwise it will be stuck in my throat and I will have vomiting.”

Here he draws logical conclusions like if you give me more, it will stick inside my throat and I will vomit “If you go away I will cry”. However, in most children, this ability to draw logical conclusions at this stage is very very limited. His understanding is still comprehended objects or situations, from one angle only as discussed earlier.

A child of two years of age very well knows the existence of an object even if it is hidden from him. Even if the moon is not found in the sky in the daytime or during certain periods of the month, he knows that the moon stays in the sky because he asks his mama or grandma to show him the moon in the sky.

Irreversibility is the most important characteristic of the pre-operational stage according to Piaget. Reversibility refers to the ability of the child to main fair equivalence to perceive the object in a stereo-typed manner in spite of the change in the perceptual field. If papa is taller than Mama, then mama is shorter than Papa, and he is unable to accept, understand or conceive.

Thus during the age of 4 to 7 years, he does not develop the concept of invariance. Gradually his language develops and his thought processes become less entered. Conservation refers to the conceptualization that the quantity remains the same in spite of any change in the shape or position of the object.

Conservation of number appears around the age of 6-7 years. The conservation ability of the child can be increased through instruction and using various reinforcement techniques. But Piaget said that conservation comes mainly through experience, manipulation, and exposure, not by teaching the child how to conserve.

No difference is observed in the conservation ability of children of the same age who go to school and who remain at home. This happens for all cultures in the world. Further pre operational children are qualitatively different from sensory-motor children in thought.

Language helps tremendously in mental development at this stage. Piaget is of opinion that language serves three major purposes in mental development.

• It helps in the socialization process.
• The child thinks by using words and signs.
• Action is more internalized and symbolized rather than perceptual motor because of language development. Language facilitates logical thought.

Between the age of 2 to 4 years, the child’s speech is mostly egocentric. He speaks to himself even when no one is present. In all his talk he says “It is mine I have done this, where is my toy, my mama, my papa, my pencil, my rocket, etc? He is not concerned about others. His speech does not mention others. But between 4 to 7 years of age language becomes more communicative.

He talks with others and exchanges ideas. Instead of ‘I’, I mine more and more your, you, he, she, mama, papa, etc. are used in language and speech. Thus their speech becomes more and more socialized between the age of 4-7 years. Socialization starts speedily after language is developed. Through language, the child begins better communication with family members peers, and outsiders.

He is now able to express his thought and images through language. Bernstein’s observations on class differences in children’s language ability indicate that lower-class children perform relatively more poorly than their middle-class counterparts on tasks involving cognitive functioning i.e., thinkings, reasoning, conceptualization, and on standard intelligent tests which depend upon language skills.

This gap between the middle and lower classes becomes more significant with an increase in age. Culture has also a pronounced effect on intellectual development. Culturally deprived and disadvantaged environments produce and maintain progressive retardation in the area of intelligence, cognitive development, and school achievement.

Hers and Shipman (1965) conducted some very important research in America the results of which confirmed Bernstein’s findings. But certain studies show that with concentrated individual training, the effects of early deprivation can be overcome and market gain can be observed in intellectual functioning. (Blank and Soloman, 1968).

Concrete Operation Stage:
The concrete operation stage starts from 7 years and continues up to 11-12 years. Real symbolic activity emerges during this period. Improvement in language ability helps in mediation, concept formation, abstraction, and problem-solving, children at this age instruct and direct themselves through silent talking and covert speech.

During the concrete operation stage when the child reaches 7 years of age, he begins to relate different aspects of a situation to one another and at last arrives at a “notion of conservation”. Piaget calls this principle of invariance. Suppose the child is making different shapes of animals from a particular amount of clay which remains constant, say an elephant or a dog or a horse.

The child now understands that whatever may be the figure or shape the amount of clay remains constant, the figure may vary, but the clay is the same. He could not have had this idea in the earlier period. A five-year-old child believes that.

Question 5.
What is creative thinking and describe the stage and characteristics of creative thinking?
Answer:
Creative Thinking:
Creative thinking refers to the ability to explore the situation in a novel way to contribute something new to society and mankind. It becomes explosive in the performance of a person. A creative person tries to achieve something new, to produce something original, something unique.

Creative thinkers are great boons to society. Creative thinking is a must for the progress and prosperity of any country. The advancement of science and technology in any country is the outcome of creative thinking. On the whole, creativity is a characteristic of thought and of problem-solving, generally considered to include originality, novelty, and appropriateness.

It is the process of developing original level and yet appropriate responses to a problem. However, unless an original and novel solution is appropriate, it can not be termed creative. An appropriate response is one that is deemed reasonable in terms of the situation.

Stages in Creativity:
Morris Stein (1974) has defined creativity as a process involving three stages:

• hypothesis formation
• hypothesis testing and
• communication of results.

In hypothesis formation, people try to formulate a new response to the problem. However, finding a new response to a problem is not an easy affair. Individuals have to confront situations and try to think in non-stereotyped ways. They have to explore paths that have not been explored before and think in new ways. Creative persons sometimes experience a sudden brilliant illumination.

The creative person may be a scientist, an artist, or an artisan. But new ideas (or hypotheses) have to be tested against reality. At this stage, applying the criterion of appropriateness is crucial. If the result is novel, original, and appropriate, the individual can move towards the third stage i.e., communication of results. Communicating the idea is sometimes straightforward.

Very often, the process requires extensive explanation. Characteristics vary with creative people. Understanding the thought processes of creative individuals may allow psychologists to help others to become creative. Further, identifying the characteristics of creative individuals may allow psychologists and educators to spot these gifted persons early in life and facilitate the development of their creative abilities.

Research works of psychologists reveal that creative people are flexible in their approach to a problem. They do not use preconceived solutions. These people always desire a complex array of thoughts, ideas, and data (Dallas & Gaier, 1970). Moreover, creative people approach problem-solving in unique ways.

Guilford (1967) has defined creative thinking as a form of thought that is divergent. Guilford reveals that divergent thinking is the production of new information from known information or the generation of logical possibilities which serve as the basis of creativity. Emphatically he told that divergent thinking occurs in response to a problem that as yet is not defined.

The divergent mode of thinking is the essence of creative performance. From different studies, it was found that there is no significant difference between normal and creative people so far as brain-wave patterns are concerned. There is no firm evidence that creative people are either more or less intelligent than other people.

The data relating to IQ scores and creativity are inconclusive. Some studies have found a distinction between creativity and intelligence test scores others have shown a positive correlation. Creative people tend to be independent non-conformists, experiencing great tension and strong opposite drives.

Henry Poincare, the great French Mathematician experienced the following stages of creative thinking. These stages have been obtained through questionnaires, interviews, and the introspection of creative thinkers. Though these stages of creative thinking vary from individual to individual and problem to problem, still there are some common stages of creative thinking.
These stages are:

• Preparation
• Incubation
• Inspiration or Illumination
• Evaluation
• Verification or Revision.

Preparation:
The first step of creative thinking is preparation. Education prepares an individual for creative work. The training that a doctor, an engineer, and a scientist gets through education, takes them in a new direction and opens new vistas for them. Moreover, formulation of a problem, collection of information, a survey of relevant work in the concerned field, preliminary knowledge of the subject, and trial and error method are all essential for creative thinking. According to Edison, preparation provides much inspiration for creative work. It is the foundation for creative thinking.

Incubation:
This is the second stage of creative thinking. In this stage, there is an almost complete absence of overt activity. Conscious thought about the problem is totally absent. This is said to be a period of no progress. But the thinker is not aware of the progress. Some experts opine that though the creative thinker does not think consciously about his creation, the problem is solved without his awareness. This is how many problems are solved while we are asleep. In this span of time, the ideas which were interfering with the solution to the problem tend to fade.

Inspiration or Illumination:
In a sudden flash, creative ideas come to mind after the period of incubation. If you were unable to solve a mathematical problem yesterday, now all of a sudden the solution comes to your mind abruptly. Very often, new ideas come in the dream, when the person is in the subconscious stage. For creative people, these sudden ideas are very crucial. The period of inspiration is often proceeded by a certain amount of trial and error. Some experts view that trial and error activity does not, anyway, supplement creative thinking. However, inspiration provides a specific direction toward the goal and it makes the person think in that direction.

Evaluation:
This is the fourth stage of thinking. Here the thinker tries to find out whether the solution which comes to his mind is correct or not. Very often, the apparent solution proves to be wrong. When the thinker feels that it is wrong, then he goes back to the first stage of creative thinking i.e., the preparatory stage.

Verification:
It is the individual finds that the solution is correct, then it is accepted. If it is proven wrong, then he thinks that it does not suit the assumption. As a result, he has to start again from the beginning. In certain cases, he may invite some modifications or revisions. Some observations indicate that ‘inspiration’ comes as the last stage of creative thinking instead of ‘verification’. But studies reveal that it becomes necessary to evaluate the process of creative thinking in most cases.

Characteristics of Creative Thinkers:
Generally, creative people are high in intellectual ability, but they are not necessarily in the highest brackets measured by these tests. Many creative people are talented in some special way – in music or in literature. In other words, they have certain specific abilities that they can use in their search for new ideas.

No doubt, many creative thoughts come as sudden insights. But such ‘ flashes’ are more likely after hard thinking about a problem. So in one way, diligence and strong motivation to work at solving problems are characteristics of creative thinkers. Further, creative thinkers have some personality features in common. Evidence from personality tests indicates that these people have the following traits:

• They prefer complexity.
• They are more complex psychodynamically and have greater personal scope.
• They are more independent in their judgments.
• They are more self-assertive and dominant.
• They reject suppression as a mechanism for the control of impulses. (Barron, 1963).

In 1975, Welsh revealed that a personality dimension “origins” is related to creativity. An individual high on this dimension resists conventional approaches which have been determined by others. Such a person is more interested in artistic, literary, and aesthetic matters.

Question 6.
Describe the stages of cognitive development by Piaget.
Answer:
Piaget is a development theorist who believes that cognitive development occurs gradually phase by phase.
Piaget has divided the entire period of cognitive development into four basic stages.

1. The sensory-motor period is 0-2 years approximately.
2. Preoperational period 2-7years approximately.
3. Concrete operational period 7-12 years approximately
4. The formal operational period is 12 years above approximately.

Sensory motor period:
The sensory-motor period is the period that starts before the language development of the child. Piaget distinguished between 2 major stages in cognitive development that is sensory-motor intelligence (0-2 years) and conceptual intelligence (0-10 maturity). During the sensory-motor period, the child’s adaptions and activities don’t involve extensive use of symbols or language.

It is divided into six phases:
Reflex (0-1) month:
During this stage, innate and simple reflexes of live sucking movements become more prominently seen.

Primary circulation reaction (1-4) months:
This stage extends roughly from the age of one month to 0-1 month after birth.

Secondary circular reaction (4 to 8 months):
This is the 3rd. stage of the sensory-motor period who extends from four to eight months approximately.

Coordination of secondary circular reactions (7-10 months):
In this stage, there is further development in the child’s mental activity.

Tertiary circular reactions (11-18 months):
This stage is characterized by active trial and error, experimentation like exploration, variation, and change of behavior.

Internal mental combination (18-24 months):
This is the final and most advanced stage.

Pre-operational period:
The preoperational period extends from two to seven years. The first part of this stage is also known as the pre-conceptual period. It is characterized by the use of language and symbolic function. These two are built upon the systematic use of representation which begins in the last stage of sensory-motor operation.

Pre-conceptual refers to the beginning of symbolization in thinking. It is the period of the use of symbols in thinking or the preparatory stage for the same. Actually, the pre-operational stage extends from the end of the sixth stage of the sensory-motor period which is about 18 months to 1 year of age to 6 or 7 years.

The pre-operational period is subdivided into

• The pre-conceptual period roughly lasts 2-4 years.
• Initiative 4-7 years.

By the time the child reaches the pre-conceptual period he has mastered some language that he uses in his thinking process as a symbolic unit.

Period of intuitive Thought:
This stage lasts for 4 to 7 or 8 years. Concepts develop more at this stage. He elaborates his concepts, thoughts images, and more complex representations are constructed. Now he is capable of grouping objects together into classes as per his own perception of similarity. Now he gathers some ideas about class membership and objects included in that particular class.

The chi Id uses quantifiers such as some, all, more little, less, etc. when Anurag who is now 26 months, old cats mixture we put one by one in his mouth, but he wants to eat more sayS, give me more or when a full spoon of rice is put inside his mouth, he says, “give me less. Otherwise, it will stuck in my throat and I will have to vomit.”

Concrete operation Stage:
The concrete operation stage starts from 7 years and continues up to 11-12 years. Real symbolic activity emerges during this period. Improvement in language ability helps in mediation, concept formation, abstraction, and problem-solving, children at this age instruct and direct them through silent talking and covert speech. During the concrete operation stage when the child reaches 7 years of age, he begins to relate different aspects of a situation to one another and at last arrives at a “notion of conservation” Piaget catches this principle in this stage.

Formal operation stage (11 years and above):
After the age of 11, the child is capable of abstract thinking and reasoning. In the concrete operations stage, he uses logic and reasoning in an elementary way, applying them in the manipulation of concrete objects.

Question 7:
Define thinking as a problem-solving behavior and its steps involved in problem-solving.
Answer:
The problem means any conflict or difference between one situation and the goal is a problem. T}ie thinking that we do in problem-solving is goal-directed. For solving problems, we use some rules. But two rules are important algorithms and heuristics. An algorithm is a set of rules which if followed correctly will guarantee a solution to a problem.

Thinking is initiated by a problem and ends with a solution. The individual while interacting with the environment needs to solve several problems and fulfill goals and motives. But the satisfaction of various needs and desires is not so easily done. Sometimes using a face barrier to the goal blocks the satisfaction of a motive.

There is no readymade or immediate means to cross the barrier and reach the goal. Thus, the individual is faced with a problem. The problem is how to cross the barrier. For the solution to this problem, the person has to take recourse to some psychological process which helps in removing the obstacle from the way to the goal. This very psychological process is called thinking or problem-solving behavior.

Steps involved in problem-solving
Problem:
To start thinking the basic requirement is the perception of a problem. The ‘ S ’ or the individual must be interested to solve the problem. He must understand the importance of the problem.

Formulation of a Hypothesis:
The ‘S’ must analyze and review the problem from various angles and standpoints. Certain assumptions are made regarding the final outcome. These assumptions are called hypotheses.

Preparation:
Preparation includes assembling the tools or materials required to solve the problem. New ideas crystalize at this stage.

Possible solutions:
In this stage, this subject is engaged in finding out the solution. A variety of solutions may come to his mind.

Evaluation:
This stage includes checking the hypothesis against the obtained solution.

Testing and Revision of the solution:
Tentative solutions are carefully tested before they are accepted for practical use. All these steps are blended and interwoven in most problem-solving behaviors.

Question 8.
Define strategies in problem-solving and describe the different factors in helping problem-solving.
Answer:
While trying to solve a problem, the person seeks a strategy or systematic mode of attacking the problem:
Problem-solving as Gap Filling:
Bart left on the basis of his research on the thinking process has concluded that all problem-solving appears to illustrate one or more of B kinds of gap-filling processes.

Structures in problem-solving:
Problem-solving has been regarded as essentially a process of thinking in Structure.

Problem-solving involves trial and error:
When a problem becomes quite difficult for the S to solve only by thinking, the S may be engaged in random. Trial and error, the case of Thorndike’s cat in the puzzle box serves as an example of physical trial and error.

Problem-solving and insight:
In many problem-solving experiments, it has been found the solution to the problem comes suddenly without any observable trial and error.

Problem-solving involves concepts:
By manipulating concepts, problems are solved easily. According to Crovitz, “practice with the method of manipulating, concepts increases the ability to solve problems easily.

Factors in helping problem-solving behavior:
Every person’s thinking takes place in his own unique, background and psychological setup like the attitude, belief, motive, past experience, and mental set of the thinker.

Motivation:
Like learning motivation is one of the most important factors which make problem-solving easy by giving it direction. It directs behavior toward the goal. Tinking is always motivated by some problems.

Past Experience:
The positive transfer effect facilitates problem-solving a great deal. Acquisitions of the past in similar situations are generalized in the present situation. This makes it easier to solve the problem.

Personal Context:
Milton (1959) conducted a study to compare the responses of men and women to problems appropriate to masculine and feminine roles. Results show the influence of an individual’s personal context on his problem-solving behavior.

Mental Set:
The importance of a set as a preparatory adjustment for performing a task has been shown in diverse fields of different psychological experiments. Set because of its facilitatory or inhibitory effect has occupied an outstanding position in the psychology of thinking.

Question 9.
Define psychological or personal motive.
Answer:
Curiosity:
Curiosity is a psychological motive. It is a motivational tendency to act which does not have specific and indefinable goals. Behind any act of exploration, investigation, and research, there is a desire to know any curiosity. Research findings of Dember (1956) and Fowler (1958) revealed that rats preferred novelty, change, and complexity in Y and T mazes. It is not an exclusively human trait.

Animal experiments proved that curiosity behavior is also found in many animals (Buttler, 1954). Curiosity motives for sensory stimulation are also conducive to the motive for exploration. Evidence indicated that the curiosity motive can be unlearned. The need for changing sensory stimulation is closely related to curiosity. It is the basic motive. Exploration and curiosity are just two expressions of it. Very often, we are motivated to master challenges in the environment. This is called “Competence Motivation”.

Achievement Motivation:
The need for achievement causes individuals to strive for bigger and better accomplishments. It is a personal need that directs a person to strive constantly for excellence and success. It is a personality variable that appears to differ from one individual to another. Some people are highly achievement-oriented and competence-oriented and others are not so.

Need for Achievement:
It is a personal need that directs a person to strive constantly for excellence and success. This motive has been subjected to intensive study by a group of Harvard psychologists like David Me Cleveland and John Atkinson. They used projective tests to asses achievement motivation. Many studies have been done to find out the relationship between achievement motivation and performance.

Generally, people with a need for achievement seek to accomplish things and improve performance. The results of these studies revealed that people who are high in achievement motivation generally do better on tasks than those who are low. Further studies also revealed that people high in need for achievement are motivated to succeed.

Research works also indicated that the need for achievement is increased by independence, training, and self-dependent attitudes. Me Cleveland has found that the need for achievement is also related positively to the higher economic status of the society. Experts also revealed that both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are closely related to achievement motivation.

Self-actualization:
A humanistic approach to motive was developed by Maslow (1954). It is very important for its practical value. His humanistic model is popularly known as the theory of ‘self-actualization’. Maslow’s approach was unique. He attempted to portray a total picture of human behavior.

Maslow tried to explain human motives or needs by arranging them in a hierarchy. His arrangement was made in the order of potency and priority of unsatisfied human needs. The most basic aspects of human motivation are physiological needs and at the highest level, the desire to utilize one’s personal capacities is found.

Here the individual develops his potentialities to the fullest and engages in activities for which he is well-studied.’ This level is called ‘self-actualization’. Maslow’s approach reveals that every category of need has a limited capacity to motivate behavior. Beyond this point of limitation, it is necessary to involve a higher category of need.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 4 Process of Thinking Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Short Answer Questions

Short Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Tools of thinking.
Answer:
Percept: The object or stimulus which is perceived is called the percept.
Images: Images are mental pictures of actual sensory experiences.

Question 2.
Creative thinking.
Answer:
Creative thinking refers to the ability for original thinking. Cognitive activity directed towards some creative work refer to creative thinking.

Question 3.
Stages of creative thinking.
Answer:
The common stage of creative thinking. They are:
(a) perception
(b) incubation
(c) inspiration or illumination
(d) evaluation
(e) verification or revision.
Trench experienced these stages of thinking.

Question 4.
Incubation.
Answer:
In this stage of creative thinking, there is almost a complete absence of overt activity. The unconscious process may be at work during incubation.

Question 5.
Language.
Answer:
Language is the best medium of thinking. Language provides the most useful and common kinds of symbols in human behavior.

Question 6.
Rigidity.
Answer:
Rigidity cements new ideas and thoughts helpful for problem-solving. Lyman and Anderson have suggested the following eight rules to prevent rigidity in thinking.

Question 7.
Images.
Answer:
Images are mental pictures of actual sensory experiences. It represents the percept in its absence.

Question 8.
Sensory motor period.
Answer:
The sensory-motor period is the period that starts before the language development of the child. Piaget distinguished between two major stages in cognitive development.

Question 9.
Conflict motive.
Answer:
When the ‘O’ has to choose between two equally attractive goals, he faces the problem of conflict the lie is in conflict as he is unable to decide which goal to pursue both have equal attraction.

Question 10.
Need for power.
Answer:
Some people are heard saying, “I don’t need any power.” Though, power by itself is a motive. It may help in achieving other motives easily.

Question 11.
Need for achievement.
Answer:
Achievement motivation is the need or desire to achieve something. It is a strong motive.

Question 12.
Need for approval.
Answer:
Man is a social animal. For any social organism need for approval is a must.

Question 13.
Activity method.
Answer:
In this method, the activity of the ‘O’ is observed by introducing a drive. It is two types:

• field observation
• laboratory observation

Question 14.
Need for aggression.
Answer:
Aggression is a hostile response to any stimulus. The motive of aggression may be expressed due to the imitation of aggressive models.

Question 15.
Need for recognition.
Answer:
The urge to process status in society is a commonly observed need found by human beings. Every human being wants his merit abilities to be recognized in society.

Question 16.
Hunger.
Answer:
Hunger occupies the most prominent position among all the biological drives and obviously, most of the studies have been done on hunger drive. Hunger is concluded by Ruch.

Question 17.
Thirst.
Answer:
Thirst is also a periodic drive. The strength of thirst is also greater than hunger drive.

Question 18.
Biological motive.
Answer:
Organic drives are known as physiological or biological drives as the physiological state of the organism drives him to action. The biological drive is innate.

Question 19.
Jealousy.
Answer:
Jealousy is an outgrowth of anger. It is an attitude of resentment directed towards other people only. It is a negative motion.

Question 20.
Causes of anger
Answer:
The cause of anger is interference or restriction of any type or it may be due to frustration. This frustration may be due to personal, physical, or social causes.

Question 21.
Joy, pleasure, delight.
Answer:
All these are positive emotions and they generally belong to joy. Such emotions always give pleasure to the individual.

Question 22.
Pre-operational period.
Answer:
The preparational period extends from two to seven years. The first part of this stage is also known as the pre-conceptual period. It is characterized by the use of language and symbolic function. Pre-conceptual refers to the beginning of symbolization in thinking. It is the period prior to the use of symbols in thinking or the preparatory stage for the same.

Question 23.
Language.
Answer:
Language is the best medium of thinking. Language provides the most useful and common kind of symbols in human behavior. Most of the thinking is the modem age is done by verbal symbols, which are expressed through language. Though in thinking some amount of language is involved a certain amount of thinking. It serves to communicate ideas from one person to another.

Question 24.
Creative thinking.
Answer:
Creative thinking refers to the ability for original thinking. In other words, cognitive activity directed towards some creative work refers to creative thinking. Creative thinkers are great boons to society. Creative thinking is a must for the progress and prosperity of any country. In creative thinking, there is general freedom from rigid thought patterns.

Question 25.
Past experience.
Answer:
The positive transfer effect facilitates problem-solving a great deal. Acquisitions of the past in similar situations are generalized in the present situation. This makes it easier to solve the problem. Certain problems do require finding new strategies and new concepts for solutions. It has been found that new problems can be solved completely by past learning.

Question 26.
Frustration and stress.
Answer:
Several studies have been conducted on the adverse effect of frustration and stress on problem-solving behavior. A study by Monson (1954) indicates that initially, the frustrated group showed a greater gain them control, apparently being highly motivated to succeed this time having failed the block tapping test. Cowen( 1959) has found that when people don’t feel that. Subjects who had shown the most frustration in the block tapping test did most poorly on the difficult problem. Reynolds shows that stress operates as a hindrance to problem-solving.

Question 27.
Rigidity.
Answer:
Run over the elements of the problem in rapid succession several times until a pattern emerges which encompasses all these elements simultaneously. Suspend judgment – Don’t jump to conclusions. Produce a second solution after the first. Rigidity cements new ideas and thoughts helpful for problem-solving.

Question 28.
Thirst.
Answer:
Like hunger, thirst is also a periodic drive. The strength of thirst is also greater than hunger drive. The necessity of thirst for survival is greater than food. According to Cannon’s theory, he has treated the thirst. This is highlighted.

Question 29.
External expressions of emotions.
Answer:

• Facial expression:
  The face is the most expressive organ of the human body.
• Postural reaction:
  Different emotions arouse different postures.
• Vocal expressions:
  Voice is a powerful organ of indicating different types of emotions experienced.
• Scholrberg found a high correlation in the judgments of different observers found that in several pictures.
• It is thus said to be the barometer of emotion.

Question 30.
Obstruction method.
Answer:
The last form of counterbalancing motives is the obstruction method. In this method of putting on obstruction, the persistence of a particular drive is measured. The Columbia obstruction apparatus has been extensively used by the warden. He found the crossing of an electric grill. It is the strongest obstruction.

Question 31.
The contrast of motives.
Answer:
In this method, one motive is contrasted with another at a time. Hunger-sex, sex-thirst, thirst hunger, thirst-maternity drive, and soon. In another study, Elliot noticed that motivation suddenly changed with the change in goal. Seymour and stein trained the animal to a given food. This method is used to measure mostly animal drives.

Question 32.
Conflict of motives.
Answer:
When the ‘O’ has to choose between two equally attractive goals, he faces the problem of conflict the lie is in conflict as he is unable to decide which goal to pursue as both have equal attraction and strength in fulfilling his motive. A person who lives both fish and meat, when asked to select only one of these preparations faces conflict. In our day-to-day life, we face conflict. A dog is trained to bark in a circle.

Question 33.
Hunger.
Answer:
Hunger occupies the most prominent position among all the biological drives been on hunger drive. The survival of the ‘O’ depends upon the satisfaction of hunger need. Ehrlich suggests that the most significant physiological factor is the regulation of hunger. The importance of hunger drive in human beings has been proved by many classic studies. From several studies on hunger drives, the role of environment and training is strong.

Question 34.
Method of preference.
Answer:
The method of preference makes to choose between two or more incentives that arouse one and the same drive. Two incentives are given at a time and it is observed which one of the two is preferred by the organism. If the driver is hungry, the incentives may be different types of food. P.T. Young made an experiment by this method using rats. The motive is one but the incentives are many.

Question 35.
Role of motivation in learning.
Answer:
The importance of motivation in learning follows from the law of effects. Thorndike has shown that there is a close relationship between learning and motivation. Motivation is indispensable for learning. Pavlov’s conditioning technique. When a student is motivated by praise and verbal reward he quickly improves in his learning.

Question 36.
Role of the hypothalamus in emotion.
Answer:
The hypothalamus plays a significant role in emotional behavior. This is substantiated by various experimental studies on animals. Removal of the hypothalamus in cats and dogs brings a full stop to all emotional expressions. Observations show that when the hypothalamus is seriously impaired by accident or the like, occurs that is there is no emotional reaction. Drugs like sodium amytal and metrazol have a specific effect on the hypothalamus producing significant changes in the emotional behavior of human beings and arid animals.

Question 37.
Cannon-Bord Theory of Emotion.
Answer:
Cannon formulated his own theory of emotion which is called the Thalamic or emergency theory of emotion. Modem physiological views of emotion may be said to start with Cannon. He was the first to develop a broad and integrated physiological picture of emotion. Cannons conducted a series of experiments. The Thalamic theory differs from the James Lange theory chiefly units emphasis upon the independence of emotional experiences.

Question 38.
Jealousy.
Answer:
Jealousy is an outgrowth of anger. It is an attitude of resentment directed towards other people only while anger can be directed toward people, self, and others. It is a negative emotion. The arousal of jealousy depends upon training and the treatment that one gets from others. Child-rearing practices have got a lot to do with the development of jealousy.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 4 Process of Thinking Objective Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 4 Process of Thinking Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Drawing a mental picture in the absence of the object is called _______.
(a) Perception
(b) Illusion
(c) Hallucination
(d) Image
Answer:
(d) Image

Question 2.
Creativity is explored at _______.
(a) early age
(b) middle age
(c) late age
(d) right
Answer:
(a) early age

Question 3.
There is no test to measure creativity among _______.
(a) children
(b) adults
(c) illiterates
(d) educated persons
Answer:
(c) illiterates

Question 4.
Creativity is a branch of ________.
(a) Social Psychology
(b) General Psychology
(c) Industrial Psychology
(d) Personality Psychology
Answer:
(b) General Psychology

Question 5.
Creativity means _______.
(a) Autistic thinking
(b) Associative
Answer:
(b) Associative

Question 6.
The pioneer of creativity research is _______.
(a) Yackson
(b) Wertheimer
(c) Guilford
(d) Torrence
Answer:
(d) Torrence

Question 7.
Creativity depends on _______.
(a) Originality
(b) Personality
(c) Learning Capacity
(d) Retention capacity
Answer:
(a) Originality

Question 8.
Creativity is otherwise known as _______.
(a) Imaginative thinking
(b) Insightful thinking
(c) Autistic thinking
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Imaginative thinking

Question 9.
Vigour research on creativity was started in the year _______.
(a) 1877
(b) 1945
(c) 1960
(d) 1918
Answer:
(d)1918

Question 10.
Creativity starts growing from the age of _______.
(a) 6 months
(b) 3 years
(c) 20 years
(d) 30 years
Answer:
(a) 6 months

Question 11.
Daydreams are _______.
(a) realistic
(b) unrealistic
(c) fantasies
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) fantasies

Question 12.
Problem-solving seems an impossibility in the absence of _______.
(a) Verbal symbols
(b) Non-verbal symbols
(c) Sensory symbols
Answer:
(a) Verbal symbols

Question 13.
Problem-solving involves _______.
(a) Conditioning
(b) Trial and error
(c) Rigidity
Answer:
(b) Trial and error

Question 14.
Motivation gives problem-solving a _______.
(a) Set
(b) Meed
(c) Direction
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) Direction

Question 15.
The solution to the problem becomes difficult when the person is emotionally _______.
(a) Upset
(b) Sound
(c) immature
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) immature

Question 16.
_______ stands in the way of a solution to a problem.
(a) flexibility
(b) rigidity
(c) partiality
(d) intelligence
Answer:
(b) rigidity

Question 17.
When in a problem-solving situation the solution to a problem occurs after dealing with the problem it is called ________.
(a) Foresight
(b) hindsight
(c) Insight
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) hindsight

Question 18.
Problem-solving has been essentially regarded as a process of thinking in _______.
(a) function
(b) structure
(c) solution
(d) manipulation
Answer:
(d) manipulation

Question 19.
Every person’s thinking takes place in his own unique.
(a) environment
(b) background
(c) society
(d) status
Answer:
(a) environment

Question 20.
For the solution of problems, manipulation __________ is necessary.
(a) Ideas
(b) concepts
(c) percepts
(d) all of these
Answer:
(d) all of these

Question 21.
In thinking _________ trial and error is mostly involved.
(a) overt
(b) covert
(c) manual
Answer:
(b) covert

Question 22.
Language is unique to ________.
(a) human beings
(b) higher animals
(c) animals
(d) subhuman species
Answer:
(a) human beings

Question 23.
For communication _______ is essential.
(a) gesture
(b) language
(c) thought
(d) crying
Answer:
(b) language

Question 24.
Language and thought are ________.
(a) same
(b) different
(c) independent of each other
(d) overlap each other
Answer:
(b) different

Question 25.
Language is an important mode of _______.
(a) communication
(b) gesture
(c) silent talk
(d) overt activity
Answer:
(a) communication

Question 26.
Thought is _______.
(a) Overt
(b) Covert
(c) External
(b) Verbal
Answer:
(a) Overt

Question 27.
Language has _______ contents.
(a) two
(b) three
(c) four
(d) five
Answer:
(b) three

Question 28.
Motive is a ________.
(a) desire
(b) impulse
(c) behaviour
(d) general trait
Answer:
(a) desire

Question 29.
Edwards’s personal preference schedule assesses,
(a) one single motive
(b) many motives
(c) many desires
(d) strength of motives
Answer:
(d) strength of motives

Question 30.
Animals stop behaving when they _______.
(a) sleep
(b) rest
(c) pause
(d) die
Answer:
(d) die

Question 31.
When there is a drive-in level of activity the strength of the drive is supposed to _______.
(a) decrease
(b) increase
(c) remains constant
(d) none of these
Answer:
(b) increase

Question 32.
Drive is a _______state.
(a) physiological
(b) social
(c) personal
(d) all of these
Answer:
(a) physiological

Question 33.
Organic drives are also known as drives ___________.
(a) physiological
(b) biological
(c) social
(d) all these
Answer:
(a) physiological

Question 34.
___________ refers to the motive to keep contact with people.
(a) curiosity
(b) gregariousness
(c) assertiveness
Answer:
(b) gregariousness

Question 35.
Activity method measures the __________of motive.
(a) type
(b) strength
(c) nature
(d) all these
Answer:
(b) strength

Question 36.
The desire to explore refers to the motive of ___________.
(a) approval
(b) achievement
(c) affiliation
(d) curiosity
Answer:
(d) curiosity

Question 37.
Though ___________method one chooses between two or more incentives.
(a) activity method
(b) method of choice
(c) method of preference
(d) all these
Answer:
(c) method of preference

Question 38.
__________acts as a motivation to perform.
(a) curiosity
(b) knowledge of result
(c) approval
Answer:
(b) knowledge of result

Question 39.
___________stressed the idea of psychic determinism in unconscious motivation.
(a) Jung
(b) Freud
(c) Adler
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Jung

Question 40.
Motivation is related to the _________ of human behaviour.
(a) What
(b) How
(c) Why
(d) all these
Answer:
(c) Why

Question 41.
Factors of motivation can be categorised under ______ and ______ head.
(a) need
(b) drive
(c) physiological
(d) social
(e) incentive
Answer:
(d) social

Question 42.
In motivational cycle _______steps are invoked.
(a) four
(b) three
(c) two
(d) five
Answer:
(b) three

Question 43.
The goal is the______ point of a motivational cycle.
(a) beginning
(b) middle
(c) end
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) end

Question 44.
The importance of motivation for learning follows from ________.
(a) law of exercise
(b) law of belongingness
(c) law of effect
(d) law of readiness
Answer:
(c) law of effect

Question 45.
The famous experiment on knowledge of results was conducted by ________.
(a) Hull
(b) Thorndike
(c) Watson
(d) Leeper
Answer:
(b) Thorndike

Question 46.
Motivation is _______ for learning.
(a) useless
(b) indispensable
(c) unnecessary
Answer:
(b) indispensable

Question 47.
Level of aspiration is also known as ________.
(a) goal discrepancy behaviour
(b) attainment discrepancy behaviour
(c) goal setting behaviour
(d) all the above
Answer:
(c) goal setting behaviour

Question 48.
Morgan offers a theory of motivation which is basically _______.
(a) Psychological
(b) Sociological
(c) Physiological
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) Physiological

Question 49.
The physiological theory of motivation has been advanced by _______.
(a) Hilgard
(b) Young
(c) Morgan
(d) Murray
Answer:
(c) Morgan

Question 50.
Hunger, thirst and sex are known as _______drives.
(a) basic
(b) secondary
(c) psychological
Answer:
(a) basic

Question 51.
The self-actualisation theory of motivation is also called the _______ theory of motivation.
(a) physiological
(b) psychoanalytic
(c) hierarchical
(d) achievement
Answer:
(c) hierarchical

Question 52.
The self-actualisation of the theory of motivation was advanced by _______.
(a) Leeper
(b) Lindsey
(c) Maslow
(d) Young
Answer:
(c) Maslow

Question 53.
Curiosity is a _______ drive.
(a) Psychological
(b) Organic
(c) social
(d) Personal
Answer:
(a) Psychological

Question 54.
Need for aggression is inevitable for self _______.
(a) Actualisation
(b) Preservation
(c) Sufficiency
(d) None of those
Answer:
(b) Preservation

Question 55.
Social approval motive is measured by the _______.
(a) T.A.T. method
(b) Questionnaire technique
(c) Maslow Crowne social desirability scale.
Answer:
(c) Maslow Crowne social desirability scale.

Question 56.
Level of activity is _______ related to the strength of motive.
(a) positively
(b) negatively
(c) neutrally
(d) none of these
Answer:
(a) positively

Question 57.
P.T. Young conducted an experiment on the method of preference using _______.
(a) monkeys
(b) cats
(c) rats
(d) human beings
Answer:
(c)rats

Question 58.
The constancy of the internal environment is maintained by _______.
(a) mobilisation of behaviour
(b) homeostasis
(c) drive
Answer:
(b) homeostasis

Question 59.
Social motives are called _______ motives.
(a) primary
(b) secondary
(c) essential
(d) none of these
Answer:
(b) secondary

Question 60.
A socially approved person shows greater sensitivity and respect to _______.
(a) personal interest
(b) society
(c) fulfilment of basic needs
Answer:
(b) society

Question 61.
Many different activities may have a _______motivation.
(a) specific
(b) common
(c) different
Answer:
(b) common

Question 62.
Post-hypnotic suggestion provides a good example of _______ motivation.
(a) conscious
(b) unconscious
(c) social
(d) biological
Answer:
(b) unconscious

Question 63.
The motive to keep contact with others is called _______.
(a) self-assertiveness
(b) gregariousness
(c) mastery
(d) dependency.
Answer:
(b) gregariousness

Question 64.
_______ is among the Arapesh, Zuni, Hopi and other groups.
(a) self-assertiveness
(b) gregariousness
(c) mastery
(d) dependency
Answer:
(a) self-assertiveness

Question 65.
The urge to achieve is expressed in _______.
(a) need for self-actualisation
(b) assertiveness
(c) need for achivement .
Answer:
(c) need for achievement

Question 66.
Gregariousness is due to _______.
(a) social conditioning
(b) inherited traits
(c) biological factors
Answer:
(a) social conditioning

Question 67.
Both thrive and incentive factors in mobilising one’s _______.
(a) resources
(b) ability
(c) need
(d) all the above
Answer:
(d) all the above

Question 68.
Some organic, needs can be made extremely great by removing of certain _______.
(a) duct glands
(b) ductless glands
(c) sex glands
(d) none of these
Answer:
(b) ductless glands

Question 69.
The obstruction box has been standardised by _______.
(a) Warden and his associates
(b) Weiner ardstellar
(c) HoffinanandWed
(d) Nissen
Answer:
(a) Warden and his associates

Question 70.
The delayed reward of even 15 seconds reduces the incentive value considerably as viewed by _______.
(a) Warden
(b) Hamilton
(c) Skinner
(d) Hull
Answer:
(a) Warden

Question 71.
Perhaps the clearest picture of the uncomplicated effect of punishment is obtained by experiments with the _______.
(a) obstruction box
(b) Skinner box
(c) Maize box
(d) Problem box
Answer:
(b) Skinner box

Question 72.
Sherrington’s work on the integrative action of the nervous system is his discovery of
(a) reactive inhibition
(b) reciprocal inhibition
(c) response inhibition
(d) stimulus inhibition
Answer:
(b) reciprocal inhibition

Question 73.
A challenging frustration-aggression hypothesis was put forward by group _______ of investigators.
(a) Yale
(b) Swiss
(c) German
(d) Harvard
Answer:
(a) Yale

Question 74.
An electric grill is a very convenient form of _______.
(a) Stimulator
(b) Obstructor
(c) Reactor
(d) Respirator
Answer:
(b) Obstructor

Question 75.
Anger is a ______ emotion.
(a) Positive
(b) Negative
(c) Neutral
Answer:
(b) Negative

Question 76.
Fear is a ______emotion.
(a) Positive
(b) Negative
(c) Neutral
Answer:
(b) Negative

Question 77.
Love is a ______emotion.
(a) Positive
(b) Negative
(c) Neutral
Answer:
(a) Positive

Question 78.
The Russian Psychologist _______ found that involuntary finger movements were a valuable adjunct to the word association method of the detection.
(a) Pavlov
(b) Luria
(c) Luchins
(d) Chappella
Answer:
(a) Pavlov

Question 79.
Cannon’s theory of emotion was mainly concerned with _______.
(a) Endocrine glands
(b) Blood pressure
(c) Sensitivity to the environmental stimulus
Answer:
(b) Blood pressure

Question 80.
The emergency theory of emotion is also called _______.
(a) James Lange’s theory
(b) Cannon-Bard Theory
(c) Hypothalamic theory
(d) Activation theory
Answer:
(d) Activation theory

Question 81.
The Cannon-Bard theory is different from _______.
(a) Activation theory
(b) Emergency theory
(c) Hypothalamic theory
Answer:
(b) Emergency theory

Question 82.
At the time of emotion secretion from glands are _______.
(a) Reduced
(b) Stopped
(c) Accelerated
(d) As usual
Answer:
(a) Reduced

Question 83.
________have a major role to play during emotional situations.
(a) rods and cones
(b) ear
(c) glands
(d) hands and muscles
Answer:
(c) glands

Question 84.
During the strong emotional experience, the physiological changes that occur in the human body are mainly due to _______.
(a) Sudden rise in blood pressure
(b) Sudden rise in a heartbeat.
(c) Impulses from the autonomic nervous system
(d) Impulses coming from sex glands.
Answer:
(c) Impulses from the autonomic nervous system

Question 85.
Watson conducted an experiment on a baby named to ______ demonstrate how fear develops.
(a) Aalinc
(b) Albert
(c) Aiers
(d) Alps
Answer:
(c) Aiers

Question 86.
To demonstrate how the emotion of fear develops an experiment on a baby named Albert was conducted by ______.
(a) Bridges
(b) Watson
(c) Williams
(d) Jersild
Answer:
(b) Watson

Question 87.
A severe crisis situation is successfully dealt with by people because of the secretion of ______ to blood.
(a) Pituitrin
(b) Thyroxine
(c) Proactive
(d) Sex hormones
Answer:
(b) Thyroxine

Question 88.
________is associated with emotion.
(a) Frontal cortex
(b) Cerebellum
(c) Hypothalamus
Answer:
(b) Cerebellum

Question 89.
In anger, excessive secretion of _______is found.
(a)Thyroxine
(b) Adrenalin
(c)Putitarin
Answer:
(c)Putitarin

Question 90.
Sympathetic activation causes ________.
(a) a decrease in the heart rate
(b) an increase in the heart rats
(c) a decrease in pulse rate
(d) decrease in blood pressure
Answer:
(b) an increase in the heart rats

Question 91.
During states of emotional stress skin resistance to electric current.
(a) increases
(b) decreases
(c) no change in the earlier resistance
(d) creates a feeling of discomfort
Answer:
(b) decreases

Question 92.
According to the emergency theory of emotion, the function of emotion is to ________.
(a) reduce anxiety
(b) provide body relief
(c) increase emergency action
(d) all these
Answer:
(b) provide body relief

Question 93.
The hypothalamus which controls emotional behaviour is located ________.
(a) in the brain stem
(b) in the cerebral cortex
(c) at the base of the brain
(d) in the medulla
Answer:
(c) at the base of the brain

Question 94.
Fear stimulus initiates physiological reactions in the ________.
(a) central nervous system
(b) reticular activating system
(c) spinal cord
(d) sympathetic nervous system
Answer:
(d) sympathetic nervous system

Question 95.
Which of the following is connected with emotional behaviour?
(a) Pons
(b) Occipital lobe
(c) Hypothalamus
(d) Reticular activating system
Answer:
(d) Reticular activating system

Question 96.
Which of the following is not connected with emotional behaviour?
(a) Thalamus
(b) Hypothalamus
(c) Hindbrain
Answer:
(c) Hindbrain

Question 97.
Cannon Brad’s theory is related to ________.
(a) learning
(b) perception
(c) motivation
(d) emotion
Answer:
(c) motivation

Question 98.
The James-Lange theory is in relevance with ________.
(a) personality
(b) motivation
(c) emotion
(d) sensation
Answer:
(d) sensation

Question 99.
The motivational theory of Leoper is a theory of ________.
(a) emotion
(b) motive
(c) thinking
(d) sensation
Answer:
(c) thinking

Question 100.
That the infant is bom with one basic emotion, a general excitement is the view of ________.
(a) Watson
(b) Morgan
(c) Darwin
(d) Bridges
Answer:
(a) Watson

Question 101.
________was one of the first scientists to investigate emotional expressions in infants.
(a) Watson
(b) Morgan
(c) Darwin
(d) Irwin
Answer:
(d) Irwin

Question 102.
By the age of 24 months, all emotions develop. This is held by ________.
(a) Darwin
(b) Watson
(c) Bridges
(d) all these
Answer:
(a) Darwin

Question 103.
Freedom, Loring and Martin have advanced a theory that emphasises the adaptive and survival value of infants.
(a) crying
(b) smiling
(c) jealousy
(d) anger
Answer:
(c) jealousy

Question 104.
Stranger anxiety and separation anxiety appear towards the end of the ________of life.
(a) eight months of life
(b) one year of life
(c) 24 months of life
Answer:
(c) 24 months of life

Question 105.
Fear of snakes is a product of psychological maturation. This is held by ________.
(a) Valentine
(b) Watson
(c) Donald Hebb
(d) Gewirtz
Answer:
(b) Watson

Question 106.
________factors are important in determining the nature and importance of children’s fears.
(a) Cognitive
(b) Conative
(c) Affective
(d) All of these
Answer:
(b) Conative

Question 107.
Mother emotion with important social implications for social development is ________.
(a) Distress
(b) Zcalousy
(c) Sentiment
(d) Fear
Answer:
(d) Fear

Question 108.
________is a social phenomenon.
(a) Anger
(b) Laughter
(c) Distress
(d) All of these
Answer:
(a) Anger

Question 109.
In the development of emotion, _________ plays a major role.
(a) Maturation
(b) Intelligence
(c) Personality
(d) Organic factors
Answer:
(b) Intelligence

Question 110.
The galvanic skin response is measured with an apparatus called ________.
(a) Pupillo metrics
(b) Psychogalvanometer
(c) Kymograph
(d) All of these
Answer:
(a) Pupillo metrics

Question 111.
William James who developed the James Lange theory belongs to the ________school of psychology.
(a) Structural
(b) Functional
(c) Behaviouristic
(d) Cognitive
Answer:
(b) Functional

Question 112.
Smiling in response to a smile does not usually occur before the child is about ________ months old.
(a) one month
(b) two months
(c) five months
(d) six month
Answer:
(b) two months

Question 113.
Pleasure and displeasure of a person can be known from his _______.
(a) Physiological change
(b) facial expression
(c) blood pressure
Answer:
(b) facial expression

Question 114.
Emotion is expressed through ______.
(a) language
(b) gesture
(c) facial expression
(d) all of these
Answer:
(b) gesture

Question 115.
The activity of the heart in emotion is often studied by examining the shape of the curve obtained with an _______.
(a) electroencephalograph
(b) electric cardiograph
(c) electric strobophoto graph
(d) none of these
Answer:
(d) none of these

Question 116.
The importance of postural reaction in emotion has been given by _______.
(a) James Lange’s theory
(b) Emergency theory
(c) Activation theory
(d) Opponent process theory
Answer:
(b) Emergency theory

Question 117.
Gastrointestinal functions are often measured by means of ballons into the ______.
(a) stomach
(b) intestine
(c) stomach or intestine
Answer:
(a) stomach

Question 118.
Whether a person is emotionally aroused or not can be known by measuring his ______.
(a) Physiological changes
(b) Psychological changes
(c) Facial expression
(d) All the above
Answer:
(b) Psychological changes

Question 119.
A can differentiate emotion from nonemotional states.
(a) Kymograph
(b)Neumograph
(c) Lie detector
(d) Pupilometrics
Answer:
(d) Pupilometrics

Question 120.
Excessive discharge of adrenalin during emotional states increases the level of _______.
(a) Blood pressure
(b) Blood sugar
(c) Heart Action
(d) All the above
Answer:
(d) All the above

Question 121.
James Lange’s theory is also known as ______.
(a) thalamic theory
(b) hypothalamic
(c) emergency theory
(d) none of these
Answer:
(d) none of these

Question 122.
The lie detector was devised by _______.
(a) Frans Halls
(b) Good enough
(c) Davis
(d) Leonarde Keeler
Answer:
(d) Leonarde Keeler

True Or False Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Imagination is a controlled association while thinking is a free association. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 2.
Thinking always involves a problem. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Thinking is not possible without images. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 4.
Creativity is not found in idiots. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 5.
Deaf is equally creative. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 6.
Physical handicap has nothing to do with creativity. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 7.
Blinds are more creative than normals. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 8.
Physical handicaps stand in the way of creativity. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 9.
A creative individual is equally creative in all fields. (True /False)
Answer:
False

Question 10.
Creativity starts growing from birth. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 11.
Reasoning at the human level begins in early childhood. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 12.
The reasoning is not found in animals. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 13.
Reasoning first appears in lower animals like rats. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 14.
Reasoning combined with past experience helps in solving a problem. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 15.
Multiple choice test in a sense is a set of generalising abilities. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 16.
Maier has developed a reasoning test for children. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 17.
Maier has developed a reasoning test for rats. (True /False)
Answer:
False

Question 18.
Nerve has developed a multiple-choice apparatus for use with human subjects. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 19.
Proper direction helps to reason. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 20.
Thinking is called sub-vocal talking. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 21.
Language is unique in human beings. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 22.
Language has no role in the socialization process. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 23.
Language is not required for the transmission of culture and heritage. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 24.
The acquisition of language is required for concept formation. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 25.
A language is a primary tool of communication. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 26.
Biological motives are inborn. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 27.
Drive and incentives are emotional factors as distinguished from ability. (True / False)
Answer:
True

Question 28.
Me Dougall and Freud both treated motivation in terms of energy. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 29.
The importance of motivation for learning follows from the law of exercise. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 30.
The barrier makes the motive stronger. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 31.
Knowledge of results brings improvement in learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 32.
Level aspiration is improved by failure and lowered by success. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 33.
The level of aspiration is also known as goal discrepancy behaviour. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 34.
The level of aspiration is indispensable for learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 35.
The level of aspiration acts as a drive or motivator. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 36.
The physiological theory of motivation has been advanced by Morgan. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 37.
Hunger, sex and thirst are organic drives. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 38.
The Law of effect directs human behaviour in a particular direction. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 39.
The level of aspiration is otherwise known as goal-setting behaviour. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 40.
The hierarchical theory of motivation is also known as the self-actualisation theory of motivation. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 41.
The self-actualisation theory of motivation was advanced by Wolfe. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 42.
Curiosity is a physical drive. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 43.
The need for aggression is inevitable for self-preservation. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 44.
Gregariousness is an inborn need. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 45.
Gregariousness develops out of social conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 46.
As the human child grows his physiologically motivated behaviours are socialised. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 47.
The socialisation of motives takes place because of social approval and conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 48.
Social approval motive is measured by the Socio-Economic Status Scale. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 49.
Social approval is measured by Maslow’s crown social desirability scale. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 50.
Social approval motive is very much desirable for sound personality development.(True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 51.
PT. Young conducted an experiment On the method of preference using cats. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 52.
Seasonal breeding, the cycle of feeding, elimination and seasonal changes in the migration of birds is observed by the laboratory observation method. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 53.
Homeostasis refers to the restoration of physiological balance and equilibrium. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 54.
Organic drives are also known as biological drives. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 55.
The thirst drive is stronger than the hunger drive. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 56.
Sleep is a basic need. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 57.
Sex is said to be a powerful personal drive. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 58.
Social motives are called secondary motives. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 59.
Two equally attractive goals produce conflict. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 60.
Slip of the tongue is an unconscious motivation. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 61.
An unconscious attitude is illustrated by Phobia whose origin is unknown to the person concerned. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 62.
Many of the motives which influence the behaviour of a particular individual significantly are unrecognised by the person himself. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 63.
Personal variation is found in different types of motivation. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 64.
Life goals have often their origin in early experiences. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 65.
Particular motives often characterise a given culture rather than the whole of mankind. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 66.
All motives are free from childhood training. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 67.
The origin of some motives is found in childhood training. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 68.
All motives are acquired. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 69.
Drives and instincts are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 70.
Knowledge of performance is a material incentive. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 71.
Many different activities may have common motivations. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 72.
Post-hypnotic suggestion provides a good example of Unconscious motivation. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 73.
Social motives are found in all normal human beings. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 74.
We acquire hundreds of needs, few of which have very clear psychological roots. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 75.
The self-assertive motive is also known as the mastery motive. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 76.
The motive to keep contact with others is called assertiveness. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 78.
Frigidity and impotence represent high tide in sexual drive. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 79.
Testosterone and androgenic hormone appear to play a key role in the sexual life of female animals. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 80.
The influence of social eating on the amount eaten is observed even in animals. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 81.
Habit and social customs account for most of our aversions to certain foods. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 82.
Hunger pangs, stomach contractions and related body activity, in general, depend upon blood chemistry. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 83.
Motivation is derived from the Latin word “Movere” which means to move. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 84.
Social motives are not always learned motives. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 85.
At birth and soon after almost all needs of the body are physiological in nature. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 86.
Gregariousness is due to social conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 87.
Escape is motivated by the shock. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 88.
Hunger and thirst are equivalent in relation to milk as an incentive. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 89.
A manipulatory drive is most clearly manifested in the play of the human child. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 90.
According to James Lange’s theory of emotion. “We first see a bear, we are afraid and then (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 91.
Emotion is also a kind of motivic. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 92.
Hypothalamus has no role in emotion. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 93.
Emotion is an acute disturbance of the body. (True/False )
Answer:
True

Question 94.
Anger is a positive emotional parent. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 95.
Joy is a positive emotion. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 96.
The Ameti can Psychologist Luna found that voluntary finger movements were a valuable adjunct to the word association method of lie detection. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 97.
The level of activation increases when the person is guilty. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 98.
Lie detection puts a level of activation to work. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 99.
The thalamic theory of emotion is also called the emergency theory of emotion. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 100.
Cannon-Bard theory and emergency theory of emotion are different from each other. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 101.
James Lange’s theory and emergency theory are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 102.
William James is a founder of the functional school of Psychology. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 103.
According to lo Mc Dougall feeling and emotion have only ascending roles in the field of motivation. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 104.
Instincts and emotions are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 105.
Shcrrington’s experiments with cats and Cannon’s experiments with dogs prove that total separation of the Viscera from the CNS does not alter emotional behaviour. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 106.
The thalamic theory differs from the J.L. theory chiefly in its emphasis on the independence of emotional experiences and emotional behaviour. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 107.
The emergency theory emphasises the role of the hypothalamus in originating emotional behaviour. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 108.
Emotional behaviour is essentially disorganised. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 109.
The autonomous nervous system controls emotion. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 110
Anger is an innate emotion. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 111.
The basis of emotional behaviour is general excitement. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 112.
General excitement is inherited. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 113.
From delight, joy develops. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 114.
Fear increases with the development of language. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 115.
Fear for human beings is more found during childhood. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 116.
Fear can be eliminated by behaviour therapy. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 117.
Fear can be eliminated by conditioning techniques. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 118.
A large number of fears occur due to social imitation. Fear can be removed by unlearning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 119.
Fear can be removed by unlearning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 120.
Anger can be treated by removing the irritating factors and substituting a different goal. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 121.
Fear is otherwise known as a temper tantrum. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 122.
Jealousy develops at the age of five months. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 123.
Fear grows from distress. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 124.
Affection develops by the age of two years. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 125.
There is only three innate emotions, fear, anger, and love. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 126.
Bridges maintained that the infant is bom with one basic emotion, a general excitement. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 127.
Watson and Morgan theorised that there are only three basic emotions. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 128.
Bridges viewed that by the age of 24 months all emotions are developed. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 129.
A theory that emphasises the adaptive and survival value of infant smiling has been advanced by Frccpair, Loring and Valentine. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 130.
Two fears such as stranger anxiety and separation anxiety appear towards the end of the first year of life. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 131.
Morgan and Ricciuti’s study shows the developmental course of stranger and separation anxiety. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 132.
Donald Iiebb argued that fear of snakes in a product of psychological maturation rather than of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 133.
Watson’s view that fear is an innate response to loud noises or the sudden loss of support is no longer accepted. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 134.
Cognitive factors are important in determining the nature and importance of children’s fears. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 135.
How much a child smiles is determined by genetic factors. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 136.
Emotional development indicated a pattern of increasing differentiation from a generalised excitement into progressively more precise emotional reactions. (True/
False)
Answer:
True

Question 137.
Smillinglikecryingmayhaveasurvivalvaluetothechild. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 138.
Younger children show a fear of concrete objects while older children fear more abstract things. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 139.
Disgust is a positive emotion. (True/ False)
Answer:
False

Question 140.
Certain parts of the limbic system are intimately linked with emotional behaviour. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 141.
Maturation and learning are inextricably related to emotional behaviour. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 142.
The septal-damaged animals are generally preservative and compulsive in their behaviour. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 143.
Parts of the cerebral cot ex, the septal region, the ventral medial nucleus and the pyriform cortex function as brakes. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 144.
The back portion of the hypothalamus, the septal region of the brain helps in suppressing primitive emotional reactions. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 145.
When the septal area is destroyed, the organism underacts emotionally. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 146.
The cerebral cortex has some power to execute visceral activity which is commonly associated with emotional responses. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 147.
William James who developed the J-L theory of emotion belongs to the structural school of psychology. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 148.
The term emotion has been derived from the Greek word E- Mover. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 149.
Emotions involve internal changes and disturbances in the autonomic nervous system, ductless glands and visceral organs. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 150.
At birth, the new bom baby shows undifferentiated, diffused and general excitement. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 151.
Watson conducted a study on a six-month baby Albert to demonstrate how fear response develops. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 152.
According to Brides emotional development has a genetic sequence. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 153.
Symbolic fears are otherwise known as phobias. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 154.
Leonarde Keelar devised the lie detector. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 155.
The lie detector detects emotional reactions in response to questions. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 156.
Many chronic gastrointestinal disorders are precipitated by chronic emotional states. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 157.
Psychosomatic, disorders are related to the emotional states of people. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 158.
Prolonged emotional upsets may contribute to organic disorder. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 2 Perceptual Process Long Answer Questions Part 2.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 2 Perceptual Process Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is Neuron? Describe the structures and functions of neurons, flow does it differ from a cell?
Answer :
Building Blocks of the Nervous System:
Neurons are basic units of the nervous system. These are the nerve cells that actually process information. The human brain contains about 100 billion neurons. The average neuron is as complex as a small computer and has as many as 10,000 physical connections with other cells. Most neurons are created very early in life, but their shape, size, and connections can change throughout the lifespan. On the whole, the way the neurons function reflect the major characteristics of the nervous system.

Basic Structure of a Neuron:
Not all neurons are alike. They are specialized to handle different information processing functions. However, all neurons have some common characteristics. In general, every neuron has the following structures

• Cell body or soma
• Dendrites
• Axon and
• Terminal buttons or axon terminals
  (See fig. 4.1)

Cell body or Soma:
The cell body or ‘ Soma’ is the enlarged head of the neuron. It is enclosed by the cell membrane. The cell body contains the nucleus of the cell and cytoplasm which sustains its life. Some are the head side of the neuron. It uses oxygen and nutrients to generate energy. Its shape varies depending on the type of neuron. Generally, neurons transmit information in only one direction, that is, from the dendrites through soma to the axon to the terminal buttons.

Dendrites:
Dendrite is the branching fiber from the cell body. A neuron receives information at one end and sends out messages through the other. The part of the cell which receives incoming signals is called a dendrite. The dendrites receive nerve impulses from adjacent neurons or directly from sense receptors and conduct them to the cell body.

Axons relay or send impulses from the cell body to other neurons or to muscle tissue. The very word ‘dendrite’ came from the Greek word ‘dendron’ which means ‘tree’. So dendrites of a neuron look very much like trees. Dendrites are extended from the cell body. Dendrites increase the neuron’s surface area, allowing each neuron to receive input from many other neurons.

Axons:
Two types of extensions are found in the cell body. The short extensions from the cell body are called dendrites. But the longer single-branched extensions are called the axon. It is that part of the neuron which carries information away from the cell body to other cells. Each neuron has only one axon.

The point in the axon nearest to the cell body is called the axon hillock. Axons may have some branches which are called axon collaterals. Axons have two coverings. Of course, these two coverings are not found in every neuron. The outer boundary of the neuron is called the membrane. The membrane serves as a barrier for the neuron.

In some axons, there is a fatty white sheath called the myelin sheath. Axons having myelin sheath are called myelinated axons and which do not have it is called unmyelinated axons. Axons without myelin sheaths are not very good conductors of electricity. With the insulation of myelin sheaths, axons transmit electrical impulses and convey information much more rapidly.

Another covering is found in axons of neurons exclusively outside the brain and spinal cord. It is called a neurilemma. Neurilemma is a very thin covering that takes part in regeneration. If a neuron outside the brain and spinal cord is damaged, it can be regenerated. But the neurons of the brain and spinal cord can not be regenerated, as they do riot have neurilemma in their actions. Once these highly specialized cells are damaged, they are damaged forever.

Terminal Buttons:
An axon conducts information along its length which can be several feet in the spinal cord and less than a millimeter in the brain. At the far end of the axon, some swollen and bulb-like structures are there which are called terminal buttons. Through these buttons, stimulation passes to Astrocytes and oligodendroglia are two important glial cells.

Astrocytes produce chemicals that neurons need to fulfill their functions. On the other hand, astrocytes help control the chemical composition of the fluid surrounding neurons. The main function of oligodendroglia is to provide support to axons to produce myelin sheaths.

Functions neurons:
The main function of the neuron is to communicate messages of stimulation in the form of nerve impulses. Our behavior is only possible through the flow of nerve impulses. Near about 10 billion neurons fire in our brain. They send and receive various nerve impulses. This is the communicative function of the neuron.

Sensory or afferent neurons come from receptors and go to the brain and motor (efferent) neurons go to muscles or glands. The inter-neurons are the linking neurons. An electrochemical reaction occurs inside when a neuron is adequately stimulated. Neurons fire or do not file like a gun. There is no in-between stage. This is called the all-or-none principle.

All neurons follow this principle. They are either off or on. Now let us see how neurons serve their communicative functions and how nerve impulses or nerve energies are formed. The neuron contains intracellular fluid. The fluid on the outside of the neuron is called the extracellular fluid. In between these two types of fluids, there is a cell membrane.

The fluid contains many dissolved substances. Many chemical substances are broken into pieces when they dissolve in water or any fluid. Ions are electrically charged particles when dissolved. The electrical charges are negative or positive and are carried out by ions. As you know, positive and negative electrical charges attract each other.

But only positive electrical charges or negative electrical charges repel each other. Since ions are found in both extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid, the same thing happens in a neuron. (See fig. 4.3) A neuron works to maintain its resting potential. It does not come automatically.

When a neuron is in a resting state, there is a negative electrical charge of about – 70 million votes. Ameli volt one – thousand of a volt. This is called the resting potential of the neuron. The neuron can be best compared with a battery with the inside of the neuron representing the negative pole and the outside of the neuron representing the positive pole (Koester, 1991).

When a neuron is stimulated by externals like heat, light, or sound, the message arrives, and the positively charged ions outside the neuron rush inside the neuron at rates as high as 100 million ions per second. This sudden arrival of positive ions inside the neuron causes the charge to change from negative to positive.

When it reaches a critical level, an electrical nerve impulse known as action potential travels down the axon of the neuron. The very term ‘action potential’ is used to describe the brief wave of positive electrical charge which sweeps down the action.

Generally, an action potential lasts only about 1/1000th of a second. When a neuron sends an action potential, it is commonly said to be ‘ firing’. The action potential abides by the all-or-none principle. Once the electrical impulse reaches a certain intensity, it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any of its intensity.

Again, the axon potential moves from one end of the axon to the other. After the nerve impulse has traveled, the positive ions are pumped out of the state. It becomes ready to fire again. The flow of the nerve impulse depends upon the diameter of a particular neuron. A nerve impulse is carried out speedily through a larger diameter and slowly through a smaller diameter.

Absolute Refractory Period:
After the action potential is transmitted by the neuron, it takes rests for a brief period of time. The neuron can not be fired again immediately, no matter how much stimulation it receives. It is just like reloading the gun after each shot. This time span just after carrying action potential during which the neuron is inactive is called the absolute refractory period.

During this period, the neuron is in resting potential. This time span of resting time is usually less than 1/1000th of a second. An action potential can not be produced during the absolute refractory period. When this span is over, again the neuron can cany a nerve impulse. The absolute refractory period is followed by a relative refractory period during which a strong stimulus can make the neuron active.

Threshold Point:
Weak stimuli can not produce an action potential in a neuron. Therefore, a stimulus of a certain strength is needed to produce an action potential. So the point at which a stimulus triggers an action potential is called the threshold of a neuron. Different neurons have different thresholds of excitation. Generally, the threshold point of each neuron is fairly constant.

Cell:
The nervous system of a living organism is made up of cells. A cell may be defined as a unit of living material. All can live independently by synthesizing within themselves substances from the nutrition absorbed from their environment. A cell contains living material called PROTOPLASM which is surrounded by a membrane called plasma membrane or the cell membrane.

Question 2.
Define AH or None law. Neural transmission or synapse?
Answer:
AH or None Law:
According to this principle, the nerve fibers respond completely or not at all. The stimulus has to be a minimum strength for the nerve to react. A weak stimulus will excite a few nerve fibers and we may not have sensory experience at all. But a strong stimulus will excite a larger number of nerve fibers resulting in a more intense experience. We can take the lighting of a match stick for illustration.

We must strike it with a certain amount of force to ignite the powder. If greater power is striking is exerted, the match flame will not be brighter. Beyond the minimum pressure necessary, any extra effort does not add to the brightness of the flame. This is exactly what happens with the stimulation of a nerve fiber. When such an explosion takes place, the nerve fiber is ready for another charge in a fraction of a second.

This principle is called the ‘all-or-none law”. Further, the nerve impulse is an electrochemical stimulation, which does not decrease in its intensity as it travels through the axon. If an axon carries any nerve impulse at all, the impulse continues to maintain the same strength throughout its travel in the axon until it reaches the terminal buttons.

The speed of a nerve impulse depends on the diameter of the axons. The larger the diameter, the greater is the speed. The strength of the nerve impulse depends upon the nature of the axons. It must be remembered that the dendrites and the cell body of a neuron do not obey the all-or-none principle. Only this principle is applicable to axons. So the axon is only governed by this law.

Neural Transmission:
No doubt, our mental functions stem from biological functions. In turn, they also influence our biological activities. Neural activity is biological activity. Neural activity is the biological medium in which all our psychological processes occur. Therefore, it is necessary to gain preliminary knowledge about how neural impulses travel from one part of the biological system to another. Not only the neural impulse travels within a neuron, but it also travels from one neuron to the other. The two major parts of the neural transmission are

• communication within a neuron (action potential) and
• communication between neurons (synaptic transmission).

We have already discussed how neural impulses travel from one neuron to another neurons.
Synapse:
A synapse is a gap or junction which is generally found between the axon tip of one neuron and the dendrite of another. Neurons never touch each other. The nerve impulses are transmitted chemically across a small gap between the neurons. This type of contact provided between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron is very interesting and significant.

The gap is very minute so that the conduction can easily go on. It is the synapse that makes our motor learning possible. When an impulse arrives at the end of an axon, electrical conduction in the axon is changed to chemical transmission. The tiny sacs in the terminal buttons of the axons, called synaptic vesicles release a transmitting substance called “neurotransmitters” which can the message to the other neuron.

Before the electrical impulse across the synaptic gap, it must be converted into a chemical signal As their name suggests, neurotransmitters transmit or carry information across the synaptic gap, it must be converted into a chemical signal. As their name suggests, neurotransmitters transmit or carry information across the synaptic gap to the next neuron.

When a nerve impulse reaches the end of the axon, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters which flood the synaptic gap. The dendrites of the receiving neuron come in direct contact with these neurotransmitters and receive the message. The receiving neuron will experience a change if the neurotransmitters are sufficiently stimulated, the received impulse will be conducted within the neuron and will be relayed from neuron to neuron until the message is completed.

It is estimated that the billions of neurons in the brain have trillions of synapses. There are many neurotransmitters. Each of them plays a specific role and functions in a specific pathway. Some neurotransmitters stimulate or excite, whereas, others inhibit neurons from firing (Bloom, Nelson & Lazerson, 2001). some neurotransmitters are both excitatory and inhibitory.

Most neurons secret only one type of neurotransmitter, but many different neurons are simultaneously secreting different neuro-transmitters into synaptic gaps of a single receiving neuron. Researchers have identified more than 50 neurotransmitters, each of which has a unique chemical makeup. Here, let us consider the functions of some neuro-transmitters which have major effects on our behavior.

Question 3.
Describe the structure and function of the spinal cord.
Answer:
Central Nervous System Structure and Function:
The central nervous system is well protected in the bony case of the skull and spinal column. It is divided into the spinal cord and the brain. The sensory or efferent neurons carry impulses from receptors into the central nervous system. The motor or efferent neurons cany impulses originating in the central system outward to effectors.

The Spinal Cord-Structure:
The spinal cord is a continuation of the brain below the medulla. It has a simple structure compared to the brain. It presents the same structure from angle to angle. A cross-section of the spinal cord at any level reveals the same uniform structure. The different parts of the spinal cord are connected to the brain.

The membranes cover the spinal cord and separate the fine neural tissues from the bony box of the central nervous system, lire outer, middle and inner membranes are called dura mater, arachnoid, and parameter respectively. The spinal cord has a rich acroterial blood supply. In a section of the spinal cord, we find grey matter in the central region and white matter in the peripheral region. The grey matter consists of millions of cell bodies of neurons.

The white matter consists of processes of neurons, that is, of axons and dendrites. In a six-foot man, the spinal cord is about the diameter of a little finger and 45 cm long. We do not find the spinal cord in most of the primitive forms of animal life. But when we go higher in the scale of evolution the nerve cells are found to be gradually combining into clusters and groups. These nerve clusters grow up the first step towards the evolution of the spinal cord and brain.

Connected to the spinal cord are thirty-one pairs of peripheral spinal nerves. In each nerve thousands of individual axons are bundled together. Some of these have sensory and some motor function. The sensory branches of the spinal cord enter the cord at the back of the dorsal portion.

The sensory branches cany into the spinal cord impulse generating in the sensory receptors in the skin, joints muscles, and viscera. After synaptic connections in the cord, the sensory activity runs toward the brain. On the other hand, the motor branches of the spinal nerves leave the front or ventral part of the cord. They control the axons of nearby muscles and glands.

Functions of Spinal Cord:
Complete transaction of the spinal cord proves that the spinal cord has communicative and integrative functions. Observations of patients show that if the cut of the spinal cord is above the level of exit of the spinal nerves to the arm and legs, the outcome is quadriplegia. Similarly, if the cut is below the arm level, but above the leg level, the person suffers from paraplegia.

In both cases, there is no recovery. There is complete anesthesia and permanent paralysis of the parts of the body below the level of the cut. Why there is paralysis? Because the sensory stimulations cannot reach the brain. The motor impulses also cannot come out because of this cut in the spinal cord.

So though voluntary movements in the parts of the body before the cut are absent, reflex actions are not lost. The presence of Kneejerk refer and the reflex arising out of the pinching in such patients indicate the integrative capacity of the spinal cord and also its capacity to respond adequately to simple stimuli and by acting differently to different stimuli.

The last act shows a crude kind of decision-making. However, the capacity to perform these actions upon command is lost in paraplegics. The moderating influences of the higher center are also lost. In normal people, the reflexes are under some sort of descending inhibition from the brain. But in these types of patients, the reflexes are relatively larger and more sudden.

Question 4.
What do you mean by reflex action and define its type or characteristic?
Answer:
Reflex Action:
The reflex action is a very simple type of response that occurs automatically without our voluntary knowledge. According to Woodworth, “It is a direct muscular or glandular response to a sensory stimulus.” The examples of reflex actions are many. If someone puts his finger inside the mouth of a new baby, he starts sucking it. When a mosquito comes in front of someone’s eye, it is automatically closed as a protective measure.

Aeroflex action is very quick and rapid because it proceeds directly from the spinal cord. It does not go to the brain while in other activities the sensory stimulation is carried over to the brain through the spinal cord. The brain, in turn, sends out the message for making a particular response. That is why there is some delay in making these responses to activities other than reflex actions.

Types of Reflexes:
Basic reflexes, postural reflexes, segmental reflexes, inter-segmental reflexes, and spinal reflexes, come under different types of reflexes. There are also muscular reflexes such as knee jerks, the withdrawal of the hand, coughing, sneezing, swallowing, crying, and grasping reflexes. Glandular reflexes such as the flow of saliva, and the flow of tears are also notable.

Characteristics of Reflex Action:
The reflex actions are involuntary, unlearnt, and innate in nature like winking, knee erk, withdrawing leg from painful stimulation, sneezing, etc. The individual has no control over such reflexes. They occur very abruptly within a fraction of a second and also terminate very quickly. The involuntary or primary reflexes are purely universal.

The same type of avoidance of the pin pricking, grasping, winking and pupillary reflex is found in almost every person in the world. The reflexes are unlearnt behavior. Most of the behaviors of neonates are expressed in terms of reflexes. In babies, these reflexes are found in their original form.

As they grow up, the number of reflexes decrease and learned behavior increase. In other words, reflexes decrease with age. But there are certain reflexes that continue throughout life, like a knee-jerk, eye blink, etc. Finally, reflexes protect the individual from danger and help in maintaining the safety and welfare of the organism. Reflexes have, therefore, many positive values.

A reflex action is different from an ordinary action. In ordinary action, sensory stimulation in the form of electric waves is sent to the brain through the spinal cord. The brain then sends the message about the response to be made through the effectors. But in the case of reflex action, the message does not go to the brain. The spinal cord controls it. So the reflex action follows the spinal cord.

Reflex Arc:
The structure through which reflex action takes place is called the reflex arc. It involves the sensory nerve, spinal cord, and motor nerve. Take the example of withdrawing the foot when the pin is pricked. Sensory neurons cany impulses to the association.

Question 5.
How many lobes are there in the brain? Describe their location and function.
Answer:
Four lobes, in the brain and these, are:
Frontal lobe:
It is located in front of the nearly vertical fissure of Rolando and above the fissure of Sylvius. It contains three important areas of the brain: the motor area, the association area, and the speech area.

Motor Area:
At the farther end of the frontal lobe and adjacent to the central fissure, we have the motor area Which controls the voluntary movements of various parts of the body like the leg, arm, face, etc. It is technically known as the precentral area (Broadman’s area 4).

Promotor Area:
It is located in front of the precentral area. It also controls complex muscular movements of the body. Each hemisphere is connected to the opposite side of the body. The right limbs are paralyzed if the motor area of the left hemisphere is damaged or destructed and vice versa, complete destruction of the motor area of one of the hemispheres will produce paralysis of the muscles, on the opposite side of the body. The motor area has centers that control different parts of the body such as feet, hips, trunks, etc.

Association Area:
Just below the premotor area, there is an association area that deals with psychological processes like reasoning and memory. These areas are also responsible for giving a coherent form to various experiences of the organism. It is because of the association area, that man is different from animals. The essential function of these areas is to react to immediate sense impressions and symbols as well.

A small baby does not have the capacity to react to symbols. But with age, the power to react with symbols grows and these symbolic processes become a significant part of the association areas. Because of these areas, we are able to correlate all our present experiences with past experiences and make use of memory and thought processes.

ParietalLob:
The parietal lobe lies near the central fissure in the back half of the brain. It has the somesthetic area, which is the most important functional area. It lies adjacent to the central fissure itself. The parietal lobe is the seat of sensation. All the sensory impulses coming from the various parts of the body reach this area. So it is named a somesthetic or body sensitivity area.

Like the motor area, here we have separate centers for receiving the impulses from different parts of the body such as the arm, Teg, etc. All the bodily sensations are projected in this area. If this area is damaged person cannot discriminate between a piece of silk cloth and sandpaper. The sensation of wool, pinprick, mud, or clay is projected in the parietal lobe.

Temporal Lobe:
The major part lying below the lateral fissure is called the temporal lobe. The auditory area is located here. Electrical stimulation in this area leads to the sound of all sorts of noises heard by the subject. Damage to this area leads to deafness. The area for recognition of music is situated in this area If the recognition area of the temporal lobe is destroyed, the person loses the taste sensation. Connected with the temporal lobe is the gustatory area which lies directly below the temporal lobe.

The olfactory area also lies at one end of the temporal lobe. So it is undoubtedly the most important area of sensitivity. Thus, neurophysiology research indicates that this area is more vital than the frontal lobe and it has also been suggested that memory may ultimately be found to depend upon the temporal lobe. It plays a significant role in emotional behavior. So it has close functional contact with the interbrain.

Occipital Lobe:
The shape of the occipital lobe is triangular and it is located at the back portion of the brain. It is the seat of visual sensation. The most important functional area located in this lobe is the visual area. The retina, the crucial Organ of the eye is connected with it. Optic nerves1 coming down from the eye are extended to the occipital lobe. If one of the optic nerves is damaged, either of the eyes will lose the visual ability.

But if one part of the occipital lobe is destroyed, the person will not be able to sec half of the object. Several optic nerves going down from the retina go to different parts of the occipital lobe and we see the objects. The cerebrum and particularly, the cortex, contains the major centers of intelligence, cognitive process, sensational process, and all such creative higher mental processes.

Functions of the Brain:
Sensory Function:
Specialized sensory areas are located to the parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes and they are known as sensory projection areas because nerve impulses originating in receptors are as if it were projected upon them.

Somasthetic Activity:
A portion of the parietal lobe located just behind the fissure of Rolando serves as a terminal or projection area for impulses originating in the skin and in the Kinesthetic receptors. It is called somesthetic or body feeling area. When this area is stimulated electrically in human beings these are reports of temperature, touch, and movement experiences in the body.

But no pain sensation is experienced in the body. Medical reports indicate that even when tumors are operated on from various areas of the cortex, no pain is experienced. So it is concluded that pain sensitivity is mediated by the thalamus and not by the cortex.

Visual Sensitivity:
At the back of each cerebral hemisphere, in the front part of the occipital lobe lies an area called the striate area which is responsible for visual sensation. The visual area in the right cerebral hemisphere receives impulses from the right half of each eye and in the left cerebral hemisphere from the left half of each eye. If the visual cortex of the right hemisphere is damaged, the right parts of both eyes become blind.

Total blindness will be possible only when visual areas are destroyed in both hemispheres. Flashes of light, whirling colors, and similar such visual experiences thus warn the epileptic patient that he is going to be attacked by a fix. How is this possible? Frequent irritation of tissues in the visual cortex of the epileptic caused by tumors brings these visual signals.

Auditory Sensitivity:
The temporal lobe contains the auditory area. When the temporal lobe of epileptic patients is electrically stimulated or is cut, the patient hears buzzing, humming, and even musical sounds. Destruction of the auditory cortex in one hemisphere leads to minor defects in hearing. If, however, both the auditory areas are completely destroyed, the person becomes fully deaf.

This indicates that each car has representation in both hemispheres. Broca, a neurologist, found that when an area on the side of the left hemisphere was destroyed, the loss of speech occurred which is known as Broca’s speech area.

Motor Functions:
These areas of the brain are involved in controlling the movements of the body. The primary motor area, secondary motor area, and supplementary motor area. These areas of the brain are involved in the movement of the body, control of postures, and the tension of muscles. The secondary and supplementary areas do not send long axons to the spinal cord. They send sort axons into the nuclei in the interior of the cerebral hemispheres.

From it, in turn, other short axons go to nuclei in the brain stem, and a chain of such neurons leads down to the spinal cord. When stimulated electrically, part of the motor areas cause movements in the extremities. So when these areas are injured or damaged, the same parts are paralyzed. As already indicated, movements on the right side of the body originate from stimulation of the motor area of the left hemisphere and movement of the left side through stimulation of the right hemisphere.

Damage to the motor area on one side is followed by loss of voluntary movement on the other side of the body. Though voluntary movement stops in a corresponding limb, when a part of the motor area is damaged, the individual is able to move his limbs reflexly in response to strong stimuli because reflex arcs function at the lower level and are not controlled by the higher centers. The supplementary motor area is located in the longitudinal fissure.

These parts of the brain are involved in the control of postures, tensions, and body movement. These areas send short axons while long axons are sent by the premotor area. It is now suspected though not confirmed that these short axons play a major part in the control of movements like trembling and jerking etc. When the lower region is stimulated, the face may be twitched, the mouth may be opened and closed, and the like.

It was earlier believed that paralysis produced by cortical injuries was permanent and the patients never recovered. But experiments with monkeys and rats show that limbs that are paralyzed by the destruction of cells present is the motor cortex sometimes recover their functions, this brings the hope that if paralyzed human beings are given proper training, they might also start showing muscular movements. It has also been proved in some cases by messages etc.

Associative Functions:
The association areas of each side of the cerebral cortex are connected with each other, with sensory and motor areas, with the thalamus, and with similar areas on the opposite side. The chief function of the association area is to correlate and integrate the simpler functions of the sensory and motor areas since the sensory area act as gateways into the cortex and the motor areas act as exits.

Therefore, injuries to the cortex outside but near the visual areas do not cause blindness but destroy awareness of depth and recognition of visual objects. According to Munn, The cerebral cortex is a device not only for receiving sensory and initiating motor impulses but also through its association neurons for connecting, relating, and integrating functions.

These integrative functions of the cortex plus its susceptibility to modification during an organism’s life | time provide the foundation of such psychological processes as learning, recalling, past experiences and thinking”.

Question 6.
State the structure and function of the autonomic nervous system.
Answer:
Autonomic Nervous System:
The anatomical distinction between the central nervous system and the autonomic nervous system lies in that the nerve fibers of the A.N.S. have always a junction with another neuron outside the brain or spinal cord on the way to muscles or glands. But such outside synapses are not found for nerves running to the straight muscles, that is, the central nervous system. By and large.

The A.N.S. controls the internal environment of the O while the CNS controls the impulses from the sense organs, organizes them in the brain, and sends the motor impulses to the muscles. Why is it called A.N.S. ? Because many of the activities it controls are autonomous or self-regulating activities such as digestion and circulation which continue from life to death even when the person is asleep or unconscious. Its activity never stops in a living organism.

Division of Autonomic Nervous System

• Sympathetic System
• Parasympathetic System

Sympathetic System:
On either side of the spinal column, closely connected with it through the spinal nerves the chains of nerve fibers and masses of cell bodies from which fibers extend to various visual organs. These are called sympathetic chains. This sympathetic outflow takes place through the thoracic and lumber regions of the spinal cord. Due to this it is also sometimes called “The Thora Cicolumbar System”.

Structure:
The sympathetic nervous system consists of 22 sympathetic ganglia in a man:
arranged along the spinal cord. These fibers originate in the spinal cord and either end upon the sympathetic ganglion or they may extend to the other bundles of the ganglion chain. By this, they help in connecting the various sympathetic ganglia with each other or they may go to the distant parts of the body or end near the muscles or glands.

Besides, there are three important ganglia in the neck region which are known as superior, middle, and inferior ganglia. These cervical ganglia play a significant role in controlling the blood vessels of the heart and head, and dilator fibers of pupils. In general, they influence the blood supply of the brain.

Functions:
As the name suggests, the sympathetic nervous system sympathizes with the organism during an emergency situation or need by mobilizing all bodily energies effectively in the direction of facing an immediate need or emergency situation. When the man is asleep, he is at the lowest level of activity.

At this stage, the sympathetic system is at its minimum in its function. Suddenly, he is awakened by the loud noise “Fire, Fire”. Immediately his level of activation rises to the maximum through the activation of the sympathetic system. The sympathetic system puts itself into action to meet this emergency situation. The man gets up and runs with maximum speed to help himself or others out of the fire.

The sympathetic system constricts the visceral blood vessels and directs them to muscles and the brain increases the rate of the heartbeat so that more blood is pumped through to the heart, and helps the secretion of adrenalin which raises the level of blood sugar necessary for more energy, etc. There is also inhibition of intestinal and gastric activity, widening of the pupils.

Let us take the case of a person who is angry. During anger, the action of the sympathetic system includes dilating the pupil of the eye, lifting the lid and protecting the ball, speeding up the heart rate, and raising blood pressure. There is also the cessation of digestive movements, peristaltic contractions of the stomach, and of secretion of digestive juices.

The blood that normally goes to these organs is diverted to the muscles to enable the O to face the emergency situation. All these duplicate the energy of the person. In this manner, the sympathetic system makes the O ready to face the emergency situation by helping in organizing the bodily resources to meet the situation more effectively.

Parasympathetic System:
It is a division of the autonomic Nervous System concerned with projecting and conserving the body’s resources, preserving normal functions, and maintaining a calm emotional state. It has two divisions :

• the cranial part
• The sacral part.
  So it is called the craniosacral system. But here there is no such chain of parasympathetic ganglia.

The Cranial Part:
It consists of all the nerves and outlets that one, associated with the brain and the head.

The Sacral Part:
It comes from the extreme lower end of the spinal cord.

Question 7.
Describe the location of the brain.
Answer:
He conducted several experiments on rats and other animals to find out the effect of the removal of various parts of the cerebrum on psychological purposes.

• Several experiments on rats and of the problem and cerebral lessons; and
• the effects of destruction on various sizes and locations on the maze learning habits are notable.

The findings of these studies showed an intimate relationship between the difficulty of the problem and the effect of cerebral lessions. There was an increase in error while learning when cortical destructions 1 were higher. Lashley finally concluded that the quantity of the lesson was a significant factor in retardation in learning. lie found that many problems like the skill of ordinary maze learning can be acquired equally well with one part of the cortex as with another.

He further found that there was a positive relationship between the amount of cortex and the difficulty of the task that is, as the difficulty of the task increases the greater amount of cortex is required to solve it. Even when half of the cortex was removed, simple tricks were learned equally quickly, but difficult problems could not be solved.

In one experiment by Lashley (1929) adequate training was given to monkeys to open the door by handling a latch. After learning was complete the monkeys were decorticated. Some portions of the frontal lobe were removed by surgical operation, without any danger to the life of the monkey. After decortication, it was found that some portions of the brain are at least responsible for certain work.

But later he also found that money could be educated and they could relearn the previous learning after decortication. From these experimental findings, he established two principles to explain the functional localization of the brain, that is, whether the brain acts as a whole or in parts.

Principle of Equipotentiality:
Lashley was of opinion that complex learning does not depend upon the definite structure of a specific area of the cortex. On the other hand, he noted that complex learning depends upon the total organization of the cortex. The principles of equipotentiality hence mean that with some very specific exceptions.

One part of the cerebral cortex is potentially the same as another part in its functional capacity related to the learning process. In other words, the capacity of the uninjured or intact part of the brain for functioning as a substitute for other parts in case of emergency is called the principle of equipotentiality.

All parts of the cortex, therefore, are equal potential for the learning function. Thus, Lashley in his book Brain Mechanism and Intelligence (1929), has remarked, “The term equipotentiality I have used to designate the apparent capacity of the intact part of a functional area to carry out with or without reduction in efficiency, the functions which were lost by destruction as a whole.

This capacity varies from one area to another and with the character of the functions involved. It probably holds only for the association areas and for function more complex than simple sensitivity or motor coordination.”

The Principle of Mass Action:
To Lashley, the principle of mass action meant that the brain fundamentally functions as a hole. He said that the more the cortex available, the better would be the learning capacity. In this connection, he has pointed out that the animals with various amounts of their cortices removed. Showed a general reduction in sensitivity, aggressiveness, and in exploratory activity in puzzle-born learning situations in comparison to their normal counterparts.

What he intended to say is that the cerebral cortex seems to be responsible for the characteristics of one’s behavior as a whole. That is why the removal of one part of the cerebrum affects learning in a general manner. The most important generalized function of the brain is to establish associations between our various present and past experiences.

The association area of our brain contains all our experiences and it is because of this connection of experiences that our mind acts as one unit. Franz later found that the amount of brain has also got a major contribution to higher psychological activities and complex learning processes. He noticed that if a small portion of the cortex will be decorticated, it will not decrease the activities undertaken by this part.

The other parts of the brain will take charge of it and the work will be somehow managed. But if a longer part is taken away there will be a deterioration in learning and other complex mental activities. It is thus proved that more amount of cerebral cortex is needed for higher psychological processes like learning, application of intelligence and judgment, synthesizing ability, thinking, problem-solving, perception, etc.

This principle, therefore, states that the brain acts as a whole or in a mass. The principle of equipotentiality and mass action is confirmed and supported by many experimental studies on apes, monkeys, human beings, etc. These principles are also confirmed by the findings of studies on human beings whose parts of the brain were injured or damaged by disease or accident.

Analysis of these principles and the experimental findings in their support do prove that simple sensory-motor functions may show a relatively high degree of localization while complex and higher-order mental activities require less localization and more mass action. Therefore, it would probably be more appropriate to conclude that the brain acts in widespread patterns.

patterns that include many cortical areas and their connecting association fibers. Loss of any large portion of the cortex will disturb the interaction of parts and break up the usual pattern. It is the general type of function. So, we have to accept somewhere between the two. In ordinary simple work, the brain acts in part.

But in higher-order activities and higher mental processes, coordinating the integrative function of the entire brain is essential. So, in such cases the brain functions as a whole. There is evidence for the localization of sensory and muscular movements. There is some indication that the frontal lobes are concerned with the management of planned activity and that the rear half of the brain is more concerned with knowing and understanding things.

Learning seems to be an unlocalized function and adjustment of the organism for the total situation and for a goal is probably a function of the entire cerebrum. It would, therefore, be not appropriate to generalize about the principles of complete equi-potentiality of the functions of various areas of the cerebrum. Besides, the evidence derived from rats, cannot be applied with equal confidence in human organisms.

Experiments on monkeys show a much greater loss in the ability to learn when their frontal lobes were destroyed than the damage elsewhere. Some cases of human subjects also indicated that there is a considerable degree of specificity in the cortex. However, further research in this area is necessary to draw a generalized conclusion on the functional localization of the brain.

Question 8.
What are the methods applied to study the brain?
Answer:
Some of the important methods to study the localization of functional areas of the brain are discussed below:
Anatomical Method:
In this method, the anatomist attempts to find out various nerve pathways by observing the nature of neural tissues under the microscope. By this method, the anatomist not only learns the origin and termination of different nerve fibers but he also finds out what sense organs send fibers where and what parts of the brain send motor fibers to the spinal cord. This method only finds out the structure of the brain and spinal cord. The functions of the brain and the spinal cord are not traceable by this method.

Method of Extirpation or Aplation Method:
Extirpation means to destroy or cut off. In this method, a particular part of the brain is destroyed or cut off and its effect is studied on the functions of the brain or human behavior. The behavior of the organism is carefully observed and recorded. Then it cuts off a specific part of the brain and observes its effects on the behavior of the ‘O’, that is whether it changes his behavior or not.

Action Potential and Electrical Recording Method:
Neurons produce electric currents when they conduct and the potentials underlying them can be recorded with a cathode ray oscilloscope. By correlating the parts having the greatest electrical activity with the nature of the stimulus one can find out which area of the brain is involved in various types of sensations and how the body surface is represented on surfaces in the brain.

Method of Stimulation:
It is a direct method. Different parts of the brain are stimulated with mild electric currents. While making brain operations on patients an introspective report is taken from the patients on the sensations they experience while stimulation. Using this method, functions of different parts of the brain can be located.

Chemical Method:
In this method certain chemicals are used to distinguish axons from cell bodies; certain parts of neural tissues from others to observe their specific functions. Similarly, it is used to find out which axons are part of the same neurons. Otherwise, because of their complexity, it is not possible to say these things merely by looking through a microscope. Behavioral changes are also observed by using various chemicals on the external and internal parts of the brain.

Scanning Method:
Today medical science has made rapid progress, thanks to the continuous and meaningful research in the area, particularly in the West. Scanning means taking pictures intently of all parts. With the development of scamming methods, new models of X-ray machines, and computers, the functions of the brain are being studied in a very scientific and organized manner.

Through scanning, it is possible to get an X-ray picture of every millimeter of the brain. Scanning of the brain helps in knowing the damages and destruction made to the brain because of accidents. Alzheimer’s disease, Korsakoft’s Syndrome, and many other diseases like a brain tumors.

There are different types of Scanning like Cat Scans, Pet scans, and MRIs, etc.
Cat Scan:
The Cat Scan method is used when one is interested to know and analyze the minute details of the functioning of the brain of an individual. Scanning of the brain is recommended particularly when the doctor has to diagnose to patient.

Question 9.
Describe the structure of the human brain.
Answer:
The Brain:
Modem scientific psychology recognizes that is the brain, not the heart or soul which guides human behavior. Recently, technological innovations such as the electron microscope and brain scanning systems have led to an explosion in a number of new theories and tests of how the brain works. It has been found that an adult brain weighs about 1.36 kg and contains around 100 billion neurons.

The brain receives one-fifth of the blood pumped by the heart. If deprived of oxygen for 3 to 4 minutes, the brain cells are irreparably damaged. Brain investigation reveals that while some mental functions are widely distributed among different areas in the brain, man activities are highly localized.

Different areas in the brain are specialized for specific jobs. Our brain controls almost all the activities that we do, except the reflex activities which are controlled by the spinal cord.

Structure of Brain:
With the development of the human embryo inside the mother’s womb, the nervous system begins forming as a long, hollow tube in the back of the embryo. After three weeks of conception, cells making up the tube differentiate into a mass of neurons, most of which then develop into three major regions of the brain – the hindbrain, which is adjacent to the top part of the spinal cord, the mid-brain, which rises above the hindbrain and the forebrain, which is the uppermost region of the brain (see fig. 4.6).

Hindbrain:
It is the lowest portion of the brain located at the rear of the skull. In other words, the backside of the brain is called the hindbrain. It has three subdivisions medulla, cerebellum, and pons. The medulla begins where the spinal cord enters the skull. It is also called the medulla oblongata.

This structure is located at the lowest portion of the brain stem. It is a link between the brain stem and the spinal cord. The medulla helps to control our breathing and regulates reflexes which allow us to maintain an upright posture. It also controls some vital and autonomic functions such as respiration, circulation of blood digestion of food, etc.

It has some roles in sneezing, sleep, and coughing also. The cerebellum extends from the rear of the hindbrain, just above the medulla. It is also called the ‘Tittle brain’ because it is a miniature version of the cerebrum. Its outer surface looks grey and the interior white. It consists of two rounded structures thought to play important roles in motor coordination (Middleton & Strick, 2001).

Its vital function is to control body balance and posture. It also controls biological rhythm or perception of time. Injury to the cerebellum may lead to a lack of motor coordination, stumbling, and loss of muscle tone. When the cerebellum is damaged, movements become uncoordinated and jerky.

Extensive damage to the cerebellum even makes it impossible to stand up. It also stores the memory of movement patterns so that we do not have to concentrate on how to walk, dance, or ride a bicycle. Moreover, the cerebellum is associated with coordinating movements, controlling posture, and maintaining equilibrium.

The Pons lies between the medulla and the midbrain. It is a Latin word, which means ‘bridge’. But it does not look like a bridge. It is so named because of the bundle of nerves that passes through it. the pons region connects to the cerebellum and is involved in dreaming and waking. It contains several clusters of fibers involved in sleep and arousal (Kolb, Whishaw & Terao: 2003, 2004). Moreover, the pons transmits information about body movement and is also involved in functions related to attention, sleep, and alertness.

The Midbrain:
The shortest part of the brain is the midbrain. It is also the topmost part of the brain which is located in the central region. It is just a tube-like structure. The outside of the midbrain looks white and the inside looks grey. Through this tube, a fluid-like substance called cerebrospinal fluid passes which provides nutrition to the brain. Besides providing nutrition, it has got sensory and motor pathways. The midbrain contains primitive centers for vision and hearing and plays a key role in the regulation of visual reflexes.

Two systems in the midbrain are of special interest – One is the reticular formation or Reticular Activating System (RAS) and the other one is the brain stem, the RAS begins in the hindbrain and ascends through the region of the midbrain into the lower part of the forebrain. It is a network of neurons crossing each other.

The size of RAS is just like a small finger of a man. RAS has two parts ascending reticular system and descending reticular system. The ascending reticular system sends impulses to the cerebral cortex and the descending system sends impulses downward to the RAS. RAS also receives impulses from the cerebral cortex.

Electrical stimulation of RAS awakens sleeping animals. If the RAS is damaged, the animal may not die but will sleep forever. This kind of sleep is called comatose or simply coma. Once it is destroyed, it does not recover. RAS also acts as a relay station for emotional behavior. The RAS is less activated during sleep. It is connected with the cerebrum by receptors and effectors. Further, it plays an important role in selective attention and filtering of information through learning.

The brain stem is so-called because it looks like a stem (Carlson, 2001). It is the most ancient part of the brain. The brain stem connects with the spinal cord at its lower end and then extends upward to encase the reticular formation in the midbrain. Clumps of cells in the brain stem determine alertness and regulate basic survival functions, such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.

The Forebrain:
It is the most important part of the brain. Virtually it possesses all the parts concerned with the perception, and coordination of behavior patterns including those of emotion, motivation, learning, memory, language, and thinking. The significant parts of the forebrain are the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.

Thalamus:
Thalamus is located almost in the exact center of the human brain. It consists of an egg-shaped cluster of neurons. Thalamus connects the cerebrum with peripheral parts of the body. All the nerves come and go through it. So it is an important relay station for incoming sensory impressions from all parts of the body. Further, it is called the central switchboard of the brain.

The main function of the thalamus is to send incoming sensory impulses to respective parts of the cerebral cortex. Most neural input to the cerebral cortex goes through the thalamus. Thalamus is also involved in controlling sleep and attention in coordination with other brain structures, including RAS. When the cortex wants to inhibit or control certain automatic activities, it sends the impulses to the thalamus.

Basal Ganglia:
Just above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex lie large clusters of neurons called basal ganglia. The basal ganglia work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements. These large clusters of neurons or ganglia enable people to engage in habitual behaviors such as riding a bicycle. People with damage to basal ganglia suffer from either unwanted movement, such as constant writing or jerking of limbs, or too little movement, such as the slow and deliberate movements of those with Parkinson’s disease.

Hypothalamus:
Hypothalamus is a small forebrain structure located just below the thalamus. It lies at the base of the cerebrum. It regulates the functioning of the Autonomic Nervous System. Hypothalamus monitors three pleasurable activities eating, drinking, and sex – as well as emotion, stress, and reward. It also directs the endocrine system. Hypothalamus acts as a regulator of the body’s internal state.

It also plays an important role as an integrative location for handling stress (Hayashi and others, 2004). Much of the integration is accomplished through the hypothalamus’s action on the pituitary gland, an important endocrine gland located just below it. If certain areas of the hypothalamus are stimulated electrically, a feeling of pleasure results.

The Limbic System:
The limbic system is composed of a group of structures that is found in all mammals, sometimes called the old brain. Only mammals and reptiles have limbic systems. It is a ring-like structure having several other structures. The limbic system is structurally interconnected with the hypothalamus. So it is involved in the drives of hunger, sex, aggression, and some of the behaviors regulated by the hypothalamus.

The three principal structures in the limbic system are the amygdala, hippocampus, and septum. The amygdala has an important role in aggression. It is involved in memory, emotions, and certain basic motivations. The damage to the amygdala causes an animal to be less fearful, over-curious, hypersexual, and more exploratory.

Question 10.
What is the endocrine gland and discuss the functions of the endocrine system?
Answer:
The endocrine system is a set of glands that regulate the activities of certain organs by releasing their chemical products into the bloodstream, like the nervous system, it plays a crucial role in our behavior and development previously, the endocrine system was considered separate from the nervous system.

However, today neuroscientists know that two systems are interconnected. The endocrine system consists of ductless glands which secret complex chemical substances called hormones, directly into the bloodstream. The human body is not only under the control of the nervous system but also of a complementary system of hormones.

This system is controlled by Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) activity and like ANS, it is not under conscious control but regulated by the body itself. It helps in maintaining bodily homeostasis. Hormones are involved in different bodily functions and behaviors. They influence body growth, sexual development arousal, mood, and metabolism.

Endocrine or ductless glands are stimulated in 3 ways:

• by chemical level in the bloodstream,
• other hormones and
• nerve impulses from the Bram

Once secreted into the blood, hormones are promoted it’s their bodily targets. This system not only sustains our slow and continuous bodily processes but also helps us to respond to crises. During an emergency, the Iannone ‘adrenaline’ is released into the bloodstream, energizing our body for quick defensive action for ‘ fight’ or ‘ flight’.

‘Hormones’ are generally called ‘the messengers of life’ because their influence is diverse but specific (Carpo 1988). Different hormone factories ‘sites of our body produce chemicals that influence a variety of bodily processes. A small structure of the limbic system, the hypothalamus, is the brain center in charge of the endocrine system.

In the hypothalamus, specialized cells receive messages from other brain cells committing to release a number of different chemicals. These chemicals influence the adjacent pituitary gland, the so-called master gland which can either stimulate or inherit the release of hormones from other glands.

The functions of the Endocrine System:
The important functions of the endocrine system are discussed below:

• The pituitary gland
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid
• Adrenal gland
• The pancreas
• The Gonads

The Pituitary Gland:
Although the pituitary gland is situated within the cranium, still it is a part of the endocrine system, rather than the nervous system. This gland is popularly known as the master gland. It is located in a small bony hollow at the base of the brain. Centre of the skull. The size of the pituitary gland is very small. But control growth and regulates other glands. This pea-sized gland is controlled by the hypothalamus.

The pituitary gland has:

• anterior
• posterior pituitary secretions.

Anterior:
The anterior pituitary secretions help growth. Hypersecretion of it causes gigantism and a rugged personality.

Posterior pituitary secretions:
The posterior pituitary gland hormone raises blood pressure, regulates metabolism, and increases the contraction of smooth muscles in the intestine and uterus.

Thyroid Gland:
The thyroids are located in the neck at either side of the ‘Adam’s apple’. These glands produce thyroxin, which influences the body’s metabolism rate. It also helps to control the rate of physical growth and influences the structure and functions of the nervous system.

Question 11.
What is the cerebrum and describe how does the brain function?
Answer:
The Cerebrum:
The cerebrum or cerebral cortex is more highly developed in humans than in any other animals. The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves or hemispheres. It is the highest region of the forebrain and is the most recently developed part of the brain in the evolutionary scheme. In humans, the cerebral cortex covers the lower portions of the brain like a large cap.

The cortex is greatly convoluted with lots of grooves and bulges which considerably enlarge its surface area. It is connected with other parts of the brain. Literally, millions of axons connect the neurons of the cerebral cortex with those located elsewhere in the brain.

The cortex looks gray since it consists largely of cell bodies and unmyelinated fiber. A very depressed or fissure divides the cerebrum into two equal halves – the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. The left hemisphere is connected with the right-hand side of the body. The right hemisphere is connected with the left-hand side of the body.

The two hemispheres are connected with each other by a thick fiber bundle known as the corpus callosum. Each hemisphere is divided into four parts or lobes by two fissures – the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe. However, the occipital lobe is not clearly demarcated. It is located at the rear of the brain.

The frontal lobe is that portion of the cortex behind the forehead which is involved in the control of voluntary muscles, intelligence, and personality. The frontal lobes of humans are especially large when compared with those of other animals. This lobe is primarily responsible for the planning, execution, and control of movements.

Without intact frontal lobes, humans are emotionally shallow, -5 distractible, listless, and insensitive to social contexts (Hopper & Teresi, 1992). Individuals with frontal lobe damage become so distracted by irrelevant stimuli that they often cannot carry out some basic directions. An important part of the frontal lobe is the prefrontal cortex, which is at the front of the motor cortex.

It is believed to be involved in higher cognitive functions such as planning and reasoning (Manes & Others, 2002). Neuroscientists refer to the prefrontal cortex as an executive control system because of its role in monitoring and organizing thinking (Owen, 1997). The parietal lobe is located at the top and towards the rear of each hemisphere.

It is involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control. This cortex receives information from the somatic senses. Therefore, this area is specialized for touch, pressure, and pain. On the whole, it controls incoming sensory information. The portion of the cerebral cortex just above the ears is the temporal lobe. It is involved in hearing, language processing, and memory.

The temporal lobes have a number of connections to the limbic system. Individuals with damage to the temporal lobes can not file experiences into long-term memory. The area of recognition of music is situated in this area. If this area is destroyed, an individual may lose the taste sensation.

The occipital lobe is located at the back portion of the brain. Its shape is triangular. It is the seat of the visual sensation. The most important functional area located in this lobe is the visual area. The retina is connected to this area. A stroke or wound in the occipital lobe can cause blindness or wipe, out a portion of the person’s visual field.

In the cerebral cortex, there are some areas that are not directly concerned with sensory or motor functions. These are called association areas. Each lobe is having an association area. They play significant roles in various sensory systems and in transmitting sensory input to programmers for motor output. Further, the association areas are involved in complex cognitive activities such as thinking, reasoning, learning, remembering, etc.

How does the brain function?
Very often, the question arises whether or not the brain functions as a ‘whole’. Physiological psychologists are trying to answer this question since the days of Johannes Muller. There are differences in views. A group of experts believed that each part of the cerebrum had a definite function. Another group believed that parts of the brain are functionally interchangeable. Modem findings indicated that the brain functions in parts as well as as a whole.

The experimental findings of Franz and Lashley on localization are expressed in two theories:

• the theory of equipotentiality and
• the theory of mass action.

Theory of Equipotentiality:
The theory of equipotentiality suggests that all parts of the cortex are equal potential enough for simple learning functions. Lashley has conducted a good number of studies on animals. According to him, complex learning does not depend upon the definite structure of a specific area of the cortex, rather, complex learning depends upon the total organization of the cortex.

This principle suggests that with some very specific exceptions, one part of the cerebral cortex is potentially the same as another part in its functional capacity related to the learning process. Therefore, all parts of the cortex are equal potential for learning function.

The Principle of Mass Action:
The principle of Mass Action reveals that the brain fundamentally functions as a whole. The more parts of the cortex an available, the better would be the learning capacity. In his study, Lashley found that animals having decorticated cortex demonstrated a general reduction in sensitivity, exploratory activities, and aggressiveness. The removal of any part of the brain affects the learning process.

Later, Franz found that the amount of brain has got major contributions to higher psychological activities and complex learning processes. The principles of Mass Action and Equipotentiality were confirmed and supported by many experimental studies on apes, monkeys, human beings, etc.

These principles were also confirmed by the findings of the studies on human beings whose parts of the brain were injured or damaged by disease or accident. Probably it would be more appropriate to conclude that the brain acts in widespread patterns, which include many cortical areas and their connecting association fibers.

Damage to the large portion of the cortex would certainly disturb the interaction of parts and break up the usual pattern. It is true that the brain acts in part in ordinary simple work. But in higher mental activities and higher mental processes, the coordinating and integrative function of the entire brain is necessary. In such cases, the brain functions as a whole. However, to draw a generalized conclusion on the functional localization of the brain, further research in this area is essential.

Question 12.
What is the peripheral Nervous System?
Answer:
The peripheral nervous system is composed of all the neurons forming the nerve fibers that connect the CNS to the rest of the body. It consists of sensory and motor neurons that transmit messages to and from the central nervous system. Our brain will be isolated from the world without a peripheral nervous system. This system has two divisions.

• Somatic Nervous System.
• Autonomic Nervous System.

These are described below:

Somatic nervous system:
The somatic nervous system is the first part of the peripheral nervous system. It is under voluntary control and regulates the actions of the skeletal muscles of the body. The somatic nervous system has both sensory neurons and motor neurons. The sensory neurons mn from our sense organs toward the central nervous system for perception and learning etc.

On the other hand, the motor neurons carry messages from the brain to the striped muscles of the body for activities. Action like moving our legs or hands, running, jumping, and riding is possible by the somatic nervous system. On the whole, the somatic nervous system controls the striped muscles of our body.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
The very word autonomic means self-regulating or independent. ANS is the second part of the peripheral nervous system. It is involuntary and governs activity, which is not normally under the direct control of the individual. The ANS works even when we are asleep. ANS sustains basic life processes.

The ANS operates constantly, regulating bodily processes we do not usually control consciously, such as respiration, digestion, and arousal. On the whole, the autonomic nervous system is called as autonomic because many of the activities it controls are autonomous or self-regulating and continue even when a person is asleep or unconscious.

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Both these divisions have survival functions for which the autonomic nervous system is called as survival nervous system. The ANS is intimately connected with the spinal cord.

The sympathetic division tends to act as a unit. It is exciting in emotional situations. The sympathetic division governs responses to stress in emergencies when action must be quick and powerfully, energized. This is the ‘fight or flight response system. In short, the sympathetic nervous system is the division for emergency survival.

For example, during emotional excitement, digestion is stopped, heart rate is increased, blood flowing to the internal organs is directed to the skeletal muscles and the endocrine system is stimulated to release several chemicals which increase the effectiveness of the entire motor system. The sympathetic division energizes us to respond to a stressor quickly.

But the parasympathetic division monitors the routine operation of the body’s internal functions. It is concerned with projecting and conserving the body’s resources, preserving normal functions, and maintaining a calm emotional state. This division returns the body to calmer functioning after sympathetic arousal. Unlike the sympathetic division, the parasympathetic division tends to affect one organ at a time.

In short, whereas the sympathetic system is activated during violent emotions, the parasympathetic system is dominant and active during normal times or during quiescence. Activation of this system slows the heartbeat, lowers blood pressure, and conserves as well as protects bodily resources. The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems do not compete with one another, rather they function in a coordinated manner.

Points to remember

Question 1.
What is Neuron? Describe the structures and functions of a Neuron, How does it differ from a cell?
Building Blocks of the Nervous System:
Neurons are basic units of the nervous system. On the whole, the way the neurons function reflect the major characteristics of the nervous system.
Basic Structure of a Neuron:
In general, every neuron has the following structures.

• Cell body or soma
• Dendrites
• Axon and
• Terminal buttons or axon terminals

Question 2.
Central Nervous System and Structure and Function.
Answer:
The central nervous system is well protected in the bony case of the skull and spinal column. It is divided into the spinal cord and the brain.

Question 3.
State the structure and function of the autonomic nervous system.
Answer:
Autonomic Nervous System:
The anatomical distinction between the central nervous system and the autonomic nervous system lies in that the nerve fibers of the A.N.S. have always a junction with another neuron outside the brain or spinal cord on the way to muscles or glands.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 2 Perceptual Process Long Answer Questions Part 1.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 2 Perceptual Process Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What are perception and its operational benefits? Discuss the process of perception. Meaning and Operational Definition.
Answer:
While interacting with the environment, the organism is impinged by a number of stimuli, lie receives these stimuli through its sense organs. This is called sensation. The sensation is the raw material of experience. When meaning is added to the sensation, with the help of past experience and learning it becomes perception.

In other words, perception provides meaning and awareness to a particular sensation. The sensation is mere acquaintance with the stimulus. But perception contributes a clear knowledge about the stimulus. So perception has been included under the cognitive (knowing) aspect of the mind. Perception has become the meeting ground of experimental, clinical, and social psychology.

Starting from Wundt to Gestalt perception has been a topic of great interest. Watson, Wundt, Titchener, and Gestalts, all gave due importance to the process of perception. Gestalt School dominated the study of perception for the next two decades. Their research centered around the organization of perception.

As already pointed out, perception contributes meaning and awareness to a particular sensation. For instance, you see a big bird-like object flying in the sky. This is the sensation when you attend to it and say that it is an airplane, it becomes perception. Perception is, therefore, defined as the awareness of sensory stimulation.

But this is an incomplete definition. Along with awareness, the most important thing in perception is adding knowledge and meaning to this awareness, i.e., interpreting it on the basis of past experience. Perception is, therefore, defined as the interpretation of sensation in the light of past experience.

When a person faces a stimulus, he gets a sensation. It may be a sensation of vision, smell, or sound. When he tries to go ahead and add knowledge to this sensation with the help of experience and learning, it becomes perception. Titchener has defined perception as a complex of sensory and imaginal elements.

By this, he implied that perception is always built up of complex experiences out of sense impressions, characteristics, and qualities supplied by mental activities. According to Hebb, it is a process of information, extraction, and preparation for response. This definition of Hebb emphasizes the selective nature of perception. We do not perceive each and every stimulus. We perceive the one which we select to perceive.

Processes involved in Perception:

The mechanism through which the organism converts a sense of impression to perception by adding knowledge and meaning to it is called the process of perception. Thus, the sensation is the first step in the process of perception. Perception, in fact, starts with sensation. Though without sensation there cannot be any perception, all sensation may not lead to perception, because perception is a selective process.

According to Munn (1954), “The term perception is customarily used to refer to relatively complex receptors or neural processes which underlie our awareness of ourselves and our world. This awareness is referred to as perception. “Perception is, therefore, a very complex process.”

As mentioned earlier at a given moment We get a number of sense impressions from the environment around us. But it is neither possible nor necessary to perceive everything at a time. So our perception at a given moment is based on selection. Selection is guided by set, need, or by objective determinants of the stimulus.

Needed objects are perceived first. A large number of studies on perceptual selectivity lead to the conclusion that there are certain objects in the environment that conform to the current needs, values, attitudes, and past experiences of the perceiver and hence are selected for perception.

Titchener has explained perception as a selective act in terms of attention as attention is a preperceptive attitude. The selective manner in which different part systems are analyzed in perception is largely determined by the unique interaction between the individual and his cultural media, which he has passed through and of which he is a part at the moment.
After selection one starts perceiving.
This process of perception involves:

• Receptor Process
• Symbolic Process
• Affective Process

In each act of perceiving, these three processes are involved.
Receptor Process:
Perception not only depends upon the mental set but also upon the forms of stimulation, the receptor functions, and the neural functions. Simultaneously different receptor processes like visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, kinesthetic, and neural are activated. At a particular time perception is limited only to a particular receptor process.

For instance, at the same time the telephone rings, and the calling bell rings. Here you receive both sounds through your auditory receptors. But you cannot attend to both simultaneously. So you decide to attend to the tclephni1; call first and then the calling bell.

Symbolic Process:
Sensory stimulations arouse certain neural activities which have their trace in the nervous system. These are popularly known as neural traces. These traces act as symbols or substitutes for the original stimulus or experience. There are called images. When the teacher, for instance, asks the student in the class to draw a picture of his father in his mind’s eye, it becomes symbolic.

These symbolic images help us while perceiving something. This symbolic process is activated by any experience or image associated with the father. It is called symbolic because it represents some experiences or images, as it stands for some experiences or images which is a necessary part of the perceptual process. While sensations depend upon the present, images are derived from past experiences.

For any perception both present sensation and past experience in the form of images are necessary. Perception, therefore, does not consists only of sensation or only of images. It is made up of sensations, ideas, and images. All these come simultaneously at the same moment to make perception complete. Particularly, for adding meaning and knowledge to their interpretation of a sensory experience, the symbolic process helps.

Affective Process:
When we are perceiving an object, with receptor and symbolic process, the affective process is also involved to complete perception. In fact, an effective process forms an integral part of the process of perception. When one is interpreting a fruit, say a mango, it may appear to him pleasant or unpleasant or it may bring an indifferent neutral feeling in him.

This pleasantness or unpleasantness for the percept (the object which we perceive) may arise due to past experience or due to the very nature of the percept. Say, you like the mango as it is sweet. So its presence brings a pleasant sensation in you. The fragrance of a flower always gives a pleasant sensation. The bitterness of quinine always creates an unpleasantness.

Such ideas about the percept are not due to past experience only, but because of the very nature of the object. But in most perceptions, the affective feeling is determined by past experience. You don’t like the sight of a particular person or females on the whole. You cannot stand the sight of jasmine because it reminds you of a very painful memory.

Individual differences in the perception of the same object are mostly guided by this affective process, perception is an active process as pointed out by Ruch (1970), “perception is a process whereby sensory cues and relevant past experience are organized to give us the most structure, meaningful picture possible under the circumstances.”

Question 2.
What is attention and what types of attention?
Answer:
Attention is also described as selective and fluctuating. At a particular moment, so many stimuli around us attract outs attention and draw our awareness. But we Only attend to that stimulus that suits our purpose at the moment. So, we select only the stimulus at a time and reject the rest. When you enter the drawing room of your friend, the beautiful personal carpet immediately draws your attention because of its fantastic color combinations. You at this moment, only select to attend this and it remains in the center of your consciousness for some time.
Types of Attention
Attention has been classified in 3 groups:

• Voluntary Attention
• Involuntary Attention
• Habitual Attention

Voluntary Attention:
Voluntary attention also called effortful attention. When attention requires special effort on the part of the attendee to attend it, it is called voluntary attention. In this case, we attend an object that we really want to attend. At the time of examination, a student has to attend to a particular topic if he comes to know that questions have been set from this topic.

Involuntary Attention:
When without one’s own effort one attends to a stimulus it is called effortless or involuntary attention. Munn (1954) remarks that “when stimuli or situations force themselves upon us as it were, whether or not we are set for their perception, attending is said to be involuntary.” In voluntary attention, stimulus draws our attention because we can not help attending.

In voluntary attention usually occurs because of the quality of the stimulus itself, either loud sound, eye-catching color, or the huge size of the stimulus object. As opposed to voluntary attention involuntary attention is incidental. There is more fluctuation and greater distraction in involuntary attention since the desire to attend is very less in this type of attention.

Habitual Attention:
We attend to certain objects in our environment because we have been attending to these stimuli from the very beginning. So just out of habit and past experience, we attend to it not by pressure nor out of the will, rather because of continuous observation of these stimuli we become habituated to attending them.

The gardener attends to the plants, the housewife attends to the kitchen, the mother attends to the baby and the student attends to his study, because of habit. In a similar way, a smoker attends a cigarette shop, and a painter’s attention is drawn immediately to beautiful paintings. The doctor’s husband attends to the telephone call and the mother attends to the baby’s crying.

In habitual attention, the person is permanently set for the reception of certain stimuli. Let us take the example of a husband chess player, who purchased a book on ‘Chess’, a wife who was interested in cooking and purchased a book on Chinese recipes, and finally, a daughter who is a cricket lover, who purchased a book on cricket. Thus, in habitual attention, internal conditions and bit play a major role.

In habitual attention, the attitude of alertness develops which determines one’s attention to a particular stimulus. In the words of Munn, “Most of our acts of attending are continuing rather than abruptly assumed sets and they are sets of which we are frequently unaware. These continuing sets stem from our motives. They are related to drives, interests, attitudes, prejudices, and aspirations”.

Habitual attention may develop out of voluntary attention. In the beginning, you may start reading, cooking, or gardening because of necessity, out of your own will. But once you are habituated to doing it, it becomes a part of your life and you cannot give up reading daily to it. A student who was habituated to reading daily for four hours used to read daily even after he passed his MBBS Examination.

Once when this author asked him “Why are you studying daily, going to the library ? You have already passed. Take some rest”. The boy remarked, “I can’t sleep peacefully unless 1 read daily and go to the library. It has almost become a habit with me.” The present author who has cooked for the family for the last thirty-five years, now it has almost become a habit with her to attend to cooking.

Question 3.
What are the various determinants of attention? Explain objective determinants in detail.
Determinants of Attention
Answer:
The complexity of the environment makes the individual face so many stimuli simultaneously at a given moment. But as it is impossible to attend to all at a time, he selects one of them. What are the conditions for selecting a particular stimulus for attention? What are the factors that make stimulus attract our attention? Why do we select one and reject the others? All these questions deal with the determinants of attention. Many factors influence the direction and selection of our attention. They determine our attention.

The determinants of attention may be classified under two broad heads:

• The objective or external determinants.
• The subjective or internal determinants.

A large number of researches in consumer psychology, in the area of advertisement and selling, have uncovered several external and internal determinants.

Objective Determinants:
Those factors or determinants which lie in the stimulus or object of attention are called the external or objective determinants. They are the qualities and characteristics present in the object of attention. They are:

• Intensity
• Size
• Duration
• Novelty
• Repetition
• Change
• Systematic form
• Movement
• Location
• Colour
• Contrast
• Prepotency

More often than not, several of these factors operate together in determining our attention at a given moment.
Intensity:
The more intense the stimulus, the more likely it is to be attended. It is also called the potency of the stimulus. The sound coming from the loudspeakers, deep and bold colors, bright, gorgeous shades, strong, fragrance, severe pain, all these draw attention immediately. On the other hand, a soft whisper, low sounds, plate color, and fade shades, and dim light do not catch our immediate attention, keeping other words constant.

The brilliantly lit signs in front of the traffic stand or cinema hall attract our attention to those than the low power lights. Thunder draws our attention at once. According to Boaz (1984) here the selection depends upon the very nature of our sense receptors and on the greater amount of energy stimulated.

Size or Extensity:
The size of a stimulus is of great importance in determining the direction of our attention. Big things always draw one’s attention more than smaller ones, other things being equal. A big poster, a big elephant, a big mouse, a full-page advertisement, and big letters draw instant attention in comparison to their smaller counterparts.

For successful advertisements very big posters and big lights are kept in front of shops. During elections in India, the full-page advertisement of hand, the election symbol of Congress (I), drew the immediate attention of a large number of people. Thus, the greater size of the stimulus has an advantage over smaller sizes. However, size is only one among the diverse factors determining one’s attention.

Duration:
Other things being equal, objects exposed for a longer period of duration have greater attention-catching value than those shown for a shorter period. When a card containing a few digits is exposed before us for 1 minute it is better attended than when it is exposed for only 1/10 part of the second. Similarly, a sound or a visual exposed for a moment obviously escapes our notice while the one which persists catches and holds our attention.

But the stimulus presented for a continuous duration is less likely to hold one’s attention because of fluctuations than the stimulus which is presented at intervals and for a moderate duration. For example, if the noise goes on without break it might escape our attention. The duration of exposure hence should be up to a limit.

Novelty:
Most of us attend to anything that is novel. Things to which we are unaccustomed, which are new to us, whether sound, smell or taste, are instantly noticed by us. That is why, anything strange or unusual has always a unique charm for the attending person than the things which are conventional, traditional, ordinary, and usual.

Say, for instance, a newly designed unusual dress used by a girl may draw our immediate attention to her more than when she is dressed in a traditional saree or salwar kameez. Similarly, strange animals, ultramodern buildings, unusual colors, strangely decorated drawing rooms, and novel flower arrangements draw our attention more than conventional ones. Novelty in the technique of advertisement on T. V., Radio draws a lot of attention.

Repetition:
According to Ruch (1970), “A work stimulus frequently repeated may be as effective as a strong one presented once.” Thus, a stimulus may not be very intense or colorful, it may not be very big in size, and the sound may not be very loud, but if it is repeated over and over again it may eventually draw our notice.

Repetition brings the object to the center of consciousness and so we are bound to attend it. When you are studying and somebody gives knocks on the door, you overlook it. But if the knock is made repeatedly over and over again, you are definitely drawn to it. But there is a limit to the effectiveness of repetition.

If it goes beyond the limit, it ceases to draw one’s attention just like diminishing returns. If repetition is overdone it can also lead to monotony and unpleasantness. For instance, the continuous and repeated ticking sound of the timepiece kept on the study table escapes our attention though it is there in the fringe of our consciousness. This is because we are so adopted or accustomed to it.

Question 4.
What do you understand by errors in perception? Explain some geometrical and fan’s Zollner, height width, Ponzo, and Jastrow illusion.
Answer:
Errors in perception Always our sense organs do not provide correct information. So we can not always rely upon these sense organs. Very often what we see and hear may be wrong and misleading. We perceive certain things which are not actually present there and sometimes we perceive one thing for another.

On the whole, our perception of the stimulus world may not be always accurate. The sensory information may be incorrectly interpreted on certain occasions. These are called errors in perception. Mainly two types of errors are there – illusion and hallucination.

Illusion:
Illusions are the wrong perception while perception is the correct interpretation of sensation, illusion is the wrong or mistaken interpretation of a sensory experience. In both perception and illusion existence that is illusion always has an apparent external stimulus. A person suffering from a severe cold may not get the real fragrance of flowers or the smell of fish. Thus the errors in perception seem to be a function of diverse factors.

Muller Lyer- Illusion:
It is also known as a geometrical illusion. An observation of the diagram given below would lead to every normal person saying that the horizontal line ‘A’ looks smaller than line ‘B’.

But actually both the lines are of the same length. Muller and Lyer, two psychologists, observed this kind of error in perception for the first time and hence called it Muller Lyer Illusion. In this visual illusion, both lines are of equal length. At the end of line ‘A’ two very short lines are joined just like an arrow and at the end of line ‘B’ two very short lines of the same size as line ‘A’ are joined like a feather.

These two are known as arrow-headed and feather-headed lines. Though both lines are of similar length the feather-headed line appears invariably longer than the arrow-headed line. It is a universal illusion as this error in perception takes place in every normal person due to the stimulus factor.

Even children old enough to express their nature of experience and some animals react in the same way as normal adults. Perception of the comer of buildings, and rooms is due to this type of geometrical illusion. Hering illusion, Zollner illusion, and Orbison illusion are some of the examples of geometrical and optical illusions universally found.

Hering Illusion:
It is named after Hering (1861). In the following figure, the two horizontal lines are parallel. The distance between 1 and 2 is the same, all the way across the figure. But they appear every one as unparallel. This is also called Fan’s illusion.

Zollner Illusion:
It is named after Zollner (1860). All these lines are drawn in a parallel way. But they are not perceived as parallel.

Height Width Illusion:
A tall hat is put in a short vase. The height and width of the hats are equal. But one looks taller than the other.

Ponzo Illusion:
It is also a geometrical illusion. Circles 1 and 2 are really of the same size. But circle 2 looks bigger than 1.

Jastrow Illusion:
The two crescents 1 and 2 are of the same size but 1 appears to be bigger than 2.

Question 5.
Define perceptual constancy. Perceptual Constancy
Answer:
The tendency of the percept to remain the same from moment to moment and from time to time refers to the constancy of perception. Even when we perceive an object under different conditions, size shape, and height, the perception of the stimulus does not change. It remains the same. Thus, in spite of the constant changes in the stimulus field, the stimulus situations that are familiar are easily recognized for what they are. Perceptual constancy includes the constancy of size, shape, distance, color brightness, etc.

Size Constancy:
The size of a stimulus varies with the change in distance in distance between the percept and the perceiver. A tree that is usually perceived at a distance of 5 feet will look very small when perceived from a distance of 30 feet. This is because the size of the retinal image becomes smaller and smaller as the distance of the object from the eye becomes larger and larger.

But in spite of this significant difference in the sense of impression, we perceive the tree to be of its usual size. Similarly, from whatever angle you perceive a square table, you will perceive it in its actual size. Martin did an experiment on size constancy. A series of 13 blocks were lined up from the observer varying in size from 30 mm to 90 mm.

The standard blocks, one at a time, were placed at varying distances from the observer, but always nearer to him than the comparison series. The technique again was to have the observer select the blocks that appeared equal in apparent size to the standard. Considerable constancy was indicated by the observer in the perception of the size of the blocks.

Colour Constancy:
When a black paper is brought from the dark comer of a room into direct sunlight by a window, the intensity of the sunlight being reflected from its surface is increased. The paper is still perceived as black, and the perception of the color of the paper does not change though the conditions against which it, is observed are radically changed.

When a blue paper is placed in yellow illumination of the optimum intensity and observed through a reduction screen it appears neutral grey. But when observed without the screen it appears as blue because in yellow constancy illumination is perceived as blue. Cramer has shown that well-known objects projected into an obviously colored screen, retain their object colors.

Shape Constancy:
We perceive a circle as a circle or a triangle as a triangle though it appears to be of different sizes from different angles. A circle may appear of an oval size from a particular angle, but we perceive it as a circle though referral images vary from angle to angle and position to position.

Brightness Constancy:
Under brightness constancy, a known object is always perceived as having the same color even if the conditions of illumination are quite different. Always the sense impression of the refer a very with the conditions of illumination that is dim, bright, average, etc.

Question 6.
Define illusions and illusions caused by stimulus factors and illusions of movement and moon illusion.
Answer:
Illusions- are wrong perceptions while perception is the correct interpretation of sensation, illusion is the wrong or mistaken interpretation of a sensory experience. In both perception and illusion, the sensory experience of a stimulus has real existence that is illusion always has an apparent external stimulus. In perception, the sensory conventional example of an illusion is taking a “coil or roope or rope for a snake in darkness”.

Illusions are misperceptions resulting from misinterpretation of information received by our sensory organs, illusions are experienced by all normal human beings, third, and animals. They are experienced through the stimulation of any of our senses. It is true that our perceptual process involves the organic and functional factors for the interpretation of a particular sensory experience.

Perceptual Process:
According to Morgon and King, “An illusion is not a trick or a misperception. It is a perception that does not agree with other more trustworthy perceptions. Illusions demonstrate that what we experience depends upon processes which go far beyond the sensory input.” Thus, a well-defined and very similar stimulus may lead to an illusion undo-certain circumstances, but not always.

As already discussed, our perceptual process involves the organic and functional factors for the interpretation of a particular sensory experience. In other words, we interpret a stimulus in the light of our past experience, organic needs, values, attitudes, motives, etc. If this interpretation is incorrect, we perceive the stimulus wrongly and commit mistakes in our perception.

Errors in perception are not very unusual and every individual is likely to commit errors in his perception in his day-to-day life. These errors mainly depend upon the physical and psychological conditions and circumstances under which the stimulus is interpreted. Illusions may be categorized under different heads on the basis of their causes.

Illusions due to organic and functional factors also occur due to defects in the sense organ of the perceiver and limitations in the receptors. Award-hearing persons or partially blind or colorblind persons may be liable to many illusions. Mental deficiency and emotional states also affect the accuracy of perception. Perception becomes distorted and is misinterpreted under highly disturbed and emotional states.

Illusion caused by Stimulus Factor:
Horizontal, vertical illusions occur due to the stimulus factor. Suppose we take two straight lines of 3 cm each. The first line we draw horizontally exactly from its middle point (1.5 cm):

We draw another vertical line of 3 cm (the second line). Now observe both lines, the vertical line is observed longer than the horizontal line. This type of illusion is caused due to stimulus factors. Certain illusions also occur due to personal or functional factors like need, value, past experience such as observing the colored balloons as fruits.

Take another case. You have gone to the station to receive a friend. You call somebody else your friend from his back. This is an illusion due to expectations or mental set. A color-blind person cannot perceive the real color of a stimulus or a hard-hearing person may consider the sound coming from a truck as the sound coming from a scooter.

The illusion of Movement:
When an observer perceives a moving picture when actually the object is not moving it is called an illusion of Movement. This is also known as Phi-phenomenon named by Gestaltist Wertheimer. In Movies, T.V. screens, and electrical advertisements this illusion of movement is noticed.

What exactly mean? When a number of still pictures are projected one after another at a suitable rate, say for a fraction of a second, we see the picture moving though actually, they are static, still pictures. Take an example, you are traveling in a fast-moving train. You find the trees on both sides moving, though actually, they are static. This is also an illusion of movement.

Moon Illusion:
It is an example of the size constancy illusion. Hochberg writes, “It has been known as everybody the moon looks quite large when it is near the horizon than when it is overhead at its zenith even though the visual angle subtended by the moon remains constant”. Recent research on the Moon illusion has supported an ancient explanation.

The earliest explanation for this moon illusion has received some experimental support to argue that: “the sky at the horizon looks further away (due to the intervening fortress and thus the moon seems larger near the horizon.” (Kaufman and Rock). Thus, the distance is taken into account while judging the size of the object.

Question 7.
What is an illusion? Discuss briefly the various theories of optical illusion and Hallucination
Answer:
Although our perceptions are usually quite accurate, they are also subject to distortions called illusions. So these are wrong and incorrect perceptions. Here external stimulation is always present illusions are mistaken or wrong interpretations of sensory experiences. In the true sense, these are not perceptions.

Because in perception, the stimulation is correctly interpreted. Whereas, in illusions, the stimulation is wrongly interpreted. It is obvious that the experience depends upon the process. In short, illusions are misperceptions resulting from misinterpretation of information received by our sensory organs illusions are experienced by all normal human beings, birds, and animals.

They are experienced through the stimulation of any of our senses. It is true that our perception process involves the organic and functional factors for the interpretation of a particular sensory experience.

Theories of Optical Illusion:
Several theories have been developed to explain the causes of optical illusions, and they are discussed here briefly.

The Eye Movement Theory:
According to the eye movement theory, optical illusions sometimes occur if the eye movements are blocked due to the inward projection of other lines. This theory explains the Muller-Lyer Illusion.

The Perspective Theory:
It argues that everyone knows that distant objects appear smaller in size than nearer objects. The perceiver thus compensates for such learning even though they may be equal. Thus, he perceives the objects at a distance to be greater in size than the nearer ones.

The Confusion Theory:
The perceiver observes the percept as a whole, as one unit, and does not analyze it fully. It has been found that if the Muller-Lyer Illusion is analyzed by narrowing down over a range of vision, the illumination would be greatly reduced.

Good Figure Theory:
As a natural tendency, we eliminate the irregularities in a particular figure and fill up gaps to give it a complete meaning. We want to see the figure as a single, meaningful and compact unit. This leads to illusions. It has, therefore, been concluded that illusions like constancies are the natural products of certain factors like need, value, mental set and post experiences, etc. functioning in a given physical environment.

Hallucination:
It has been already discussed how the illusion is a normal affair. Most normal people sometimes or others experience the illusion. But hallucination which is also a type of perceptual error is experienced by mentally disturbed abnormal persons. It is also experienced by those who are under the influence of drugs.

Illusions always have an external stimulus. In hallucination, there is no real sensory stimulus or apparent objective external stimulus, but we perceive it as some object or figure and demonstrate experiencing a hallucination. For instance, when we visualize a ghost every night when there is none when we hear a huzzing sensation inside the stomach.

When there is no such sensation or when we experience severe pain when there is no pain sensation at all, we experience visual, auditory, and tactual hallucinations respectively. Hallucinations may be visual, auditory, olfactory, tactual, gustatory, etc. But usually visual and auditory hallucinations are more commonly experienced.

Hallucinations represent our inner conflicts, fears, anxieties, and mental imbalances. Particularly, in certain forms of insanity like Schizophrenia, hallucination forms a major symptom. Sometimes such patients hear the voice of God, and spirit and are found to actually talk with them in their imagination. Especially common are auditory hallucinations.

Question 8.
Critically examine the role of the organization in perception.
Answer:
Perceptual Organisation:
Very often we are confused. How does perception work? This question has long fascinated psychologists and philosophers, who have generated many theories to explain the key functions and operating principles of perception. Two prominent explanations are there:

• Experience-based influence and
• Gestalt Principles of Perception.

The experience-based inference was the dominant approach established by Hermann. Von Helm Holtz (1966). Helmholtz argues for the importance of experience in perception. According to his theory, an observer uses prior knowledge of the environment to make sense of the proximal stimulus. His theory proposes that we learn how to interpret sensations on the basis of our experience with the world.

But in the early 1.920, Gestalt psychologists maintained that psychological phenomena could be understood only when viewed as organized, structured wholes and not when broken down into primitive perceptual elements. The German word ‘Gestalt’ roughly means form, whole, or configuration. It challenged the views of structuralists and behaviorists by arguing that the whole is more than the sum of its parts.

Gestalt psychologists first study several aspects of perceptual organization systematically. Perceptual organization is the process by which we structure the input and create perceptual coherence. In other words, the perceptual organization puts sensory information together to give us the perception 6f coherence. Many of the organization processes we will discuss in this section were first described by Gestalt theorists who argued that perception depends on the laws of the organization or simple rules by which we perceive shapes and forms.

The organization of sensory data is the beginning of the perceptual process. We will have a confusing world if we do not put together and organize the information available to us through our millions of receptors. Max Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffka, and other Gestalt psychologists have studied and experimented on perceptual organization extensively.

They have discovered a number of principles relating to the organization of perception. According to these psychologists, an individual organizes a multitude of environmental stimuli into meaningful structures and forms. Always a person perceives patterns of stimuli rather than random collections of individual stimuli.

An individual integrates disconnected parts of sensory information into a meaningful structure, which ultimately results in the perception of a whole. So the perception of an object or event is something more than the sum total of its sensory input. To bring out a clear picture of the perceptual process, Gestalt psychologists have discovered a set of principles, which are popularly known as Gestalt laws of perceptional organization.

The Gestalt Laws of perceptual organization are based on three groups of principles:

• Laws of grouping
• Figure-ground relationship and
• The goodness of figures.

Laws of Grouping
Generally, the laws of grouping propose how certain elements in the perceptual field of an individual go together. The following are some important principles of grouping.
The Law of proximity (Nearness):
Very often, elements may be grouped according to their perceived closeness in time or space. In short, elements that appear together tend to be grouped together. Now see the figure below. Here eight lines are seen as four pairs of lines.

Here, a very pertinent question is – how does our visual system accomplish this perceptual grouping, the perception that sets of stimuli are together? The perception of stimuli as ‘grouped’ was first studied extensively by Gestalt psychologists. Max Wertheimer (1923). He presented subjects with arrays of simple geometric figures.

By varying a single factor and observing how it affected the way people perceived the structure of the array, he Was able to formulate a set of laws of grouping including proximity. According to Wertheimer, all else being equal, the nearest (most proximal) elements are grouped together.

The Law of Similarity:
Our tendency to perceive things are belonging together because they share common features reflects the law of similarity. This law proposes that with the proximity among elements being equal, perceptual elements that are similar in some respect tend to be grouped together.

In the above (Fig. 5.3), you see rows of triangles, squares, and circles rather than a column consisting of a triangle, a square, and a circle. In the figure, you observe triangles go with triangles, squares with squares, and circles with circles. Since there is a uniform distance between triangles, squares, and circles; therefore, the law of proximity does not occur.

The Law of Good Continuation:
This principle suggests that elements that appear to follow a particular direction, such as a straight line or a simple curve are readily perceived as forming a group. It is just a tendency to perceive stimuli as a part of a continuous pattern. In the figures below, you see a zigzag line with a curved line running through it, so that each line continues in the same direction it was going prior to the intersection.

The Law of Closure:
We have a tendency to perceive stimuli as complete and balanced even when pieces are missing. Closure makes us see incomplete figures as complete and supplies the missing edge. beyond gaps and barriers. In other words, within limits, physically incomplete figures tend to be perceived as complete figures or as meaningful wholes.

Here, grouping occurs in a way that favors the perception of the more enclosed or complete figure. Now from the figure above (See Fig. -5.5), the following curved line is not perceived as a curved line; rather, it is perceived as a circle. Here the curved line is not perfectly closed, but we see a circle because it is more tempting to perceive a complete figure than simply a curved line.

Attention and Perception:
The process of selecting a stimulus or a group of stimuli from among a large pool of stimuli is called attention. Attention is a complex process, combining a state of focused awareness with a readiness to respond. Attention influences both the stimuli an individual processes and the responses one is likely to make. Perception is a cognitive mechanism of sorting out, interpreting, analyzing, and integrating stimuli involving our sense organs and brain.

Perception is a receptive, selective, symbolic, and affective process. The process by which we structure the input and create perceptual coherence is called perceptual organization. Perception of an object or event is something more than the sum total of its sensory input. The perceptual organization puts sensory information together to give us the perception of coherence.

The Law of Common Fate:
According to this Gestalt principle, elements that are more in the same direction are perceived as together. Of course, this is a type of grouping on the basis of similarity but applied to moving objects. When we see a flock of birds moving in the same direction in the sky, it appears as groups or units. Now you can see how the law of common fate operates in the perceptual organization from the figure above (Fig -5.6).

The Law of pragnaz (Meaningfulness):
The principles of Gestalt grouping operate only when two or more elements, are simultaneously present in a visual field. According to Gestalists, the whole stimulus pattern somehow determines the organization of its own parts. In other words, the whole percept is different from the mere collection of its parts. Gestalt psychologists believe that all of these grouping laws are particular examples of a single general principle the Law of Pragnaz (Meaningfulness).

This principle reveals that the simplest organization requiring the least cognitive effort will always emerge. This law also proposes that we perceive the simplest organization which fits the stimulus pattern. The law of pragnaz is otherwise known as “the minimum principle of perception. ”

Again always we have a tendency to perceive figures as good, regular, and simple, with minimal cognitive effort. Therefore, this law is also known as the Law of Good Figure This law also emphasizes on the fact that we like to see regular and simple forms, rather than irregular forms.

Question 9.
Define the figure – Ground Relationship.
Answer:
Figure – Ground Relationship:
We tend to divide the world around us into two parts – a figure, which has a definite shape, and a location space, and ground, which has no shape, but seems to continue behind the figure and has no definite location. The figure-ground relationship helps clarify the distinction between sensation and perception.

A figure is an object-like region in the forefront and the ground is the backdrop against which the figures stand out. The tendency to perceive a figure as being in front of the ground is very strong. When you perceive a region as a figure, boundaries between light and dark are interpreted as edges or contours belonging to the figure and the ground seems to extend and continue behind these edges.

When we see birds flying in the sky, birds are figures in the background of the sky. When you see the moon in the sky, the moon is the figure and the sky is the background. Similarly, the boat is the figure in the sea.

The following difference in the characteristics of figure and ground relating to any perceptual activity was observed by a Danish Psychologist Rubin( 1958). The figure has a definite shape, whereas the ground appears to have no shape. The figures have the quality of a thing, but the ground appears relatively formless.

The ground seems to continue behind the figure. But the figure seems to be present in front of the ground. The figure seems to be closer to the perceiver with a clear location in space. But the ground is farther away. It has no clear location in space. Always figure appears more impressive, dominant, and better structured. A figure has more associations with meaningful shapes than the ground.

Besides all these above differences, Coren (1969) revealed another difference between figure and ground. According to his observations, the figure is always brighter than the ground. There should be a stable perception of the figure. In short, a figure should be perceived as a figure on different occasions.

But when the figure-ground relationship is ambiguous or is possible for different types of interpretation, the perception tends to become unstable. In these occasions, the figure and ground reverse their positions frequently. Very often, the figure becomes the ground and the ground becomes like a figure simultaneously. Almost spontaneously these reversals occur. Now, look at figure 5.8(a). What do you perceive? A vase or two faces?

Perception of Movement:
Every day, we see the movement of different types of vehicles on the road, and birds and airplanes fly in the sky also, we see the movement of people around us. But how do we perceive this movement? Is there any difference between the perception of movement and the perception of static objects? In some instances, the objects do not move, but we perceive the movements of objects. How does this happen? Psychological, as well as physiological processes, are involved in the perception of movement.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part 1.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is memory? Discuss the stages of memory?
Answer:
Memory is otherwise known as the retention of materials with the passage of time. When some materials are learned they are retained in a particular area of the brain for some time. While STM is forgotten quickly LTM is remembered for a long time. The term ‘memory ’ is derived from the Latin word ‘memoria’ which means long retention or historical account.

Ebbinghaus to short made simple experiments to explain practically what the term memory is But currently with the advancement of information technology Ebbehghansion’s old concept of money has changed. Present psychologists emphasize the information-processing concept of memory which is based on computers.

Stages Of System Of Memory / Model Of Memory:
Encoding, storage, and retrieval take place in each of the three basic memory systems. The three systems of memory are also called some stages of remembering or models of memory. They are conceptual models of processing incoming information, retaining the same, and then recalling or retrieving it as necessary.

Human memory has been compared to a computer having different storage systems. Some psychologists have presented most of the theories of memory in the form of information-processing models. As to which of the information will be stored in a particular system of memory and which axe to be eliminated is controlled at the level of information processing. Similarly, the stored information may not always be retrieved or recalled.

Sensory Memory:
It is a non-conscious memory developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin which is also called a sensory register. Sensory memory is an impression formed from the input of any of the senses. lnpìit means the stimulus received from the environment. Sensory stimulus when reaches the receptor is stored in the sensory memory for a very brief period i.e. 0.25 seconds to 02 seconds in case of visual sensation and about 04 to 05 seconds in case of auditory sensation.

The storage of visual memory is about 11-16 items before it is lost. If attention is paid to this information, ¡t is sent to short-term memory or short-term storage. it is lost. Since the STM has a very limited capacity it cannot hold all information received from the environment and that too for a long period. The visual and auditory information is stored in the sensory memory in the form of an image.

Working Memory or Short-Term Memory:
The information which and attended is passed from the sensory memory to short-term memory. Working memory occurs between the sensory memory (which comes in a flash) and tire more permanent storage of Long Term Memory. Working memory has a very limited capacity and therefore, very little information is stored here. It has a short retention duration. What is stored here is lost after 15-20 seconds unless it is consciously processed.

Those materials which get conscious attention stay far beyond the 20 seconds limit. Both sensory and long-term memory are non-conscious memory. When materials from sensory memory are transferred to working or short-term memory they are processed here, thought about, and organized. Someone told you his mobile phone number, but there is no pen nearby to record it. So you try to recite it, rehearse it, repeat it till you get the pen to note it down.

Encoding and storage are done here Chunking and Rehearsal (discussed elsewhere under the Memory chapter) are two important methods used to increase the limited capacity of short-term storage so that more information from the short-term memory can be transferred to long-term memory (Also see Short Term Memory elsewhere in Memory chapter).

Long-Term Memory:
Long Term Memory (LTM) is the storehouse of all experiences, events, occurrences, and information transferred from sensory and short-term memory to long-term memory. Long-term memory constitutes each person’s knowledge of the word and knowledge of himself. Materials in long-term memory help one to solve new problems, manipulate abstract symbols, and reason.

This further helps in creativity like creating and coining new words and ideas and thinking about new Situations that one has experienced earlier. In a second exact information about something can be given such as “who is the father of modem experimental psychology? Or who established the first psychological laboratory and when etc.

The knowledge in long-term memory is stored in an orderly and organized manner and different cues help him to recall exactly what he wants to recall. Every item in the long-term memory is connected by its meaning.
Long-term memory is of two types:

• Procedural Memory (see under kinds of Memory)
• Declarative Memory

It is the method or technique to recall explicit information which involves some degree of consciousness. Remembering how to drive a car is procedural memory as driving a car requires a process, which is done as per the procedure. Similarly, recalling directions for driving to specific place requires declarative memory. Declarative memory is of two types:

• Episodic memory
• Semantic Memory (see under kind of memory)

Long-term organizations help in storing the memory in the L.T.M. for a long period, even till one dies. That is why we remember meaningful associative materials better because of their associative value. Chunking and elaborate rehearsal and other methods of improving memory help long-term memory as they organize materials for storage and make it more meaningful, (also see Long Term Memory elsewhere).

Question 2.
Define the process of memory?
Answer:
According to some modem psychologists memory process consists of:

• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval

Encoding:
According to Baron “Encoding is a process through which information is converted to a form that can be entered into memory”. Code means form. Encoding means putting material into a form that the memory system can accept, retain handle. Zimbardo holds that “encoding is the translation of incoming stimulus energy into a unique neural code that your brain can process”.

For example to retain SIH one man to keep trying in the form of South Indian Hotel or mentee Hotels”. Encoding is made possible through meaningful association which the memory system can easily handle and store. In a generalized manner, encoding refers to the signals or codes which can be transmitted through a communication channel.

The encoding requires to first selecting a stimulus from among so much information available in the environment. You have gone to the crockery exhibition. There you selected a crystal fruit bowl. You identified the distinct and intricate designs engraved on it and stored the visual image in your memory. Then you tried to connect this bowl to the one you saw in a shopping mall in the USA and wanted to buy it, but could not.

When one tries to associate a newly encoded stimulus with one already there in the memory because of its associative value. The encoding process is usually automatic and mechanical. It is so rapidly done that it occurs without the awareness of the person doing it. its encoding process relates the new experience with an old one, like relating the crystal fruit bowl you purchased in India with the one you saw in the USA last year, remembering becomes better. This process is called Elaboration.

Storage:
Storage refers to a process by which the encoded information is retained in the memory. Storage retains the encoded information for some time. Those memories which associated with some other memory are more often used and better stored or retained than isolated memory having no link with any other memory. When the encoded information fails to link with the already stored information or if they are not practiced at intervals they are lost and hence forgotten.

But when the stored materials are repeated periodically, the possibility of retaining them is greater. The storage, therefore, can be short-term or long-term depending upon the degree of learning, the need of the person, repetition, and association. In fact, immediate and short-term memory supply the code that the person uses to store materials for a longer period and later on to recall or retrieve them as and when necessary.

Rehearsal or repetition is one of the means through which the encoded materials are stored in the memory. Rehearsal may be Maintenance rehearsal or Elaborate rehearsal and these two types serve two different purposes. Maintenance rehearsal or mere mechanical repetition of information over and over again (rote memory).

it keeps information in short-term memory at least till it has served its purpose. For instance, retaining a phone number till one is able to make the call and after the call is made we may possibly forget it or we get by heart some points in the night before the examination and once the examination is over, these materials are forgotten.

Elaborate rehearsal on the other hand deals with the newly learned materials according to their meaning and association we understand the information and try to remember it for a longer period by associating it with some other material or situation. While maintenance rehearsal is processed at a superficial level elaborate rehearsal is processed at a deeper level.

Various experiences in memory of day-to-day life and also results of a study conducted by Fergus, Craik, and Endel Tulving (1975) indicate that words processed at a deeper level through elaborate rehearsal were better retained than words processed at a superficial level (rote memory). When tilings are learned elaborately and their meaning and application are properly understood, it becomes fit for effective retention storage.

Retrieval:
Retrieval is a process through which information stored in memory is located and recalled. The process of retrieval, use to recall periodically only those that are required at a particular occasion. Recall and recognition are two very popular methods through which retrieval takes place. Brown and Me Neill (1968) studied the phenomenon of retrieval in a group of students.

Question 3.
Define the kinds of memory?
Answer:
Some psychologists have tried to clarify memory into:

• Episodic memory
• Semantic memory
• Procedural memory

Episodic memory:
It stores autobiographical information and immediate memories of personal experiences such as the first day of marriage, the day you get your Ph.D., or your appointment in a long-cherished job.

Semantic memory:
It refers to abstract knowledge. It is organized knowledge about the world including the verbal world of words and how they are used. The information associated with a particular time or place is contained in semantic memory. Once you get an electric shock while attending a marriage ceremony. The marriage ceremony.

However, episodic and semantic memory cannot be separated by water-tight compartments as memories of personal experiences cannot totally segregated from organized knowledge apart from the world and the environment. As we are aware, personal experience occurs in the same environment where organized knowledge about the world is also experienced.

Hence both episodic and semantic memory in spite of their differences is very much related. According to Kimbel et al, unless we have innate knowledge about the world, all memories must start as episodic, nevertheless, the distinction does provide a useful way of dealing certain important phenomena in the study of memory. The successful recall of the factual information learned in General Psychology involves episodic memory as the information has been stored according to contexts, events, or personal symbolism.

The context in which an item was stored in memory as well as the item itself are important for episodic memory. Findings show that the item can be recalled only in the context in which it was coded. You were introduced to someone at a marriage party. Subsequently, if you want to recall her name or retrieve your introduction to her you have to remember the context i.e.

the marriage party In semantic memory, the basic meanings of words and concepts without reference to their time and place are stored. While semantic memory is an encyclopedia, episodic memory is autobiographical. Facts about grammar, music, composition, scientific principles, the things one knows and the lesson he learns are stored in semantic memory. Kimbel views that semantic memory can have considerable control over how one’s episodic experiences are perceived; interpreted and stored.

A study conducted by Loftus Palmer (1974) on students indicates that semantic memory has a strong influence on episodic memory. Various studies that test memory immediately as well as afterward show how information is represented there. They also show that with passage of time the representation becomes less sensory and literal and more semantic and meaningful.

This also suggests the difference between episodic memory and semantic memory. As indicated earlier, episodic memory stores, the events of personal experience and experiences of other persons while semantic memory stores knowledge. In short, remembering a list calls upon episodic memory while the organizing structure is provided by knowledge in semantic memory.

While semantic memory lasts longer in memory, episodic memory lasts for a short period. It is more susceptible to forgetting. Older people have less episodic memory but have very good semantic memory information or incident which has more episodic than semantic value would be stored in Episodic Memory but the knowledge part of it will be stored in Semantic Memory.

Procedural Memory:
Otherwise known as implicit memory procedural memory is the knowledge of how to perform work It is the way of remembering how things are done. Procedural memory is used to acquire, retain and employ perceptual, cognitive and motor skills (Anderson, 1982, Tulving 1985) like bicycle riding, typing, or wearing a dress, without thinking consciously these are done mechanically.

It is easier to perform the task than describe how to do it. In simple terms, it is a memory of the procedure, say how a task is performed or how a grant is utilized. So procedural memory deals with the how of work or how of a procedure. Sometimes, we get at the correct solution of a mathematical.

Question 4.
Define memory failure?
Answer:
Memory Failure or forgetting takes place due to encoding failure, storage failure, and retrieval failure. Failure to remember, memory failure, or failure to develop new memory leads to tremendous inconvenience. As per estimation, the average human mind can store 100 trillion bits of information. we experience many forgetting in our day-to-day life. Sometimes, we recognize an old face but cannot recall his name.

Encoding Failure:
Encoding failure is an important cause of forgetting. As discussed earlier, the process by which information is put in the store of memory or accepted by it refers to encoding. But when there is a failure in the encoding procedure one may not be able to store information hence most forget. When one gets meaningless information that does not have associative value the Nonsense Syllables or consonant combinations or one fails to associate and organize them encoding failure takes place. That is why in rote learning forgetting takes place very quickly.

Storage Failure:
It is another major cause of forgetting. After encoding, information that is attended is stored in the Short Term Store (STS) for a brief period. Others are ignored or lost and so do not go for storage. The short-term store has, however, a limited capacity, and if information’s transmitted to .it for storage purposes some of this information which is not kept but pushed out from the short-term store is forgotten.

Similarly, the information kept in short-term stores which are not rehearsed or repeated they are also lost or decayed and so does not go to the long-term store. If the information is lost due to encoding failure or storage failure, it will not reach the long-term store. This type of forgetting is said to be due to storage failure.

Retrieval Failure:
To inadequate memory. One may, however, succeed to retrieve information from long-term stoic only if appropriate retrieval cues are present and if the information is distinguished from other information. Experience shows that when there is recall failure if some cue or clue is given immediate recall becomes possible. Suppose you are not able to recall the name of a bank you visited only once some days back. When you are told about the location-or color of the building where the bank is located, you immediately remember the name.

As a year old boy was admitted to a new school in Prep Class, on the first day he was taken to his class by the attendant. On the second day, he went alone and entered another class. Then immediately he came out of the class realizing that it is not his class since he did not find there the pictures hanging on the walls of Prep Class. He then proceeded further and entered the class.

Question 5.
Define the forgetting curve and its characteristics?
Ans:
Retention Curve / Forgetting Curve:
The course of retention which is represented by a curve is called the retention curve. It is a graphic representation of the process of retention or forgetting. The measures of retention or forgetting is plotted in the vertical axis ‘O’ ‘Y’ and the amount of time (in days or hours) is shown on the horizontal axis. If the amount Of retention is plotted, the curve will be a descending one.

If the amount of forgetting is plotted, the curve will be an ascending one. Most curves of retention for nonsense syllables measured by relearning and saving methods commonly agree in showing a negatively accelerated form. Different experimental conditions also indicate that not only the form of the curve, but the percentage of saving also varies with variation in material.

In fact, the retention curve for meaningful material may run at a different height from those of nonsense syllables. But, by and large, different retention curves have more or less similar characteristics. Though time has a direct effect on retention, the rate of forgetting is not directly proportional to the time elapsed. For instance, if half the material learned is forgotten during the first 24 hours, it does necessarily mean that during another period of 24 hours the entire learned material would be forgotten.

Ebbinghaus (1885) conducted an experiment to determine the rate of forgetting with the passage of time. The S learned a list of nonsense syllables. Retention was measured after the 1 st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th day by the relearning method. The results were plotted in a curve. This curve showed that at first forgetting is rapid and as time lapses the rate of forgetting becomes slower and slower.

Within the first 24 hours, about 65 percent of the material was forgotten. Gradually the rate of forgetting became slow. As time passed, a very small amount of the material was forgotten. At the end of the 6th day, the loss was only about 75 percent. This curve by Ebbinghaus was also accepted by later psychologists. It is a typical curve of retention or forgetting. Looking at this curve we can find out the general characteristics of the curve of forgetting.

Characteristics Of the Curve Of Forgetting:
There is a stiff fall at the beginning of reproduction. At first, forgetting is rapid but as time lapses, the rate of forgetting becomes slower and slower. There is a gradual flattening of the curve, i.e. the rate of forgetting becomes slow. It is not as speedy as it was in the initial stage. There is almost no loss in the amount of material after a good deal of interval.

This quantitative study of memory presented in the curve of retention or forgetting is the most important contribution of Ebbinghaus and later psychologists could not disregard it. Retention curves, by and large, suggest that forgetting is never complete. The curve always levels up at some low value above zero. Observation of cases over a number of decades shows that forgetting anything cannot be cent percent.

The following is a curve showing retention from different types of materials over a period of months. This curve shows that forgetting is most rapid for nonsense syllables and next for prose and minimum for poetry. But the basic law that the rate of forgetting is rapid in the beginning and then slows down with the passage of time holds good for all types of materials.

Williams from the records of adults who studied 30 nonsense syllables for 5 minutes recalled them immediately and after an interval, he plotted it into a curve and found it running at a relatively high level of retention. The curve obtained from memory for substance plotted by Dietze and Jones (1931) and the study by Briggs, Red, Stroud, etc. both concludes that a negatively accelerated retention curve is most commonly used.

(Curve showing retention for different types of materials). Various studies show that the rate of forgetting is slower with meaningful materials. Perceptual motor skills appear to be retained quite well in comparison to verbal skills.

Question 6.
Define the measurement of memory?
Answer:
Measurement of Memory Recall Method
Recall was made famous through Ebbinghaus’s experiments on memory and he used the recall method for studying, remembering, and forgetting. The ‘ S ’ is required to make the response that he has learned previously. In recall, the previously learned materials are brought to the present consciousness in their absence. This is called the free recall method. For instance, when a student is answering a question in the examination hall, he is exactly using this procedure.

In laboratory experiments, a list of items, say 15 to 20 is presented to the ‘ S ’ through the memory drum, one after another. After exposure, he is asked to recall the list. The list is produced again and again until one perfect reproduction which suggests 100 percent learning. Now after an interval of 30 minutes, the S is asked to reproduce the already learned items. The amount reproduced is his amount of retention by the recall method. This is also known as the method of reproduction. The items which the ‘ S ’ fails to recall, suggest forgetting materials.

The recall is of two types:

• Immediate recall,
• Delayed Recall

When the recall is made immediately after learning, it is called immediate recall. When the recall is made after an interval, it is called delayed recall. Four objections were raised against Ebbinghaus’s recall method.

Retrograde Amnesia:
Critics argued that lack of recall need not necessarily mean forgetting. Due to emotional disturbances like fear, anxiety, and sudden shock sometimes one fails to recall the material learned. This has been experimentally demonstrated in the laboratory and observed in practical life. Soldiers on the battlefield after some shock forget the incidents experienced just before the shock. Similarly, a person reproduces everything but forgets when he faces the interview board. It is to some extent a case of forgetting due to emotional blocking.

Lack of recall may also be due to associative interference, friability to recall in many cases is due to repression which need not necessarily suggest forgetting. If there is no will to recall, recall, also may not be possible. The concept of reminiscence is also said to be a defect of the recall method. In spite of these criticisms, the recall method is very much in use for the measurement of memory. It is nevertheless a difficult method to measure retention in comparison to other methods.

Recognition Method:
Recognition according to Guilford (1917) literally means ‘knowing again. When one recognizes an object or stimulus he behaves as if he has experienced it before. Recognition simply means to identify. Recognition is the easiest method of measuring retention. It is easier recognize a name or face than to recall it. Similarly, you may not be able to recall the lines of a well-known song, but you can recognize it instantly.

According to Guilford (1917), “the essential difference between recall and recognition is that in the first case the stimulus is not there for one’s identification while it is there in the second case.” It has been found that maximum retention is possible with this method. Recognition scores are usually quantitatively more than recall scores keeping all other factors constant.

This has been substantiated by field and laboratory investigations. In a study on the recognition method, Bahrick and his associates found that people who graduated almost 50 years back/were able to recognize 75 % of the names and photographs of their classmates accurately. During the same period recall of names declined to under 20 percent.

The present author met recently one of her school-mates studying with her, in the year 1948. She could readily recognize her face but could not recall her name. Recognition is easier than recall because in recognition the object is present and mixed with some other new materials. The ‘S’ has only to select the learned materials while in the recall method the materials are absent and they have to be reproduced from memory. Thus, the sensitivity is greater in the case of the recognition method to measure memory.

Experimental studies indicate that the number of words that one can recognize in reading is much greater than the number. One could sit down and write out, even if given plenty of time. In the recognition method, the ‘S’ is presented with a list of 20 nonsense syllables or Trigrams (nonsense combinations of consonants like QSZ, even) to learn up to a perfect reproduction.

After an interval of one hour, this list is mixed randomly with a new list of another 40 nonsense syllables or trigrams. The ‘ S ’ has to identify the earlier learned materials from the new list. Say, he could identify 15 correctly and 4 wrongly, out of the 20 items. His actual retention score would not be 15 but Jess than that as would be penalized for the wrong identifications.

Clearing or Saving Method:
The relearning or the saving method was originally introduced by Ebbinghaus as a method of measuring retention. In the relearning method, the ‘S’ is given a list of materials to learn up to one perfect reproduction (cent percent learning). After 30 minutes retention interval, he is asked to recall the list. If he recalls the entire list correctly, there is no need for relearning trials and the percentage of relearning hence is zero.

On the other hand, if he is unable to recall some items, the list is again exposed to him until he recalls all the items correctly. The trials required for perfect learning at this stage are called relearning trials. The amount of savings refers to the difference between the original learning trial and relearning trials. The percentage of savings is found by the following formula:

\(\frac{\mathrm{OL}-\mathrm{RL}}{\mathrm{OL}}\)x100

When OL means original learning trials and RL means Relearning trials. For instance, when tire ‘ S ’ has taken six trials for original learning and two trials for releasing, his saving score would be \(\frac{6-2}{6}\) x 100 = 66.67%. The 66.67 percentage saving, in this case, itself the evidence that S remembers a certain percentage of the items learned even after the time gap or retention interval.

Question 7.
Define error in recognition and discuss the cause of forgetting?
Answer:
Errors in Recognition:
Only the other day while the author was attending a dinner party, one lady observed her for a few seconds and said hesitantly. “You are Jayanthi, are not you? When I said, “No I am not, “she immediately felt embarrassed and said, “Oh, sony”. “But you very much look like her.” On another occasion, one of this author’s old students failed to recognize her when they met in a film show.

When she gave her identity, the student was very embarrassed and said, “Oh, you have grown so thin that I was unable to recognize you.” Such mistaken identities are experienced daily. Usually, two kinds of errors of recognition are noticed Failing to recognize the familiar, and False recognition of the new and unfamiliar. The above two incidents represented examples of these two types of errors in recognition. We fail to recognize familiar objects or stimuli when it undergoes changes seen under changed circumstances.

When we do not expect to meet somebody at a particular party or place we may not recognize him, particularly from a distance. Secondly, we accept a new stimulus as the old stimulus when there is a lot of similarity between the two. The greater the amount of resemblance, the larger the chance for the error to be committed. Lunel conducted an experiment where he took three lists of materials.

The words of list ‘B’ are the same as list ‘A’ with one letter changed. In list ‘C’ two letters of list Aare changed and hence are debarred from appearing in the examination. other problems pose-great botheration for us. Failure to recall the learned items in the examination or in an interview leads to failure or loss of a job respectively.

The question, therefore, is what one should forget and what one should not Those skills, knowledge, and memory traces that are essential for existence, for adjustment with life, and for achieving different goals, should be remembered while the unnecessary, unpleasant, painful and miserable experiences should be forgotten. Forgetting refers to the negative aspect or opposite of remembering.

According to Underwood (1968) “retention and forgetting are thus reciprocal terms for the quantitative aspect of memory, with retention indication the amount remembered under specified conditions and forgetting the amount not remembered under same conditions.

Causes Of Forgetting:
The basic question that everybody asks is “why do we forget?” There are several factors responsible for forgetting which are discussed below: Factors operating at the time of leasing Some of the factors have been discussed in detail under conditions of efficient memorizing. Precisely, the strength of original learning, nature of the material, method of learning, speed of learning, etc. are the factors operating at the time of learning.

Strength of Original Learning:
It has been found experimentally that when the original learning is weaker, the neural traces formed in the brain are fainter and hence are properly retained. But the amount of retention cannot increase indefinitely as a function of the degree of overlearning. A point diminishing return is to be reached. However, over-learning is ways preferable to under-learning.

Nature of Material:
From various studies discussed earlier in this text, it is found that meaningful and rhythmic material, decreases rate of forgetting. Ebbinghaus found that any material with an associative value decreases forgetting. Even when one is learning meaningless material like tri grams or nonsense syllables, he may try to relate some meaning or association to these, for quick remembering.

For example, the trigram JNF may stand for John F Kenedy or Sih may stand for South Indian Hotel. If this is done remembering becomes economical. when one is studying meaningful material, like a poem passage he may try to find out the relationship between different parts of the material.

This type of learning is emphasized by the Gestalts Materials which belong to each other and are easily learned. When one is memorizing 3 passages a poem and 3 passages of different poems, the former is quickly remembered because the different passages are parts of a general whole and they belong to each other. Many laboratory findings and day-to-day life.

Question 8.
Discuss the improvement of memory?
Answer:
Improvement of Memory:
Memory can be improved by efficient learning. Only memorizing the material does not mean improvement of memory. In one study one group tried to improve their memory repeating a material over and over again, while another group tried to improve by following the principles of efficient learning. The second group showed improvement in memory compared to the first group.

Ebert and Neumann (1905) following better techniques and principles to learn and remember a material found improvement in memory. For example, farfetched associations were avoided, and groupings of the material were made on a rhythm basis. Worry, strain, and useless muscular tensions were eliminated. The conditions of the lab were made familiar for the better adoption of the subjects.

The effect of transfer was used as far as possible and its effect on the improvement of memory was also demonstrated. Reed (1917) conducted the same, experiment taking two groups but found a very small improvement in memory due to the effect of transfer. But it was difficult to get a matched control group. Sleight conducted the same experiment with certain modifications like keeping a controlled group that was perfectly matched but found very little effect of transfer.

Any effect of transfer found was due to rhythm. On the contrary, in another experiment of the same kind, taking adult subjects Sleight found significant transfer, but negative in nature. While learning different kinds of materials, different techniques are better memorization Of course, some techniques may be used in general because of the effect of transfer. Woodrow (1927) did an experiment taking 3 groups of subjects to demonstrate this fact.

Controlled Group:
Did only the forests and after tests.

Unistructcd Practice Group:
For a total of 3 hours without any intervening practice did specific memorization of poems and nonsense syllables, and no specific technique was instructed for the use of nonsense syllables.

Instructed Group:
This group used proper techniques of memorization being specifically instructed. So in the first group, there is no intervening practice which is found in the second and third tests.

Result:
In the after-test, the practice was nearly equal to the control group, but the instructed group (the third group) did definitely better compared to the first two groups. Thus, Woodrow concluded, “In short, the experiment shows that in a case where one kind of training, undirected drill produces an amount of transference which are sometimes positive and sometimes negative; but always small,-another kind of training with the same drill material may result in a transference the effect of which are uniformly large and positive.

The following specific methods of memorizing were given to the third group:

• Learning by wholes.
• Use of active self-testing.
• Use of grouping and rhythm.
• Attention to meaning and use of images.
• Mental alertness and concentration.
• Confidence in one’s ability to memorize.
• In certain cases as in learning nonsense syllables, the use of a second association was made.

The following are some of the techniques of efficient learning which are improvement in memory. The intention or motivation to learn sometimes our memory is poor because we have no intention or desire to learn and remember the topic. Intentional or incidental learning improves memory. Giving close attention to the material to be learned improves memory of that material.

Understanding leads to little forgetting and more storage, more long-term memory. Images should be used as much as possible visual and auditory images to more remembering. a theoretical background along with visual, and auditory images improve remembering. Visual educations, cinemas and excursions, and study tours are therefore more helpful than mere lecturing only.

To improve memory one should always make attempts to associate things with another so that when one thinks of one the other easily comes to your memory. Just for this reason, meaningful words are better remembered these meaningless words. In addition to the above methods of improving memory, some further methods have been developed by psychologists engaged in tire research of memory improvement.

Organization of materials is extremely important to improve memory. The term “Mnemonics” is derived from the Greek word which means to “Remember”. Mnemonics are short, verbal devices that encode long series of facts by associating them with familiar and previously encoded information recent past. If materials lack natural organization, artificial organizations are necessary to be used by the learner for better memory. The old organization already present in the memory system is utilized for organizing unfamiliar and new sets of materials. The following Mnemonic devices are also used to improve memory.

Question 9.
Discuss in detail Mnemonic devices used to improve memory?
Answer:
Methods of LOCI:
At a banquet hall, the seating arrangements provided a spatial structure wherein he could remember the guests sitting around the long banquet table. The spatial position or place of a situation can be used to remember the name of the guests and other items. In the instant case, Simonides could be able to perfectly recall all the guests present at the banquet by remembering the seating position of the guests.

By putting images of items to be remembered at various places can be an effective method of improving memory and remembering things. By the method of LOCI by having mental images of the spatial position of the stimuli one can remember information perfectly. In our day-to-day life if we try to remember things, objects, and stimuli linking them to their spatial positions or locations.

our memory for this information can be easily strengthened. Thus, according to Kimbel. “The method of LOCI requires (the person to place each item to be remembered at some definite location on one’s mental tour and to form a vivid, image of the item in its spot.” Bower (1972) has recommended developing bizarre or unusual associations like keeping some eggs on the bed instead of the kitchen or keeping an attached in the kitchen instead of the box or bedroom.

Several experimental results indicate the effectiveness Of the method of LOCI particularly for visual memory. In .a study by Ross and Lawrence (1968), a group of students was presented with a list of 40 items to be associated with 40 locations present on their campus like a letter box, a Banyan tree, a bank near the NCC office, and each subject was given 13 seconds to form each association.

An immediate recall test showed that the average person remembered 38 to 40 items. However, after a day the recall score came down to 34 on average. This suggests that for many subjects recall was 100 percent. Kimbel holds that such excellent recall depends on the previously mastered or familiar organizations, (b) taking fairly a long time to deal with each item, and making effective use of imagery. By choosing a familiar organization the SS are free from the burden of making a new organizational structure which takes a lot of time and energy.

Numerical Pegs:
Otherwise called Number and Letter Peg. Numerical pegs serve as a good memory aid. By teaching children to remember numbers through pictures that resemble the shapes of the numbers (like a stick for one), memory is improved. In numerical pegs, each number of a series is presented with its pictures in order to make it easy for the association. The following example will explain the concept of numbers and letter pegs.

If through such associations one tries to remember information, it becomes easy to retain. Like the method of LOCI here also as each item is presented to remember, the closer forms an image that is in association with the corresponding stimulus in the service. It has been observed that when learning is imparted with the method of numerical pegs or number and letter pegs human beings normally remember one item with one presentation only.

Those who find difficulty in retaining information can use the method as a memory aid. I taught my two-and-a-half-year-old grandson to leam the names of seven days in a week in a serial order like Sunday, Monday, etc. He failed to retain serially. But when I bought seven toothbrushes for him in seven colors and gave him one colored brush on a particular day, as I gave him a Red one on Sunday, a Blue one on Monday, a Yellow one on Tuesday, and so on, he could retain very quickly the names of seven days in a serial order associating the days with respective colors of the brushes.

Chunking:
When by using artificial grouping technique one learns to retain information where grouping is not provided, it’s called chunking. Particularly to remember long materials or long digits use of chunking is essential. The span of immediate memory is normally seven items, etc. between 5-9 items. But as experience shows we also remember longer items than the above in our life without much difficulty.

This is possible because of groupings. A five-year child remembers the mobile numbers of his mama, pappa, aunt and grandfather, and uncle, etc. along with their area code. This is an extraordinary case since the age of the child is only 5 years. But adults normally can remember mobile numbers along with their area code. This is possible by the chunking method.

The numbers are divided into small groups and remembered for example 0671-2615 308 can be remembered easily if it is divided into 3 groups – 0671 – 2615 – 308. Where grouping is not provided, one has to make the grouping himself to remember the long materials easily. Kimbel et al. have reported the case of a person who by means of some additional techniques could improve his memory span by up to 17 numbers in just 05 trials.

When initially tested his memory span was 09 digits. He was then asked to increase his memory span. He increased it up to 17 digits by the following techniques devised by him Strict attention was paid to the number of digits to be expected in each trial. Grouped the digits in sets of 3 and five depending on their number. Decided on his strategy by grouping before each trial.

Made verbal association to each group of numbers, weights, dates, or anything that came to Iris’s mind. Even made associations between groupings when he could. A group of college students increased their span of immediate memory from (9 to 12) digits in 11 trials of practice by following the above strategies.

Narrative Stories:
It is another Mnemonic method of improving memory of information received from the environment. If the items that are to be retained are presented to the person in story form it is retained for a longer period. Natural observation in day-to-day life and experimental findings prove this point. We generally teach children various values, ideologies, morals even different educational materials through stories.

Children, it is found, retain these materials for a long time when taught through the narration of stories. In an experiment two groups of subjects were taken, one control group and the second experimental group. While the SS of the experimental group was given to leam and remember 12 different lists of simple words in a story.

the SS of the control group were asked to study each word for the same amount of time that the SS of the experimental group took to make up stories. Immediate recall tests of both groups indicated that there was no difference between the two groups in the recall of each list.

Question 10.
What is Reminiscence? Discuss the factors influencing reminiscence?
Answer:
According to Stevens, “As against the curve of Ebbinghaus, sometimes retention curves show a period of increased retention immediately after the practice is stopped. This phenomenon of initial rise is leveled as Reminiscence’ Ruch (1940) defines reminiscence as “ a continuous increase in skill after practice ceases.” In the usual pattern of the forgetting curve initially, there is a stiff decline. There should thus be a progressive decrement in the curve of forgetting.

In the third recalled words would have been less than 7 according to the usual characteristics of the forgetting curve.

Factor influence Reminiscence:
The degree of reminiscence depends upon so many factors. Some of the important factors are discussed below.

Rehearsal:
In the retention interval which is the interval between test-retest situations, if there is scope for rehearsal of the original learning, there may be reminiscence.

Meaningfulness of the Material:
Martin (1940) has found greater reminiscence within meaningful material than with nonsense material. Nonsense syllables, trigrams,s, and erection are difficult to remember and hence show less reminiscence.

Degree of Learning:
Particularly mean of motor learning reminiscence is observed when practicing increases of course up to a certain point.

Positive Transfer:
English, well-born and et al have found that the students of psychology curve given materials of psychology to learn.

Reproductive Interference:
According to Leavitt and Schlosberg (1977) absence of interference during the interval between test-retest situations.

Set:
the difference in instruction and practice may affect recall tests.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Book Solutions

Unit 1 What is Psychology?

• What is Psychology? Objective Questions
• What is Psychology? Short Answer Questions
• What is Psychology? Long Answer Questions

Unit 2 Perceptual Process

• Perceptual Process Objective Questions
• Perceptual Process Short Answer Questions
• Perceptual Process Long Answer Questions Part-1
• Perceptual Process Long Answer Questions Part-2

Unit 3 Learning

• Learning Objective Questions
• Learning Short Answer Questions
• Learning Long Answer Questions Part-1
• Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Unit 4 Process of Thinking

• Process of Thinking Objective Questions
• Process of Thinking Short Answer Questions
• Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-1
• Process of Thinking Long Answer Questions Part-2

Unit 5 Intelligence

• Intelligence Objective Questions
• Intelligence Questions And Answers

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Syllabus

FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY
FIRST YEAR
Total Marks – 100
Theory – 70 marks
Practical – 30 marks

THEORY
UNIT-I
1. What is Psychology? [8 Periods]
This chapter seeks to help in understanding and appreciating psychology as a discipline, its application, and its relationship with other sciences.
a) Meaning and definition of Psychology
b) Psychology as a science
c) Brief idea about the different approaches to the study of Psychology:
i) Biological, ii) Behaviouristic, iii) Cognitive
d) Psychology and other disciplines (Sociology and Anthropology)

2. Methods used in Psychology [6 Periods]
The objective of this chapter is to familiarize with the methods of studying and understanding behaviour
a) Experimental method
b) Observational Method:
i) Naturalistic Observation, ii) Subjective observation or Introspection

UNIT -II
3. Physiological bases of behavior: [9 Periods]
This chapter focuses on the role of biological factors in the shaping of human behaviour and experience.
a) Structure and function of a neuron
b) Structure and function of the central Nervous system
i) Spinal cord ii) Brain,
c) Autonomic Nervous system
d) Endocrine system

4. Sensory and Perceptual Processes: [10 Periods]
This unit aims at understanding how various sensory stimuli are received, attended to and given meaning.
a) Attention: Determinant and types of attention
b) Perception: Meaning, operational definition, processes involved in perception (Receptive, Selective, Symbolic, and Affective Process)
c) Principles of perceptual organization
d) Role of need, past experience, and cultural factors in perception.
e) Errors in perception: Illusion and Hallucination

UNIT-III
5. Learning [10 Periods]
This chapter focuses on how human beings acquire new behaviuour and how changes in behaviour take place.
a) Meaning and operational definition of learning, Learning as distinguished from maturation and performance.
b) Processes of learning:
i) Trial and Error Learning, ii) Classical conditioning, iii) Operant conditioning, iv) Cognitive Learning: Insightful learning, v) Observational learning

6. Human memory [12 Periods]
This chapter deals with how information is received, stored, retrieved and lost It also explains how memory can be improved.
a) Memory Process:
i) Encoding ii) Storage iii) Retrieval
b) Systems (stages) of memory:
i) Sensory Memory ii) Short Term Memory iii) Long term Memory
c) Measurement of Memory
i) Recall ii) Recognition iii) Saving or Relearning
d) Nature and causes of forgetting
e) Improving Memory: Mnemonics, Methods of Loci, Number and Letter Peg system, Chunking

UNIT – IV
7. Motivation and Emotion [8 Periods]
This chapter deals with why human beings behave as they do. It also deals with how people experience positive and negative events and respond to them.
a) Meaning and Nature of Motivation
b) Types of motives; Biological, Social, and Psychological
c) Meaning and nature of emotion
d) Bodily changes during emotion.

8. Processes of Thinking [10 Periods]
This chapter deals with thinking related processes like reasoning, problem solving, decision making, and creative thinking.
i) Meaning and definition
ii) Stages of cognitive development by Piaget
iii) Problem solving and decision making
iv) Creative Thinking: Nature and stages of creative thinking

UNIT-V
9. Intelligence [7 Periods]
This chapter aims at studying how people differ with respect to intelligence.
a) Meaning and Nature of Intelligence
b) Approaches to understand intelligence (i) Gardner ii) Sternberg iii) J.P. Das
c) Factors influencing intelligence

PRACTICAL
Span of Attention
Optical Illusion (Muller – Lyer Illusion)
Sensory – Motor Learning
Memory for meaningful words and nonsense syllables

Books Recommended:
1. Psychology Part-I, NCERT
2. Bureau’s Higher secondary +2 Psychology Part-I, Published by Odisha State Bureau of Text Book Preparation and Production, Bhubaneswar.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Book Solutions

Unit 1 Fundamental of Education

• Fundamental of Education Objective Questions
• Fundamental of Education Short Answer Questions
• Fundamental of Education Long Answer Questions Part-1
• Fundamental of Education Long Answer Questions Part-2

Unit 2 Fundamentals of Educational Psychology

• Fundamentals of Educational Psychology Objective Questions
• Fundamentals of Educational Psychology Questions and Answers

Unit 3 Education and Society

• Education and Society Objective Questions
• Education and Society Short Answer Questions
• Education and Society Long Answer Questions

Unit 4 Method of Teaching

• Method of Teaching English Questions and Answers
• Method of Teaching Odia Questions and Answers
• Method of Teaching Maths Questions and Answers
• Method of Teaching General Science Questions and Answers
• Method of Teaching History Questions and Answers
• Method of Teaching Geography Questions and Answers
• Teaching Learning Materials Purpose and Uses

CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Syllabus

EDUCATION ELECTIVE (First Year)
Theory – 70 marks & Practical – 30 marks.
Theory Paper – I
FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION – I

Unit I Fundamental of Education (20 periods)
Meaning of Education, Aims of Education – Individual, Social, Democratic and Vocational, Function of education, Agencies of education, Formal, Informal, Non-formal, Active & Passive, Role Family, School, Community & Mass media as agencies of education.

Unit II Fundamentals of Educational Psychology (20 periods)
Meaning, Nature & Scope of educational psychology, Importance of educational psychology for the teacher, Growth & Development – Meaning, General Principles & factors affecting, growth & development, Stages of growth and development – Physical, Intellectual, Social & Emotional growth & development during infancy, Childhood and Adolescence.

Unit III Education and Society (20 periods)
Relationship between education & society Education for social change & social Control Education for social mobility, Education for citizenship & socialization, Gender disparity and the role of education Globalization and its impact on education

Unit IV Method of Teaching (20 periods)
(Any one of the following method subjects English, Odia, Mathematics, History, Geography & General Science)
Aims and Objectives, Methods of teaching applicable for elementary level, Teaching learning materials (TLM) purpose & use, General principles and Maxims of teaching, Objective based objective type test items, meaning & principles of construction.

PRACTICAL (60 periods)
A – Preparation of five lesson plans in the selected method subject. (30 periods)
B – Preparation of fifteen objective type test items, 5 each pertaining to knowledge, comprehension & skill objectives on a particular topic of the selected method subject. (30 periods)

BOOKS RECOMMENDED:
1. Bureau Uchcha Madhyamik Siksha (in Odia)
2. Bureau’s Higher Secondary Education I.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 1 Sociology & Its Relationship Objective Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 1 Sociology & Its Relationship Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Type Questions

Question 1.
Which of the following defines sociology in the following manner?“Sociology is a science of social phenomena subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery to which is the object at investigation”.
(i) Maclver
(ii) Auguste Comte
(iii) Alex Inkles
(iv) II. M. Johnson
Answer:
(ii) Auguste Comte

Question 2.
Which of the following country auguste Comte belong to?
(i) England
(ii) France
(iii) Italy
(iv) Germany
Answer:
(ii) France

Question 3.
Who of the following is not a supporter of synthetic school of thought?
(i) Emile Durkheim
(ii) F. Tonnies
(iii) L.T.IIobhouse
(iv) P. A. Sorokin
Answer:
(ii) F. Tonnies

Question 4.
“Sociology is the study of human interactions and interrelations, their conditions and consequences” who of the following gives the above definition of Sociology?
(i) Augueste Comte
(ii) Morris Ginsberg
(iii) Aristotle
(iv) Tonies
Answer:
(ii) Morris Ginsberg

Question 5.
Who of the following is the father of Sociology?
(i) Auguste Comte
(ii) EmileDuikheim
(iii) Spencer
(iv) Karl Marx
Answer:
(i) Auguste Comte

Question 6.
In which year the term sociology was coined?
(i) 1947
(ii) 1885
(iii) 1839
(iv) 1939
Answer:
(iii) 1839

Question 7.
Which of the following social philosophers named sociology as “Social Physics”?
(i) Auguste
(ii) Maclver
(iii) Pareto
(iv) Spencer
Answer:
(i) Auguste

Question 8.
Who of the following is not a supporter off or malistic school of thought?
(i) George Simmel
(ii) Max weber
(iii) Sorokin
(iv) Small
Answer:
(iii) Sorokin

Question 9.
The society has passed through three stages of its developments Theological, Metaphysical and the positive. This view was held by_______.
(i) Aristotle
(ii) AugusteComte
(iii) Sorokin
(iv) Max Weber
Answer:
(ii) Auguste Comte

Question 10.
Who was proposed the theory of organic analogy?
(i) Spencer
(ii) Comite
(iii) H.M. Johnson
(iv) George Simmel
Answer:
(i) Spencer

Question 11.
The organic theory of society seems to establish that:
(i) Society is like a living organism.
(ii) Society is unlike living organism
(iii) Like human beings society has no subsidiary organs.
Answer:
(i) Society is like a living organism.

Question 12.
Who proposed the theory of organic analogy?
(i) Auguste Comte
(ii) Darwin
(iii) Durkheim
(iv) Spencer
Answer:
(iv) Spencer

Question 13.
Who said the society is a web of social relationship?
(i) Giddings
(ii) Maclver
(iii) Giddings
(iv) Colley
Answer:
(ii) Maclver

Question 14.
Whose definition society is a consciousness of the kind?
(i) Davis
(ii) Maclver
(iii) Weber
(iv) Giddings
Answer:
(iv) Giddings

Question 15.
Who propounded the theory of suicide?
(i) Durkheim
(ii) Spencer
(iii) Comte
(iv) Maclver
Answer:
(i) Durkheim

Question 16.
Who said “where there is life, there is society”?
(i) Maclver and Page
(ii) Comte
(iii) Aristotle
(iv) Weber
Answer:
(i) Maclver and Page

Question 17.
Who said man is a social animal?
(i) Weber
(ii) Davis
(iii) Plato
(iv) Aristotle
Answer:
(iv) Aristotle

Question 18.
Who said that sociology attempts an interpretative understanding of human behaviour?
(i) Weber
(ii) Comte
(iii) Cooley
(iv) Ogburn
Answer:
(i) Weber

Question 19.
Who propounded the law of three stages of social development?
(i) Maclver
(ii) Spencer
(iii) Durkheim
(iv) Auguste Comte
Answer:
(iv) Auguste Comte

Question 20.
Who wrote the book positive philosophy?
(i) F. Tonnies
(ii) W.F. Ogburn
(iii) Spenncer
(iv) Auguste Comte
Answer:
(iv) Auguste Comte

Question 21 .
Who says sociology and anthropology as twin sisters.
(i) Peter Worsley
(ii) A. Toynbee
(iii) M. Duverger
(iv) A. L. Kroeber
Answer:
(iv) A. L. Kroeber

Question 22.
The suicide caused by breakdown of social norms is called as__________.
(i) Anomic suicide
(ii) Egoistic suicide
(iii) Altruistic suicide
Answer:
(i) Anomic suicide

Question 23.
When one sacrifices one’s life for the group it is called __________.
(i) Altruistic suicide
(ii) Fatalistic suicide
(iii) Anomic suicide
Answer:
(i) Altruistic suicide

Question 24.
Who says history is the past sociology and sociology is present history.
(i) Peter Worsley
(ii) M. Duverger
(iii) A. L. Kroeber
(iv) G E. Haward
Answer:
(iv) G E. Haward

Question 25.
Who defines sociology is about social relationships, the network of social relationship society.
(i) Maclver and Page
(ii) M. Ginsberg
(iii) Auguste Comte
(iv) K. Davis
Answer:
(i) Maclver and Page

Question 26.
The stage in which observation predominates over imagination and all theological concepts become scientific, we call it as______.
(i) Metaphysical stage
(ii) Positive stage
(iii) Theological stage
Answer:
(ii) Positive stage

Question 27.
Who says “Historically Sociology has its main roots in politics and philosophy of history”.
(i) Morris Ginsberg
(ii) Plato
(iii) Aristotle
(iv) Kautilya
Answer:
(i) Morris Ginsberg

True or False Type Questions

Question 1.
Sociology is a social science.
Answer:
True

Question 2.
Sociology first originated in India.
Answer:
False

Question 3.
Auguste Comte is regarded as the father of sociology.
Answer:
True

Question 4.
Comte regards sociology as the science of social institutions.
Answer:
False

Question 5.
The term sociology was coined in the year 1930.
Answer:
False

Question 6.
The term sociology has been derived from the Latin word ‘Socious’ and Greek word ‘Logos’.
Answer:
True

Question 7.
Sociology is a national science.
Answer:
False

Question 8.
Sociology is an abstract science.
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Alex-Ankles opines sociology is the science that deals with social groups.
Answer:
False

Question 10.
H. M. Johnson opines sociology is the: science that deals with social groups.
Answer:
True

Question 11.
The formalistic school of thought is led by Max Weber.
Answer:
False

Question 12.
The formalistic school of thought is led by German sociologist Simmel.
Answer:
True

Question 13.
Sociology is applied science.
Answer:
False

Question 14.
Sociology is a pure science.
Answer:
True

Question 15.
Tonnies, Small and Weber are the supporters of a synthetic school.
Answer:
False

Question 16.
Tonnies, Small and Weber are the support of formalistic school.
Answer:
True

Question 17.
About the scope of sociology there are one school of thought.
Answer:
False

Question 18.
About the scope of sociology there are two school of thought.
Answer:
True

Question 19.
Formalistic school conscious sociology as a synthesis of social sciences.
Answer:
False

Question 20.
Synthetic school conscious sociology as a synthesis of social science.
Answer:
True

Question 21.
Formalistic school opines the scope of sociology is very wide.
Answer:
False

Question 22.
Formalistic school opines the scope of sociology is limited.
Answer:
True

Question 23.
Synthetic school considers sociology as a pure and independent science.
Answer:
False

Question 24.
Formalistic shcool considers as a pure and independent science.
Answer:
True

Question 25.
Oswald Spengler wrote the book “A study of history”.
Answer:
False

Question 26.
Oswald Spengler wrote the book “Decline of the west”.
Answer:
True

Question 27.
Durkheim, Sorokin and Ginsberg are the supporters of formalistic school of thought.
Answer:
True

Question 28.
Evan Pritchard says “sociology and social anthropology are one and same”.
Answer:
False

Question 29.
Hoebed says “Sociology and social anthropology are one and same”.
Answer:
True

Question 30.
Formalistic school considers the subject matter of sociology include social relationship.
Answer:
False

Question 31.
Fonnalistic school rethought considers the subject matter of sociology include forms of social relationship.
Answer:
True

Question 32.
A Toymbee remarks that “History is a past sociology and sociology is the present history”.
Answer:
False

Question 33.
GE. Haward remarks that history is the past sociology and sociology is present history.
Answer:
True

Answer In One Sentence

Question 1.
When was the term sociology coined?
Answer:
Sociology was coined by Auguste Comte (1798-1857) the French philosopher and sociologist in the year 1833.

Question 2.
What is the etymological meaning of sociology?
Answer:
The term sociology has been derived from the Latin word societies or socius meaning society or associate and the Greek word Logos meaning theory or study of science. Etymologically them sociology means the science or theory of human society or of human association.

Question 3.
Who is the father of sociology?
Answer:
The famous french philosopher and sociologist Auguste Comte is the father of sociology.

Question 4.
Who introduced the term sociology for the first time?
Answer:
The famous French philosopher ” Auguste Comte introduced the term sociology for the first time in 1839.

Question 5.
Give a definition of sociology?
Answer:
Sociology is about social relationships the network of social relationship we call society.

Question 6.
Write the definition of sociology of Max Weber is?
Answer:
ThedefinitionofsociologyofMax Weber is as the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects.

Question 7.
Write Johnson’s definition of sociology?
Answer:
II. M. Johnson opines that sociology is the science that deals with social groups.

Question 8.
About sociology what is comte definition.
Answer:
Auguste Comte defines sociology is the science of social phenomena subject to natural and invariable laws the discovery as which is the subject of investigation.

Question 9.
Write M. Jone’s definition of sociology?
Answer:
M. Jones define “sociology as the study of man-in-relationship-to men”.

Question 10.
Why is sociology called a pure science?
Answer:
Sociology does make use of scientific methods in the study of its subject matter and it therefore entitled to be called a science.

Question 11.
Write Kingsley Davis definition of sociology?
Answer:
KingsleyDavissays that sociology is a general science of society.

Question 12.
Write any five sociologists name.
Answer:
(1 ) Maclver and Page
(2) Gillin and Gillin
(3) M. Gonsberg
(4) II. M. Johnson
(5) K. Davis

Question 13.
Write Ginsberg’s definition of sociology?
Answer:
MorrisGinsbergdefines sociology in the following way. In the broadest since, sociology is the study of human interactions and interrelations, their conditions and consequence.

Question 14.
Write Small’s definition of sociology.
Answer:
Small defines sociology as the science of social relations.

Question 15.
Write Park’s definition of sociology?
Answer:
Park regards sociology as the / science of collective behaviour.

Question 16.
Is sociology a generalising science?
Answer:
Sociology tries to find out the general laws or principles about human interaction and association about the nature form. Content and structure of human groups and societies. It does not study each and every event that takes place in society. It is not possible also. It tries to make generalisation or the basis of the study of some selected events.

Question 17.
Write II. Fairchilad’s definition of sociology.
Answer:
H. Fairchild defines sociology as the study of man and his human environment on their relations to each other.

Question 18.
Write Ogburn and Nimkoft definition of sociology.
Answer:
Ogburn and Nimkoft defines sociology as the scientific study of social life.

Question 19.
Why sociology is called an abstract science?
Answer:
This does not mean that sociology is an art and not a science. Nor does not mean it is unnecessarily complicated and unduly difficult. It only means that sociology is not interested in concrete manifestations of human events. It is more concerned with the forms of human events and their patterns.

Question 20.
How many schools of thought are there regarding the scope of sociology?
Answer:
There are two important schools of the thought regarding the scope of sociology is
(1) formalistic school
(2) Synthetic school.

Question 21.
Write any two characteristics of sociology.
Answer:
(1) Sociology has now emerged into an independent science.
(2) Sociology belongs to the family of social science and not to the family of physical sciences.

Question 22.
Write Eli. Gidding is definition of sociology.
Answer:
F.H. Gidding defines sociology as the scinece of social phenomena

Question 23.
What is the formalistic school?
Answer:
The sociologists who belong to the formalistic school of belief that sociology, deals with various forms of human or social relations. They regard sociology is a pure and independent branch of knowledge, distinct from all other social sciences.

Question 24.
Who are the supporters of formalistic school?
Answer:
The German sociologist George Simmel, AlfredVierkandt, Leopold Van Wiese, Max Weber, Albion’Small and Ferdinard Tonnies are the supports of formalistic school.

Question 25.
What is the nature of sociology?
Answer:
Sociology does frame laws and attempts to predict. Its approach is both categorical and abstract. It is empirical rational and pure. It embrances all most all our social behaviour. It tries to discover laws that the generally applicable regardless of variation or culture.

Question 26.
What are main points of arguments of the scholars who oppose sociology as a science?
Answer:
Those who oppose sociology as a science the scholar argues that it lacks universal theory, measurement experimentation objective and predictive ability.

Question 27.
What is the synthetic school.
Answer:
The synthetic school of thought, holds the view that sociology is the synthesis of all social sciences; sociology is the science of sciences. It embraces all social services known its scope.

Question 28.
Who are the supporters of the synthetic school?
Answer:
The supporters of the synthetic school are Emile – Durkhiem, L.T. Hobhouse, P.A. Sorokin, Morris Ginsberg and other have been the chief supporters of synthetic school.

Question 29.
Write Alex Inkeles’s definition of sociology.
Answer:
Alenlnkeles says sociology is the study of systems of social action and of their interrelations.

Question 30.
Who leds the specialistic school?
Answer:
German sociologist, George Simmel, Vier Kandt, Max Weber and other sociologist leds the specialistic school.

Question 31.
What is Vicrkandt views on the scope of sociology?
Answer:
Vierkandt mentions that sociology is an independent social science or a special branch of knowledge.

Question 32.
What is Durkhiem’s definition of sociology?
Answer:
Emile Durkhiem regards “sociology as the science of social institution”.

Question 33.
What are the Hobhouse view on scope of sociology?
Answer:
According to Hobhouse on English Sociologist sociology should be a synthesis of numerous social sciences. It should other sciences in its scope.

Question 34.
What are the main points of arguments in forwards of sociology as a science?
Answer:
The supporters of sociology claim that it is a science and find the methods and qualities of science in its observation generalisation, accurate measurement prediction and objectivity which are common to all sciences are found in sociology.

Question 35.
What are P. Sorokins views on the scope of sociology?
Answer:
According to P. Sorokinsociology should aim at studying the relationship that exists between the differents aspects of social phenomena and between social and non-social phenomena. It should study the general features of social phenomena as well.

Question 36.
What is Small’s views regarding the scope of sociology?
Answer:
Small insists that sociology should continue itself to the study of forms of social processes.

Question 37.
Mention any four sociolgist in India.
Answer:
(1) M. N. Srinivas
(2) P. N. Prabhu
(3) K. M. Kapadia
(4) Mrs. Iravati Karve.

Question 38.
Who is the four-founding fathers?
Answer:
Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Max Weber and Emile Durkheim.

Question 39.
Who introduced the term sociology for the first time?
Answer:
Auguste Comte introduced the term sociology from the first time.

Question 40.
What is a psychology?
Answer:
Social psychology is to sociology and psychology as Bio-chemistry is to Biologyandchemistry. Psychology is the positive science of human experience and behaviour.

Question 41.
Write any four sociologist in the world.
Answer:
Karl Marx, Raster F. Ward, George Simmel, Small.

Question 42.
What is economics?
Answer:
Economics deals with the economic activities of man. According to Prof. Lionel Robbins, Economics the science of human behaviour on its relations with ends and scare means which have alternative uses.

Question 43.
What is Anthropology?
Answer:
Anthropology is a general science like sociology.

Question 44.
Write any two political sociologist?
Answer:
F. G Wison and GE.C. Catlin.

Question 45.
Write any one relationship between sociology and economics.
Answer:
Economics is in fact, but one branch of the comprehensive science of sociology.

Question 46.
What is History?
Answer:
History is the reconstruction of man’s post.

Question 47.
Write any two historical sociologists.
Answer:
Arnold Toynbee and Oswald Spengler.

Question 48.
What is political science?
Answer:
Political science deals with the political activities of man in studies of Social groups organised under the sovereignty of the state.

Question 49.
What is the opinion of Prof. Giddings concerning the relationship of sociology with other social sciences?
Answer:
According to Prof. Giddings sociology is not the sole science not the mother of other social sciences but only their common sister.

Question 50.
Write any two Anthropologists.
Answer:
Kroeber and Robert Redfield.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 5 Sociology, Methods and Techniques Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 5 Sociology, Methods and Techniques Short Answer Questions

Answer In One Sentence

Question 1.
What are three stages of August Comte?
Answer:
Three stages of August Comte are:
1. Theological or fictious.
2. The metaphysical or abstract.
3. The scientific or positive.

Question 2.
When the law of three stages appeared and where?
Answer:
This law appeared in the year 1822 in his book positive philosophy.

Question 3.
What is theological or fictious stage?
Answer:
The theological stage is the first and it characterised this would prior to 1300. Hence all theoretical conceptions whether general or special bear a supernatural impress.

At this level of thinking there is a marked lack of logical and orderly thinking. Overall theological thinking implies belief in supernatural power.

Question 4.
What is Fetishism?
Answer:
This is one of three stages of August ‘fetish’ means inanimate and ‘ism’ means philosophy. This is a philosophy which believes that super natural power dwells in inanimate object.

Question 5.
What is polytheism?
Answer:
This is the second stage of three stages of August Comte ‘Poly’ means many. So the belief in many Gods is called polytheism. Human beings received variety or diversity of natural phenomenon.

Each phenomenon was kept under the disposal of one God. One God was believed to be-in charge of one particular natural phenomenon.

Question 6.
What is Monolthcism?
Answer:
It means we belief in one single God. He is all in all. He controls everything in their world. He is the maker of human destiny. Monotheism is the climax of the theological stage of thinking. The monoltheistic thinking symmblics the victory of human intellect.

Question 7.
What is metaphysical?
Answer:
‘Meta’ means beyond and physical, means material world. So metaphysical means beyond physical word.

Question 8.
What are two main societies?
Answer:
Comte identified by his three stages. Comte identified two major types of societies they are, theological-mility society and scientific-industrial society.

Question 9.
Who has written the book suicide?
Answer:
French Sociologist Emile Durkheim in 1897 was written suicide.

Question 10.
Name the three types of suicide of Durkheim?
Answer:
Three types of suicide are anomic suicide, Altruistic suicide and Egoistic suicide.

Question 11.
What is Anomic suicide?
Answer:
Anomic suicide happens when the deint engrating forces in the society make individuals feel lost or alone. Teenage suicide is usually cited as an example of this type of suicide, as is suicide committed by those who have been sexually abused as children or whose parents are alcoholic.

Question 12.
What is Altruistic suicide?
Answer:
Altruistic suicide happens when there is excessive regulation of individuals by social forces. An example is someone who commits suicide for the sake of religious or political cause.

Question 13.
What is Egoistic suicide?
Answer:
Egoistic suicide happens when people feel totally detached from society. Ordinarily people are entegrated into society by work roles, ties to tamely and community, and other social bonds.

When these bonds are weakened through retirement or loss of family and friends, the livelihood of egoistic suicide increases.

Question 14.
What is Sanskritization?
Answer:
Sanskritization is the process by which a low Hindu caste or tribal or other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and way office in the direction of a ‘high’ and frequently a twice-born caste.

Question 15.
What is Applied Research?
Answer:
Applied research is focussed up on areal life problem requiring an action or policy decision.

Question 16.
Write the types of Action Research?
Answer:
Types of action Research are:

• Classical design
• Interdependence of action and research.
• Evaluate research built into action programme.
• Action for research.

Question 17.
Write four characteristics of observation research?
Answer:
It is physical and mental activity. It is selective and purposeful. It is a scientific tool of research. It is a direct study of situation or phenomenon.

Question 18.
What are the five sequential steps of observation method?
Answer:
They are:

• Preparation and tracing.
• Entry into the study of environment.
• Initial interaction.
• Observation and training.
• Termination of fieldwork.

Question 19.
Write types of observation?
Answer:

• Participant observation.
• Nonparticipant observation.
• Controlled observation.
• Uncontrolled observation.
• Direct observation.
• Indirect observation.

Short Type Questions And Answers

Question 1.
What is August Comte’s law of three stages? Discuss?
Answer:
The Law of three stages is the comer stone of Auguste Comte’s approach. Comte’s ideas relating to the law of three stages reveal that man is becoming more and more rational and scientific in his approach by gradually giving up speculations, imagination etc.

He has shown that there is a close association between intellectual evolution and social progress.

The law of three stages is the three stages of mental and social development. It is the coordination of feeling, thought and action in individuals and society. There are three important aspects of our nature. Such as our feelings, our thought and our actions.

Our feelings:
The emotions and impulses which prompt us.

Our thought:
Which are undertaken in the service of our feelings but also helps to govern them.

Our actions:
Which are undertaken in the service of our feelings and thought. For the continuity and existence of society there must be some order of institutions, valiles, beliefs and knowledge which can successfully correlate the feelings, thought and activity of its members.

In the history of mankind during which the social order bringing these elements into relation with each other has been worked out three types,of solution, three, stages of development can be distinguished.

According to Comte, each of our leading conceptions-each branch of our knowledge passes successively through different theoretical conditions’.
1. The Theological or fictitious,
2. The Metaphysical or abstract,
3. The Scientific or positive.

Question 2.
Discuss the Comte’s three stages of observation?
Answer:
Comte considered his law of Three stages based upon belief in social evolution to be the most important. There has been an evolution in the human thinking, so that each succeeding stage is superior to and more evolved than the preceding stage.

It can hardly be questioned that Comte’s law of three stages has a strong mentalist or idealistic bias. He co-related each mental age of mankind with its characteristic accompanying social organisation and type of political dominance. This law appeared in the year 1822 in his book Positive Philosophy.

The Theological or Fictitious stage:
The theological stage is the first and it characterised the world prior to 1300. Here all theoretical conceptions, whether general or special bear a supernatural impress. At this level of thinking there is a marked lack of logical and orderly thinking. Overall the theological thinking implies belief in super natural power.

Metaphysical or Abstract Stage: The metaphysical stage started about 1300 A.D. and was short lived roughly till 1800. It forms a link and is mongrel and transitional. It is almost an extension of theological thinking. It corresponds very roughly to the middle Ages and Renaissance.

It was under the sway of churchmen and lawyers. This stage was characterised by Defence. Here mind pre-supposes abstract forces. ‘Meta’ means beyond and physical means material world.

Supernatural being is replaced by supernatural force. This is in form of essences, ideas and forms. Rationalism started growing instead of imagination.

The Positive or Scientific stage: Finally in 1800 the world entered the positivistic stage. The positive stage represents the scientific way of thinking. Positive thought ushers in an industrial age.

The positive or scientific knowledge is based upon facts and these facts are gathered by observation and experience. All phenomena are seen as subject to natural laws that can be investigated by observations and experimentation.

Question 3.
What is The Theological or Fictitious stage?
Answer:
The theological stage is the first and it characterised the world prior to 1300. Here all theoretical conceptions, whether General or special bear a supernatural impress.

At this level of thinking there is a marked lack of logical and orderly thinking. Overall the theological thinking implies belief in super natural power.

This type of thinking is found among the primitive races. In theological stage, all natural phenomena and social events were explained in terms of super natural forces and deities, which ultimately explaining everything as the product of God’s will. This stage is dominated by priests and ruled by military men.

Human mind is dominated by sentiments, feelings and emotions. Every phenomenon was believed to be the result of immediate actions of super-natural beings. Explanations take the form of myths concerning spirits and super natural beings.

Man seeks the essential nature of all beings, first and final causes, origins and purposes of all effects and the overriding belief that all things are caused by super natural beings. Theology means discourse in religion. Religion dominates in this state of development.

This state is characterised by conquest. The theological—military society was basically dying. Priests were endowed with intellectual and spiritual power, while military exercised temporal authority.

It has three sub-stages:
Fetishism:
‘Fetish’ means inanimate and ‘is’m’ means philosophy. This is a philosophy which believes that super natural power dwells in inanimate object. Fetishism as a form of religion started which admitted of no priesthood.

When everything in nature is thought to be imbued with life analogous to our own, pieces of wood, stone, skull etc. are believed to be the dwelling place of super natural powers, as these objects are believed to possess divine power.

But too many fetishes created confusion for people. Hence they started believing in several gods. Thus arose polytheism.

Polytheism:
‘Poly’ means many. So the belief in many Gods is called polytheism. Human being received variety or diversity of natural phenomena. Each phenomenon was kept under the disposal of one God.

One God was believed to be in charge of one particular natural phenomenon. In polytheism, there is an unrestrained imagination person the world with innumerable Gods and spirits.

People created the class of priests to get the goodwill and the blessings of these gods. The presence of too many gods also created for them mental contradictions. Finally they developed the idea of one God, i.e. monotheism.

Monotheism:
It means belief in one single God. He is all in all. He controls everything in this world. He is the maker of human destiny. Monotheism is the climax of the theological stage of thinking.

The monotheistic thinking symbolizes the victory of human intellect and reason over non-intellectual and irrational thinking. Slowly feelings and imaginations started giving place to thinking and rationality.

In monotheism a simplification of many gods into one God takes place, largely in the service of awakening reason, which qualifies and exercises constraint upon the imagination.

In theological stage, soldiers, kings, priests etc. were given respect in the society. Everything was considered in terms of family welfare. Love and affection bonded the members of a family together.

In this stage social organisation is predominantly of a military nature. It is the military power which provides the basis of social stability and conquest which enlarges the bounds of social life.

(a) Progress is observable in all aspects of society: physical, moral, intellectual and political.
(b) The intellectual is the most important. History is dominated by the development of ideas leading to changes in other areas.
(c) Auguste Comte says on the “Co-relations” between basic intellectual stages and stages of material development, types of social units, types of social order and sentiments.

Question 4.
What is Metaphysical or Abstract Stage?
Answer:
The metaphysical stage started about 1300 A.D. and was short lived roughly till 1800. It forms a link and is mongrel and transitional. It is almost an extension of theological thinking. It corresponds very roughly to the middle Ages and Renaissance.

It was under the sway of churchmen and lawyers. This stage was characterised by Defence. Here mind pre-supposes abstract forces. ‘Meta’ means beyond and physical means material world.

Supernatural being is replaced by supernatural force. This is in form of essences, ideas and forms. Rationalism started growing instead of imagination.

Rationalism states that God does not stand directly behind every phenomenon. Pure reasoning insists that God is an Abstract being. Under metaphysical thinking it is believed that an abstract power or force guides and determines the events in the world.

Metaphysical thinking discards belief in concrete God. It is characterised by the dominance of “ratiocination.”

In metaphysical stage speculative thought is unchecked by any other principle. Human body was considered to be the spark of divinity. This kind of thinking corresponded with the legal type of society; and law, lawyers and churchmen dominated the society; Law remained under the control of the state.

Question 5.
What is The Positive or Scientific stage?
Answer:
Finally in 1800 the world entered the positivistic stage. The positive stage represents the scientific way of thinking. Positive thought ushers in an industrial age.

The positive or scientific knowledge is based upon facts and these facts are gathered by observation and experience. All phenomena are seen as subject to natural laws that can be investigated by observations and experimentation.

The drawn of the 19th Century marked the beginning of the positive stage in which observation predominates over imagination. All theoretical concepts have become positive.

The concept of God is totally vanished from human mind. Human mind tries to establish cause and affect relationship. Mind is actually in search of final and ultimate cause.

The scientific thinking is thoroughly rational and there is no place for any belief or superstition in it. This stage is governed by industrial administrators and scientific moral guides. At this stage of thought, men reject all supposed explanations in terms either of Gods or essences as useless.

They cease to seek ‘original causes’ or ‘final ends’. This stage is dominated by the entrepreneurs, technologists etc. Unit of society was confined to the mankind as a whole, vision of mind was broad and there is no parochial feeling. Kindness, sympathy etc to the cause of the humanity prevailed.

This is the ultimate stage in a series of successive transformations. The new system is built upon the destruction of the old; with evolution, come progress and emancipation of human mind.

Human history is the history of a single man, Comte, because the progress of the man mind gives unity to the entire history of society. For Comte, all knowledge is inescapably human knowledge; a systematic ordering of propositions concerning our human experience of the world.

Corresponding to the three stages of mental progress; Comte identified two major types of societies. The theological-military society which was dying, the scientific-industrial society which was being born during his life time.

Flere the main stress is on the transformation of the material resources of the earth for human benefit and the production of material inventions. In this positive or scientific stage the great thought blends itself with great power.

Question 6.
Comte’s law of three stages have been criticized by different philosophers and sociologists. Discuss?
Answer:
According to Bogardus, Comte failed to postulate a fourth mode of thinking, i.e. socialized thinking, a system of thought which would emphasize the purpose of building the constructive, just and harmonious societies.

Bogardus also says, Comte however, should be credited with opening the way for rise of socialized thinking.

According to Prof. N.S. Timasheff, Comte’s law of three stages could not stand the test of facts. He opines, “Neither the later approaches (metaphysical and scientific) wholly supersedes the religious approach; rather there has been accumulation and often admixture of the three”.

C.E. Vaughan has said, “But its foundation is purely negative and destructive. It is powerless to construct and when credited with the ability to do so, it brings forth nothing but anarchy and bloodshed.”

Question 7.
Discuss the Emile Durkheim Suicide and its stages?
Answer:
Suicide, written by French sociologist Emile Durkheim in 1897, was a groundbreaking book in the field of sociology. It was a case study of suicide, a publication unique for its time that provided an example of what the sociological monograph should look like.

In it, Durkheim explored the differing suicide rates among Protestants and Catholics, arguing that stronger social control among Catholics results in lower suicide rates.

He also found that suicide rates were higher among men than women, higher for those who are single than those who are married, higher for people without children than people with children, higher among soldiers than civilians, and higher at times of peace than in times of war.

Durkheim was the first to argue that the causes of suicide were to be found in social factors and not individual personalities. Observing that the rate of suicide varied with time and place, Durkheim looked for causes linked to these factors other than emotional stress.

He looked at the degree to which people feel integrated into the structure of society and their social surroundings as social factors producing suicide and argued that suicide rates are affected by the different social contexts in which they emerge. Durkheim also distinguished between three types of suicide:

Anomic Suicide: Anomic suicide happens when the disintegrating forces in the society make individuals feel lost or alone. Teenage suicide is usually cited as an example of this type of suicide, as is suicide committed by those who have been sexually abused as children or whose parents are alcoholics.

Altruistic Suicide: Altruistic suicide happens when there is excessive regulation of individuals by social forces. An example is someone who commits suicide for the sake of a religious or political cause, such as the hijackers of the airplanes that crashed into the World Trade Centre, the Pentagon, and a field in Pennsylvania on 9/11/01.

People who commit altruistic suicide subordinate themselves to collective expectations, even when death is the result.

Egoistic Suicide: Egoistic suicide happens when people feel totally detached from society. Ordinarily, people are integrated into society by work roles, ties to family and community, and other social bonds.

When these bonds are weakened through retirement or loss of family and friends, the likelihood of egoistic suicide increases. Elderly people who lose these ties are the most susceptible to egoistic suicide.

Question 8.
What is the Concept of Sanskritisation?
Answer:
The term ‘sanskritisation ’ was conceived by M.N. Srinivas. It helps to describe the process of cultural mobility in the traditional social structure of India. Srinivas found empirical evidence for constructing sanskritisation in his study of religion and society among Coorgs in Mysore.

Caste system in theory is a closed system. Movement upwards or downwards within it is inadmissible, although there is some movement in practice. Despite this limitation of caste system, the concept of ‘sanskritisation’ helps to explain social change within the caste system.
The term ‘sanskritisation’ was conceived by M.N. Srinivas.

It helps to describe the process of cultural mobility in the traditional social structure of India. Srinivas found empirical evidence for constructing sanskritisation in his study of religion and society among Coorgs in Mysore.

He found that “lower castes, in order to raise their position in the caste hierarchy, adopted some customs of the Brahmins and gave up some of their own, considered to be impure by the higher castes.

For instance, they gave up meat-eating, consumption of liquor and animal sacrifice to their deities; they imitated the Brahmins in matters of dress, food and rituals. By doing this, within a generation or so, they could claim higher positions in the hierarchy of caste”. M.N. Srinivas, initially defined sanskritisation to denote Brahminisation.

Later on, he replaced it by sanskritisation. Brahminisation was limited in its scope and did not include other models, of caste mobility. His findings of Coorgs, thus, were of a specific kind and did not include the other non-Brahmin castes, which were twice-born. The concept of sanskritisation redefined by M.N. Srinivas runs as below:

Sanskritisation is the process by which a Tow’ Hindu caste or tribal or other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and way of life in the direction of a ‘high’ and, frequently, ‘twice-born’ caste.

Generally, such changes are followed by a claim to a higher position in the caste hierarchy than that traditionally conceded to the claimant caste by the local community. The claim is usually made over a period of time, in fact, a generation or two, before the ‘arrival’ is conceded.

Sanskritisation, in fact, is the process of cultural and social mobility within the framework of caste. In this case, the source of social change lies within the caste system. In other words, the source of social change is indigenous.

In terms of general sociology it is a process of socialisation wherein the lower castes socialise themselves with the customs, rituals and ideology of the higher castes, i.e., the twice-born castes of Brahmins, Rajputs and Banias.

The scope of sanskritisation also extends beyond the cast system. It includes non-caste groups also, such as tribals. For social change, the caste of a local place makes its model of imitation. This imitation model could be any twice-born caste. Yogendra Singh applies the redefined concept of sanskritisation to the ‘varna’ system.

He says that the central idea of Sanskritisation is that of hierarchy in caste system, theoretically represented by varna. There are four names, viz., the Brahmin, the Kshatriya, the Vaishya and the Shudra in the same hierarchical order, and all individual castes or sub-castes, with the exception of the untouchables, can be classified on the basis of varna into a hierarchical order.

The untouchables have traditionally been outside the varna hierarchy and form the lowest rung of the caste stratification.

Question 9.
Discuss the Characteristics of Sanskritisation.
Answer:
When the concept of Sanskritisation emerged in sociological literature in 1952, it created much academic uproar among social anthropologists and sociologists.

It was agreed that the concept is useful to analyse social change among villagers, especially in terms of cultural change.

Both Indian and foreign social anthropologists reacted to the usefulness of the concept on the basis of whatever is available in sociological research material, we give below a few of the basic characteristics of Sanskritisation:

1. It is a cultural paradigm: Ideas, beliefs, traditions, rituals, and things of this kind constitute the culture of a caste. When there is a change in these aspects of social life, it is a change in cultural life. Thus, Sanskritisation is a cultural change among the lower castes and non-caste groups.

2. Sanskritisation is a change directed to twice-born castes: Though, initially, Sanskritisation meant Brahmiriisation, later on, Srinivas included other models of higher castes for imitation.

It was Milton Singer (1964) who had drawn the attention of Srinivas by saying that there existed not one or two models of Sanskritisation but three if not four.

He said that the local version of Sanskritic Hinduism may use the four labels Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra but the defining content of these labels varies with locality and needs to be empirically determined for any particular locality.

For instance, a particular village may ‘ imitate Brahmins as their model of change but looking at the historicity and contextuality, another village may decide on Kshatriya or Vaishya as their model. Brahmins not in all cases are homogeneous. Nor are the Kshatriyas.

There are Brahmins, such as the Kashmiri, Bengali, and Saraswat who are non-vegetarians. Similarly, there is variation among the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas.

It is, therefore, the local history and the contexts which determine the Sanskritic model for the lower castes. However, the Shudras do not make any model for imitation.

3. Sanskritisation also applies to tribals or non-caste groups: In his refined definition, Srinivas has stated that Sanskritisation is not confined to Hindu castes only but it also occurs among tribal and semi-tribal groups, such as the Bhils of western India, the Gonds and Oraons of central India, and the Paradise of the Himalayas.

These tribal groups claim to attain the status of a caste, i.e., to become a Hindu.

4. Sanskritic values, ideology, and beliefs belong to Indian tradition: When Srinivas talks of Sanskritisation of the lower castes, he has in his view the caste-Hindu traditions. Hinduism draws heavily from its scriptures, such as Ramayana, Mahabharata, Upanishads, and Brahmanas.

The values and beliefs held in these scriptures become the content material for the imitation of the lower castes. The Brahmins, i.e., the priestly caste, naturally interpret the traditions and, therefore, become the model of imitation for the lower castes.

Surely, the acquisition of wealth and power makes a group or person belonging to a caste, important. But, only wealth and power do not enhance the status of a caste.

The improvement in the ritual status can only help the lower caste to improve their hierarchy in the caste system. The imitation of the customs and habits of the higher caste, therefore, goes a long way in imparting Sanskritic status to the lower caste, if the latter has wealth and power.

5. Sanskritisation, in other words, also means teetotalism: Srinivas, to be fair to him, has always refined and redefined his understanding of Sanskritisation.

At a later stage, he found that the lower castes in Sanskritisation have a tendency to move higher in the caste hierarchy, and in a generation or two they could improve their status in the caste hierarchy by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism.

Empirically no researcher has reported that a lower caste has improved its rank in the hierarchy despite having three generations.

Though there is no improvement in the rank it must be said that the lower castes have taken to the prohibition of alcoholism and many of the evils which traditionally characterized their caste.