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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part 2.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Type Questions with Answers

Question 1.
Discuss the meaning and operational definition of learning?
Answer:
Meaning and operational definition of learning:
Learning has been described by some as a modification of behavior. In learning vocabulary, tennis, football, remembering a poem, learning typing, or driving modification of behavior takes place. As a result of repeated practice modification of behavior takes place whether it is sensory, motor or psychological learning starts with an absolute zero. But this definition is too wide and suffers from vagueness. All modifications of behavior cannot be called learning. Some cases of change of behavior appear like learning from the surface. Once not actually learning modification of behavior due to:

• Sensory adaptation
• Maturation
• Fatigue
• Drugs cannot be attributed to learning

Sensory adaption:
When you entered the class you got the strong smell of perfume. But after a few minutes, you are no more aware of the fragrance as the Olfactory sense organ has adapted very quickly. This insensitiveness to the smell of perfume is not because of previous learning but because of the adaptability of the Olfactory senses of the individual.

Maturation:
Two kinds of changes in behavior take place: Those changes which occur due to endogenous (internal) factors are called changes due to growth and maturation, Those changes in behavior that take place due to external factors like environment are called learning changes, called maturational changes. Thus, due to maturation birds start signing at a particular period. The human babysits, stands, walks, and babbles at a particular age. Sexual growth starts at a particular age and so on.

Changes in behavior due to maturation should not, therefore, be confused with changes in behavior due to learning. Changes due to maturation are usually stereotyped and practically identical to all members of the species. But most of the learning changes are varied, also behavior changes due to abnormal glandular secretion, brain damage, and disease should not be attributed to learning.

Fatigue:
A decrement in work performance takes place because of fatigue or tiredness. Fatigue decreases efficiency. A student who is taking down notes in the class at a fantastic speed in the early hours, may not be able to write at the same speed in the last hours. comparative change in performance is not due to learning, but due to fatigue. A person is instructed to draw two parallel lines as quickly as possible for an unlimited period.

After some time, the performance gradually decreases and a period comes when he cannot move his wrist any further. Does this work decrement take place because of practice, due to learning? No, it is not due to practice or learning. It is due to fatigue. This work decrement is also temporary and disappears after rest or change in work.

Drug:
After taking some drugs, some people may suffer from the “drug effects”. The effect of drugs brings a complete change in their behavior for a temporary period. This change in behavior of the ‘ O ’ is not due to practice and hence cannot be attributed to learning. Further temporary that it cannot be called a case of learning.

In view of these facts, learning can be described as a permanent modification of behavior as a result of past experience and practice. Practice reinforces learning firstly, the change in behavior must be more or less, permanent and secondly, it must be the effect of past experience and practice. Any modification of behavior not due to past experience and practice cannot be attributed to learning.

Learning can also be defined as a progressive improvement in performance as a function of practice. No improvement in performance would be possible if the practice does not result in cumulative retention. Secondly, the change that we refer to in learning must be a quantitative and measurable change in performance. The following table demonstrates the measurable change in the performance of a person while learning typing.

Day	Errors	Av. Performance in 30 Minutes
1	25	15Owords
2	32	180 words
3	34	190 words
4	30	190 words
5	25	200 words
6	15	230 words
7	15	230words
8	12	250words
9	06	300 words
10	00	320 words

Both reductions in error and an increase in the speed of typing day by day suggest that the output of learning can be measured by trial. A number of different learning psychologists have emphasized different aspects of learning in their definitions. Some of them are discussed below Boaz (1984) defines learning as the process by which the individual acquires various habits, knowledge, and attitudes that are necessary to meet the demands of life in general.

Learning according to Boaz is a continuous psychological activity that takes place to solve the problems, needs, and demands of the concerned person. Secondly, by learning he develops those attitudes, knowledge, and habits that are required to meet the specific needs of problems of the learner. A person leams typing and shorthand to get a paying job as a personal secretary. A student leams cycling, so as to cover the distance from his residence to school.

A housewife leams the operation of electrical gadgets for the smooth functioning of domestic work, a girl learns cooking, knitting, and signing to have better prospects in the marriage market. Thus, Boaz emphasizes the motivation behind every learning. Learning by Morgan and King (1978) is defined “as any relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of practice and experience.” thus he deals with three major elements Learning is a change in behavior.

it is a change that takes place through practice and experience. Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent; it must last a fairly long time. According to Garrett, “Learning is that activity by virtue of which we organize our response with new habits.” Thus the element of organization in learning cannot be overlooked according to Garrett. In the opinion of Woodworth, learning a new thing adds to one’s experiences. He emphasizes the role of reinforcement in learning by saying it is indispensable for learning.

Woodworth and Scholasberg have given a very comprehensive definition of learning. According to them, “Learning is a change that occurs in the ‘O ’during any kind of activity. It shows later on after the effect of activity. A later activity is different from the earlier activity. We are tempted to say that learning is demonstrated when even a later activity shows some after-effects of earlier activity.

According to Ruch (1970), Learning is a process that brings about changes in the individual s way of responding as a result of contact with aspects of the environment. Ruch views that behavioral changes induced by drugs, brain injury, and maturation are not considered to involve learning Hilgard has defined.

learning as follows Learning is the process by which an activity originates or is changed through training procedures as is distinguished from changes by factors attributable to training. According McGcoch, “Learning as we measure it is a change in performance as a function of practice. In most cases, if not in all, this change has a direction which satisfies the current motivating conditions of the individual.”

Question 2.
What is trial and error of learning? Describe the process of trial and error learning with an experiment?
Answer:
Methods or process of Learning :
How learning takes place? This has been a major issue for many decades and various methods have been developed for learning psychologists to explain how learning takes place. Theories of learning explain the learning process. Mainly the learning theories can be classified into two groups on the basis of their approaches. Stimulus – Response Theory supported by Thorndike, Pavlov, Skinner, Hull, Guthrie, etc. Cognitive Theory is supported by Kohler, Koffka Tolman, Lewin, etc.

The S-R theorists argue that learning occurs by habit due to a chain of reflexes. The ‘ O ’ learns to perform an activity by repeating the performance which brings the correct response or which leads one to reach the goal. This sort of learning process according to them takes place purely mechanically due to habit, due to stimulus-response association.

It does not require the understanding, the brain, or the intelligence of the learner. Paradoxically, cognitive theorists stress the role of organism variables in any learning. They argue that for any learning process to continue, intelligence, understanding, cognitive structure, etc. play an important role. Thus, they stress the role of brain processes in learning. They emphasize the means and the end, and understanding of the situation as a whole.

E.L. Thorndike’S Contribution To Trial And Error Learning:
The psychology of learning owes its existence to American Psychologist E.L. Thorndike (1874¬1949) for his first scientific study of learning. A glance at the contemporary situation of learning psychology indicates that for over half a century, the whole scene of learning psychology has been dominated by one person directly or indirectly and he is E.L. Thorndike.

It is also interesting to note that Thorndike has many followers as well as haters and rivals. When he first propounded his theory of Trial and Error Learning, it produced quite a stir in psychology. Tolman has, therefore, rightly pointed out, “He may be a starting point of attack.”. So, it is said that the psychology of animal learning, not to speak that of child learning, has been or still is primarily a matter of agreeing or disagreeing with Thorndike or tiyin in minor ways to improve upon him.

Prior to Thorndike, nobody did deal with the problem of motivation, not even Wundt or Ebbinghaus. But Thorndike brought a radical change in the history of psychology by bringing motivation into the picture. He conducted a large number of experiments on animal learning, and contemporary psychology and came to the conclusion that animals have no rational faculty in learning. They do not leam by reasoning but by trial and error.

Trial And Error Learning:
Animals go on hitting the target by impulse or leam out of a blunder of hit and miss. This is called Trial and Error Learning. Among the random hits, the correct response which is rewarded is ‘ Stamped in’. The wrong response which is not rewarded is ‘ Stamped out’. Thus; stamping incorrect responses and stamping out wrong ones is the core of learning according to Thorndike.

Trial and error is the simplest form of learning. It came into existence by means of animal experimentation. The trial and error method means trying one way to escape, reach the food or solve a problem, becoming unsuccessful and so trying another way. In this manner, the animal tries and tries until the correct solution is achieved until the goal is reached. The correct response is then repeated to strengthen the S-R connection.

This sort of hit-and-miss learning proceeds slowly, and gradually. The errors fall slowly. The process of selecting and rejecting consists of this gradualness. On the basis of his vast amount of findings on animal experimentation. Thorndike viewed that animals come to leam things quite by chance rather than by anything like understanding. They learn blindly, mechanically, and randomly.

The solution comes by chance, accidentally. To study animal learning by Trial and Error method. Thorndike conducted a classic experiment on a hungry cat, which is described below A hungry cat was put inside a puzzle box. A piece of food (motivation) was kept outside the box at a little distance so that the cat cannot reach it unless she opens the door of the puzzle box. The cat had to press the lever by pulling the loop of the chord to open the door and to get the fish.

At first, the cat tried a number of ways and made lots of unnecessary movements to open the door. The random movements included clawing, biting, pulling, pushing, thrusting, and paws through any opening and the like. In this way after trying several hit-and-miss random acts, making enough struggle, accidentally, the loop was pulled and the door opened.

Finally, the animal reached its goal. Time taken for reaching the food was recorded. After several trials like this, the cat learned to go straight to the lever, press it, open the door and reach the food. A comparison of the time and unnecessary movements from the first to the last trial showed a gradual decrement in the time taken to reach the food.

Also, the unnecessary movements gradually decreased. This type of random hit-or-miss, exploratory activity is called Trial and Error. When these data are plotted into a curve, the irregular slopes at places indicate that animals do things accidentally without understanding. In this case, the cat leams through errors.

Question 3.
Discuss the stages of trial and error learning?
Answer:
Stages of Trial and Error Learning:
Need or Drive:
For any learning to operate need or drive is essential. It goals or motivates the organism to action. In Thorndike’s experiment, the cat was hungry. Hunger was the drive and the need was to get food. In certain cases when the cat is not hungry, the drive for exploration may serve as the need in learning the maze. The motivation should be goal oriented.

For instance, the cat is hungry. But there is no food outside the puzzle box. In this case, the animal will not try at all to open the door, unless, of course, the need to escape from the box operates as a goal. There must be some goal whatsoever, otherwise learning will not be effective.

Block or Resistance:
By preventing the direct release of tension blocks are created so that the animal would make attempts to learn. Without blocks, there cannot be any learning. Thorndike made many T & Y mazes and artificial blocks.

Random Movement:
Rigidity on the part of the ‘O’ does not help to learn quickly. Accidentally the rat heats so many paths; shows random, variable hit-and-miss kinds of activities that are blind, mechanical, and lack understanding and meaning.

Chance Success:
When the cat was trying to get the fish, it made many random unsuccessful activities. Out of these random attempts, by chance, accidentally, the ‘O’ succeeds in reaching the goal. So in .trial and error learning, success comes by chance.

Selection:
The successful movements or the correct responses which lead to the goal are reinforced and hence selected for further practice. The unsuccessful activities are discarded and the successful ones are encountered. This is called selection.

Repetition of the Successful Movements:
Repetition of successful movements leads to the establishment of a habit for a definite movement. When the cat found that certain selected movements led him to food, it attempted only those movements that enabled him to get out of the box and reach the food.

Fixation:
Fixation takes place due to habit, due to the repetition of the successful movements. The habit leads to a definite S-R connection. In fixation, certain essential factors like a decrease in time taken to reach the goal, no random movement, and anticipation of behavior observed. All the above principles are found generally, in any type of trial and Error learning.

Question 4.
Discuss briefly the curve of trial and error learning and maze learning?
Answer:
The curve of Trial and Error:
A curve can be drawn by taking the learning trial, a number of errors, etc. into consideration. The trial and error learning curve has the usual characteristics of a gradual decrease in time and error.

The blind and random activities, at last, come to an end. Errors become zero when the learning becomes perfect. But the time period never comes to zero because some time is necessary to reach the food object. It will vary from organism to organism according to its physiological limit A Japanese experimenter, Kuo did an experiment, on Maze. Shock chambers and confined chambers were allowed.

The shock was given in the earlier path but no food, he went in the short path but got shocked. So he went on another path but again got shocked. Finally, he went on another path and took more time to run. He learned the last path because it gave him reward and pleasure. In this case frequency with reward was found to be the effective answer. Kuo thus disapproved. Thorndike’s Frequency Theory by finding that frequency followed by motivation results in learning.

Kuo’s experiment concludes that practice always depends upon the consequence of reward. The rewarded learning is only fixated. Adam repeated Trial and Error Learning and formulated certain principles which opposed Thorndike’s. He conducted an experiment on discrimination learning where the monkey was trained to select a particular circle that brought him food.

There are two circles, one is big and the other is small. Food is always reinforced to the small circle. After some training, this big circle was substituted by a small circle which was smaller than the second one. In spite of this change in the size of the first circle, the monkey discriminated between the two circles and also learned to always respond to the circle which accompanied the food.

Here, Adam says, the monkey did not learn quite blindly but tried to perceive the relationship between the circles and discriminate one from the other. So he retorted, animals always do not learn by chance. Their activities are not always random or unsuccessful. Sometimes the animal tries to understand the situation and gives a response accordingly.

Thorndike counteracted this criticism by the argument that trial and error learning occurs in the case of lower animals only. Monkeys, chimpanzees, and human beings do not learn by trial and error. Adam conducted another experiment where even after 21 trials, the animal did not learn to open the latch because there was no reinforcement (food) outside the box. But when the smell of fish was noticed by the animal, it tried to open the latch.

Thus, Adam proved that motivation followed by practice strengthens learning. He proved that without motivation learning cannot be specific. This data also went against Throndike’s assumption and emphasized more practice for effective learning. The findings of several such studies led to severe criticism of the Law of Exercise of Thorndike. Thus after 1933 of Effect was included along with the Law of Exercise.

Maze Learning:
Several maze methods were used extensively to demonstrate trial-and-error learning. Maze refers to a number of complicated ways in which the ‘O’ tries to escape or to seek food. In such learning, time and errors are taken as criteria of learning. As the time and errors, reduce the ‘O’ is said to proceed toward learning. The number of unnecessary movements taken to reach the goal is counted as error. By making suitable readjustments, each time the ‘O’ attempts to improve his performance.

Question 5.
What is human learning define the meaning of the law of learning and explain different laws of learning?
Answer:
Human Learning:
Human beings also learn by trial and error method. A human ‘O’ is given to learning a complicated maze blindfolded. In the beginning, he makes several wrong movements though less in degree than, the animal. Gradually in a few trials, he learns the maze. Besides simple mazes, hand stylus and complicated mazes are also used in human learning. Trial and learning also take place in our everyday life.

Opening a lock by selecting from a bunch of keys without knowing the actual key, solving a sum by different formulas, sensory-motor learning like tracing star papers with the help of mirror drawing, typing, cycling, and other motor skills are all cases of trial and error learning. Though simple by nature, the trial and error method is said to be one of the most important methods of learning.

In some conditioning and insightful learning trial and error, the method is also involved. Trial and error learning can be overt and covert. Thinking is said to be covert or mental trial and error. However, the trial and error method does not take into account the importance of the whole situation in learning. It has always emphasized part learning, i.e., learning part by part.

Laws of Learning:
on the basis of several experimental findings on animal learning. Thorndike formulated certain laws to explain, the fundamental process of learning. Learning can be explained as an operation of these laws or principles. These laws explain the how and why of learning, a) Law, of Readiness It refers to the physical or psychological (mental) preparedness of a person to do a job or to attend to a stimulus.

If one is prepared to learn; or acquire something, he welcomes it and gets a satisfying feeling while doing it. Conversely, if one is not ready to receive a stimulus, he regrets it and demonstrates dissatisfaction while making a response. Thus, in the opinion of Thorndike, readiness for doing work makes learning smooth, pleasant, and economical.

The Law of readiness has three parts:
If there is, a conduction unit that is ready to conduct an impulse, the act of conducting is satisfying or pleasing. This unit is nothing but a neural pathway or a relay of neural. If there is a conduction unit that is ready to conduct, not doing so is annoying. You are all prepared to/run a race. You are in attendance. If this race is canceled suddenly you are annoyed.

You are all dressed for a film show. Your spouse or friend does not reach in time to accompany you to the show. So it is canceled and you are deeply annoyed. If there is a conduction unit not ready to conduct and if you force one to conduct that creates annoyance. For instance, when you are not ready to sing a song but are forced to do so, it creates annoyance.

Some critics of Thorndike argue that Thorndike in three formulations speaks entirely in terms of physiology, only neural readiness. But looking at these laws, it seems that no legitimate physiological meaning can be attached to them. Later students of Thorndike attempted to attach a more legitimate meaning to these principles.

They say that though Thorndike speaks in the language of physiology, he actually meant psychology. Thus they interpret the conduction unit as a readiness, a set, a preparedness for making a response tendency which is more a psychological readiness.

Law of Exercise:
It is the principle of repetition or the frequency principle. This law states that if an S-R connection is used repeatedly, the strength of that connection is increased and if an S-R connection is not used, the strength of that connection is weakened. Repetition, therefore, increases the strength of response and lack of repetition weakens it. Hence, the law of exercise is based on the principle “Practice makes one perfect. A person who has repeated a poem several times will remember it more than one who has not.

The Law of exercise comprises two short laws:
Law of use and law of disuse. The S-R connection is strengthened by using it and weakened by not using it. This law of exercise is defined in terms probability of response strengthening and weakening. This suggests that the response acquires proficiency when it is repeated. Proficiency decreases when it is not repeated.

Criticism – Other behaviorists Thorndike took the law of exercise as the sole principle of learning. They argued that it leads to the fixation of certain definite S-R responses, a tendency leading to specific learning. But many experiments including Adam proved that learning is net-specific as Thorndike thought. It is rather a general orientation. Adam and others found that the same animal used different methods to achieve the same goal.

Thus, considerable doubt is focused on the specific nature of learning. Secondly, subsequent learning psychologists did not find the law of exercise as effective as Thorndike thought. Mere repetition without motivation does hot achieves anything. The person must have some reinforcement or incentive to learn a skill. Otherwise, practice proves ineffective.

Several experiments on knowledge of results show that repetition without reinforcement does not bring learning. Japanese psychologist Kuo has also found the same thing. That learning becomes ineffective without an intention to learn is proven in most of our daily activities. In view of this criticism, Thorndike decided to Supplement the Law exercise with the law of effect.

Law of Effect:
It follows from the Law of Exercise. The Law of effect refers to Some kind of reward or reinforcement. It stresses the role of motivation in learning. It is the cornerstone, the cardinal principle of Thorndike’s theory of learning. Thorndike viewed that in all situations involving learning, be its sensory or motor or both, the principle of effect is exemplified. conditioning learning, insightful learning, and in trial and or learning, the law of effect is indispensable. This law is responsible for the selection of some goals and the rejection of others. The whole system of Thorndike, in fact, falls or rises with this law.

Question 6.
What is learning of performance and discuss the maturation of learning?
Answer:
Learning and Performance:
Sometimes learning is confused performance. But learning is different from performance. Learning cannot be directly observed, but it is inferred from performance. So learning contributes to performance, but it is only one ingredient of performance. Performance is affected by many factors other than learning. Performance refers to observed behavior while learning can only be observed through performance.

The several factors which influence performance are – need, motivation, attitude, past experience, and learning. Thus, among several factors influencing performance, learning is only one factor.

Learning and Maturation:
Learning basically depends upon the psychological system, i.e. the sensory organs and the cerebral cortex. The growth of organs, therefore, helps in learning. Whatever training we may give to a baby of 5 months, he cannot walk or speak a language. Similarly, a five-year-old boy cannot solve complex mathematical problems, because the solution to mathematical problems depends upon the development of intelligence and the cerebral cortex.

If the brain is not ready enough to grasp a thing, learning will not be possible. Thus it seems apparent that maturation of that organ is necessary, which is to be used for particular learning. What is Maturation? If simply refers to growth, both physically arid and mental. Munn (1954) opines that maturation in man depends upon the existence of human genes and human intracellular, intercellular, and external preconditions.

Those changes which take place due to endogenous or internal factors are called changes due to the influence of growth and maturation. Changes due to the influence of external factors are due to learning. Maturation mostly depends upon prenatal conditions and genes and partly upon the environment. Maturation can be accelerated or retarded by the postnatal environment because feedback from the early environment has also something to do with growth and maturation.

Maturation occurs after birth as well as before. Maturation greatly depends upon heredity. But since the early environmental conditions play a role in development, it would be incorrect to say that any structure or function which matures is purely inherited. Due to the major influence of heredity and genes upon maturation, birds start singing at a particular age, and children start walking and babbling at a particular age. Sexual growth also begins at a particular period of life, even though no training is given.

Hence maturation does not depend upon learning maturation can be accelerated by training, by the factors of the external environment. Maturation can take place without learning, within the four walls. A person can sit, stand, walk and babble without getting special training. A lot of research on maturation has been conducted on animals and some on human infants. Evidence of maturation is found in experiments on birds, rats, monkey,s and human infants.

Arnold Gesell (1946) conducted a study to examine the importance of maturation over learning. She took two twin girls, say A and B. At 46 weeks A was trained to climb stairs and she took several weeks to leam the skill. At 53 weeks B, her sister, was taught to climb the same stairs. She only took 2 weeks to leam it. This difference in learning can be well attributed to better maturation in the case of who was taught to climb stairs seven weeks after her sister A was taught.

The findings of this study make it clear that maturation helps one to leam much more quickly. It also suggests that maturation may not necessarily depend upon learning, but learning definitely depends upon maturation. Why? According to Boaz (1984) “for the learning of complex tasks, particularly for the symbolic learning, maturation of the cerebral cortex and its association areas is an absolute necessity.

Lashley’s experimental findings also show that learning ability directly depends upon the size of the cerebral cortex. That is why, when the child is not ready to leam, no amount of teaching or training will make any good. This is what everyone, including the parents and the teachers, should realize.

Kellog and Kellog (1933) conducted a classic experiment on “The Ape and the Child.” A human child Donald and a Chimpanzee baby Gua were brought up in the same environment and treated identically. Gua, who was two months younger than Donald was humanized earlier than Donald. Munn in this connection describes.

In learning to skip, cooperate with her foster parent, obey requests, kiss to makeup, open doors, anticipate her bowel and bladder needs, eat with a spoon, drink from a glass, and understand such expressions as “Kiss, Kiss” “Come here” Shake hands” and “Bad girl”. Gua was ahead of Donald. She learned faster than Donald because she was more mature.

The conclusions of this study are:
Though the Chimpanzee was of an inferior race and was superior to the child in certain respects due to greater early maturation, Donald could leam certain things like speaking, which Gua without special training could not leam, even though she was more mature. It is because men are more mature than apes.

Question 7.
Define (aw of learning). Describe the law of effect?
Answer:
On the basis of several experimental findings on animal learning. Thorndike formulated certain laws to explain the fundamental process of learning. Learning can be explained as an operation of these laws or principles.

Law of Effect:
It follows from the law of exercise. The Law of effect refers to some kind of reward or reinforcement. It stresses the role of motivation in learning. It is the consumer stone, the cardinal principle of Thorndike’s theory of learning. Thorndike viewed that in all situations involving learning. Law of effect in Thorndike’s opinion refers to the strengthening and weakening of connection as a result of its consequences.

When a modifiable connection is made and is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the connection is increased. If a connection is made and is followed by an annoying state of affairs, the strength is decreased. If the hungry rat gets food after running the maze, it again runs the maze when hungry. But if it fails to get food, it will no more run.

Similarly, if the dog in the conditioned response method gets food, after salivating to bell it will again salivate to below. The learning which gives satisfaction is repeated over and over again. Conversely, failure and dissatisfaction will create an aversion to that learning. If several runs in a particular pathway do not lead to food, but to shock, the rat with a feeling of failure leaves that path and takes another, which leads to a reward.

If the animal is rewarded, next time it expects food and so learns quickly. Thorndike talks about the effect in operational terms. A connection is strengthened and associated with fulfillment of drive, weakened in the case of the opposite. The strength of connection takes place in terms of result i.e., it depends upon the result. The law of effect, therefore, can be called the law of consequence of results from this angle.

The satisfying consequences or results are retained and the dissatisfying ones are eliminated. Thorndike said, “By a satisfying state of affairs is meant one which the animal does nothing to avoid, often doing things which maintain or renew it. It is something that the animal always tried to maintain. An annoying state of affairs is meant one in which the animal does nothing to preserve often doing things that put an end to it.

Objections against the Law of Effect:
Some have argued that Thorndike’s reasoning is circular. Thorndike had to define satisfaction and annoyance in the manner of annoyance. In the pretension of defining a problem, he again comes back to the same problem. Another objection comes from Watson himself. He said that it has a subjective tinge. So he stated that satisfaction and annoyance are connected with some mental state and as such is inappropriate for the description of animal behavior.

Thirdly, the “backward effect” of the Law of Effect has been certified, because the effect going backward is not logical according to them. In Thorndike’s view learning consists of a series of S-R units like S -S2-S3-S4-S5 and so on. The effect comes only at 5. However, it not only influences S. but all the back stimuli like S, S, S3, and S4. But since learning is discreet, how can it be connected with other stimuli, and how the correct response at the 5th’ stage can again go back to the first one?

This idea of Thorndike is very legitimately doubted. To meet this criticism Thorndike argued that the effect of going backward is a matter of empirical observation and reality and hence should not be challenged. The Geslaltists rejected the law of effect. Their objections were based upon experiments and hence more troublesome for Thorndike, the Law of effect, in spite of this criticism is central not only to Thorndike but to all who believe in some sort of reinforcement in learning.

This was the position of Thorndike up to 1929. From 1929 onwards, a very great change took place in his theory, i.e., he modified it. The necessity of modification arose due to severe criticism from various contemporaries like behaviorists and Gestalt Psychologists. Thorndike was so much perturbed by the criticism coming from the Gestalt School and from Iris’s own experimental findings at the meeting of International Congress in Psychology (1927).

he confessed “I am wrong” With this statement, he suggested some radical modifications to his theory of trial and error. He completely gave up the law of exercise and so the law of effect after 1930 was called the “Truncated Law of Effect.” The weakening effect of punishment was also given up or renounced. Thus, he substituted only half of the original law of effect.

The other half dealing with punishment was given up as the negative side appeared to be unimportant for learning. He stated that mere occurrence was enough to counterbalance the eliminating force of punishment. This he did on the basis of his famous experiment on chicks. In a simple maze, the choice of three correct pathways was given such as:

• Freedom,
• Company,
• Food.

The wrong responses led to a punishment of confinement for 30 seconds. A careful record of the data was kept in regard to the times the chicks followed a path when it led to rewarding and it led to punishment. The aim was to examine if a particular pathway led to food or freedom or company or electric shock, and how often the different paths are repeated.

The findings of this study led Thorndike to conclude that rewarding a connection always strengthened it substantially, and punishing it weakened, it a little or not at all. Thorndike found that there was almost a universal view that reward was more efficacious than punishment. Contemporary psychologists called this the law reinforcement. Thorndike also discovered another important phenomenon in the law of effect.

It is known as The Spread of Effect. He noticed that the effect of reward was not only upon the connection with which the reward associated but also upon the neighborhood connections. Effect strengthens these connections which have preceded and followed reward. In short, reward not only strengthens the right connections but also the adjacent connections.

This Thomdike said is a kind of gradient effect. Subsequent experiments on the spread of the effect have yielded similar findings. Tiffin and Nuttin, for instance, got extensive results. However, this phenomenon of the spread of effect has been denied on experimental and statistical grounds. People said on the basis of empirical findings that the spread of effect is not real but conditional.

Thorndike’s theory after 1930 can be summarized as follows:
Reward is extremely urgent for learning. It minimizes the effect of punishment. In matters of potency, the reward is so potent counterbalances the effect of punishment. Rewarding connection always strengthens it substantially. Punishment weakens the connection little or not at all. Thorndike’s law of learning after 1930had a lot of social implications. The modification of this law is at the root of all social changes. It is more practical in classroom teaching, in jails, and in juvenile reform centers.

Spare the rod, spoil the child is based on this principle of learning. Canning has been banned in educational institutions. Physical punishment also is not in much use today. Thus, prisoners in jail, school students, and for juvenile delinquents laws of effect tremendous importance. The three important views about the law of effect are as follows Law of effect is essential to learning – Thorndike, Hull.

Question 8.
Discuss the few other laws of the theory of Thorndike and critical evaluation?
Answer:
Thorndike’s theory:
Thorndike has a number of subsidiary laws. They are The law of multiple responses, i.e. there are a number of responses at the disposal of the ‘O’. when one fails, one other is tried by the law of prepotency; and the law of associative setting. A few other laws of learning have also been referred to by Thorndike, which are discussed below:

Law of Contiguity:
Contiguity refers to nearness. Nearness can be two types, nearness of space and nearness of time. If two things are experienced together, either due to the nearness of space or time, when one is experienced, the other immediately comes to our mind. Blackboard and chalk, library and librarian are related by contiguity of space. When is face one, the other immediately comes focus of our consciousness? An example of the contiguity of time is thunder and lightning. When we see the lightning, immediately we anticipate the thunder which follows the lightning at once.

Law of Frequency:
It is a frequent occurrence that gives an advantage. When nerve connections are frequently used, they leave a particular mark on memory. This is suggested by Thorndike physiological change. It is very much related to the law of exercise. The Law of frequency and the law of exercise are sometimes considered as having equal functions.

Law of Recency:
Any act which has been performed recently has the advantage of being learned and remembered more quickly than the older, far-off, and distant experiences. The recent experiences are better remembered because Neural pathways involved in recent experiences are the last to be activated and the impression in the nerves is fresh. they were the acts nearer to the solution and satisfaction of the need.

The last attempt is the recent attempt and it is a nearer goal that gives a satisfying experience. So it is learned and remembered quickly. While learning the maze box, the rat remembers the last path move vividly as it brought food and satisfied its hunger need. Psychologists who have criticized the law of recency and the law of exercise believe that it is an atomic or molecular approach.

Law of Primacy:
First impressions last long. Other things being equal, all first-learned things are better remembered. The first time one meets a person, the first day of joining college, the first night of I marriage, and the first, time one joins a job or receives his pay packet are examples. Similarly, the first line of a song and the first syllable from a list of nonsense syllables are quickly learned.

Due to the operation of a law of primacy and recency, the first and last nonsense syllables of a list are more easily remembered than the materials in the middle of the list. The first things get enough time to be consolidated and there is no proactive inhibition in this case while in the middle series, both proactive inhibition and retroactive inhibition operate.

Law of Intensity:
If the experience is very intense and emotional, it is easily remembered and further learning may not be necessary to remember it. Certain childhood experiences which are extremely pleasant or deeply shocking like getting a gold medal as a reward, the sudden death of parents and failure in an examination may be remembered for the entire life because of their intense nature.

Intense experiences need not be repeated. One single experience will be enough to be remembered for one entire life. However, according to the theory of repression, if the experience is too shocking or unpleasant, it may be forgotten due to the operation of the mechanism of repression.

Law of Belongingness:
The Law of belongingness by its recognition of an organizing principle is foreign to the structure of Thorndike’s theory of specificity and mechanical action. Rather it gives some recognition to the Gestalt principles in learning. Attacked by Kohler, Koffka, and other Gestaltists for his neglect of organizational principles, Thorndike developed this law of belongingness. It states that the effect is stronger if it belongs to the stimulus-response connection.

Following this line, Thorndike said that if there is an S R connection and the effect belongs to it, the influence is weaker. When one is hungry, food belongs to the situation and so the hunger-food connection makes learning more efficient. When one is hungry, water does not belong to it, only food belongs to it, and only food can satisfy the need of hunger. The belongingness of reward and punishment depends upon the appropriateness of satisfying an arousal motive or want in the learner.

The concession to the principle of belongingness is a concession to the field psychologists who stress the field factor in every learning. Introducing this principle, Thorndike says that effect is more efficacious when it is an effect with belongingness. Belongingness of reward and punishment depends upon its appropriateness is satisfying.

An aroused motive or want in the learner and in its logical and informative relationship to the activities rewarded and punished. To be rewarded with a glass of water when one is thirsty is a reward with belongingness. Without belongingness, though the aftereffect cannot be denied, with belongingness they are more effective.

Critical Evaluation of Thorndike’s Theory:
Thorndike for the first time made a systematic and scientific study of the problems of learning. He developed methods of animal experimentation and gave such genetic and comparative psychology which provided the impetus for a tremendous amount of research on animal psychology. Looking at the theory of Thorndike, we find, it is one man who has created regular stomachs in the whole field of learning.

Though several decades have passed, still we find Thorndike at the root of all kinds of discussions in learning. Some of his ideas, though have been modified and improved, but the law of effect still continues to have a very significant place in learning. Chiefly two kinds of criticisms have been leveled against Thorndike. His stress on reaction performance, on parts rather than on whole has been criticized.

These are criticisms that result from differences in outlook and temperament. The second type of criticism is very fundamental and specific mainly against the law of effect. It was argued that the law of effect is subjective in nature and the backward nature of the law of effect was also criticized. There are also some important experimental criticisms like renunciations of punishment in the law of effect. While Mouren and others have viewed that punishment is very significant in the acquisition of behavior, taking the help of latent learning.

Tolman of the Gestalt School argued that learning can take place with simplicity without reward. The attacks by the Gestalt School in the 20s were more telling and Thorndike began to later meet some of these criticisms. But it was before the International Congress of Psychology Newttaven in September 1929, he came out with the statement “I am Wrong.”

Transfer of Training:
The theory of transfer of training refers to the popular concept that man should be given training in a general way which includes language, mathematics, and classics. They thought that training in these areas positively transferred to various walks of life. It was found that formal education is transferred to various life situations and vocations. The pattern of education at that time in England was, therefore, mainly restricted to classics, language, and mathematics.

Subsequently, there was a lot of discussion on the generalization of the transfer of training and transfer of mathematics to another subject. Thorndike was the first person to raise his voice against the unscientific character of this presupposition and said, it would be illusory to support that there is a transfer from mathematics to other subjects, He viewed that training in one subject helps the other subject only to the extent they have elements or aspects in common.

The identity may be in substance or in the procedure. Thus there can be a transfer from mathematics to statistics or knowledge of addition helps in multiplication; because both have necessary similarities. 11 hence, it is also called the “theory of identical elements”. Thorndike’s theory of transfer began to take shape in an experimental study done in collaboration with Woodworth (1903).

This study presupposes that transfer depends upon the presence of identical elements between the original and subsequent learning. What is implied by the transfer of training? When previous training or knowledge influences the acquisition of subsequent learning it is called a transfer of training. There are three types of transfer of training positive transfer, negative transfer, and zero transfer.

Positive Transfer:
In the positive transfer of training acquisition of skill in one situation facilitates the training in subsequent situations. For instance, knowledge of physics facilitates training in electronics. knowledge of mathematics accelerates the training in statistics or computer science; knowledge of language facilitates the study of classics and literature.

Positive transfer of training occurs due to the similarity of content, the similarity of technique, and the similarity of principle. Thorndike was of opinion that one activity influences another to the extent that they have common or identical elements. Contrary to the popular belief that transfer is general in nature, Thorndike put forth the idea that transfer is a matter of specific connections.

Question 9.
What is insightful learning? Discuss its characteristics and types?
Answer:
Insightful learning owes its existence to the Gestalt School of Psychology, particularly to its founders Kohler and Koffka. The theory of insightful learning developed as a revolt against Titchener’s structuralism, Thorndike’s trial and error learning, and part-whole relationship. As opposed to Thorndike, Gestalt developed and theory of whole part position in learning and perception.

Gestalt is a German word with no exact English translation. It more or less refers to the form organized whole and configuration. Objects and things are perceived and learned as a whole, in complete form. This is the salient point of the Gestalt School. According to Crow and Crow, Gestalt is a pattern a configuration of a form of apprehending a stimulus situation.

Characteristics of Insightful Learning:
Insightful learning, the ‘ O ’ reacts to the whole situation and not to some details only. The ‘ O ’ finds out the relationship between the various stimuli within the situation as a whole. The relationship that the ‘O’ perceives is mostly between a means and the end or goal. While learning by the insight the ‘ O’ modifies and restructures the perceptual field. A sudden change in the behavior of the ‘O’ is frequently observed.

The solution to the problem comes all of a sudden, in a sudden flash. The capacity for insightful learning is restricted by age and individual differences. Older children give a better response to learning by insight than younger ones. Similarly, higher animals like monkeys and chimpanzees solve problems by insight than guinea pigs. Insight depends upon past experience. However, the Gestaltists do not agree with this. They instead emphasize the present experiences of the learner.

But one must accept that a child cannot get into the heart of a mathematical problem unless the symbols stated therein are understood. For this, past knowledge of the subject is required. Even. when the problem is at the capacity level since he does not know the signs and symbols, he cannot solve the problem. Generally, it has been found that once one gets the idea for the solution to the problem in subsequent situations, that idea helps in solving the problem.

Insightful leaming needs experimental arrangement. The problem situation must be properly arranged and the tools must be kept systematically so that the necessary aspects are amendable to observation. If the required tool is out of the field of perception, solving the problem becomes difficult. Certain cases of insightful learning may be preceded by trial and error or a period for search or preparation.

In the stick and banana experiment, the first half was trial and error learning. Once achieved, insight can be used in a new situation. The same method can be repeated over and over again to solve new problems. The idea is thus transferred or carried over from previous to subsequent learning situations. In the case of human subjects, insight is often accompanied by verbal cues which help in subsequent learning. A solution of insightful learning can be readily repeated.

This has been proved in the case of the Sultan. When Sultan was again placed in the box with a bunch of bananas the next day, it repeated the same idea of joining the two sticks and getting the banana. Only it did not show any trial and error behavior as on the first day. In insightful learning we observe an integrating and reintegrating of part processes into a new total pattern, these part processes having been provided by experience, though the Gestalt School gives emphasis on the present situational factors.

Insightful learning can be of two types :

• Learning by Foresight.
• Learning by Hindsight Foresight

When the solution to the problem comes at once in the first attempt without actually trying the situation, it is called foresight. When a person solves a mathematical problem suddenly without using trial and method error it is a case of foresight. Hindsight Solution comes after trying with the elements.

Question 10.
Define observational learning?
Answer:
At the time there were rarely computer monitors in the airports of India showing the time of arrival and departure of planes indicated by their flight numbers. Only there were occasional announcements. I was waiting for a security check-up along with so many other passengers who were waiting for different flights with boarding cards of different colors kept in their shirt (front) pockets. I was a little nervous and worried because I was not very sure if I could be able to go to the right gate for a security check-up and board the right plane.

My boarding card was pink in color. Immediately I got the intrusion to follow the passengers who had also pink-colored boarding cards. I observed them and found four, or five passengers with pink colored cards, and I gave a sigh of relief. When there was a call for a security check-up, occupants of the pink-colored card got up to proceed and I quietly followed them and arrived at the right gate for the security check-up.

Subsequently, things became easy for me. I observed and imitated the activities of my co-passengers and followed them till I reached the plane. When the plane was about to take off, the air hostess announced that every one should fasten their seat belts. I tried with the seat belt but could not fasten it around my waist. Then I observed my co-passenger silently and learned the technique.

These are examples of observational learning. Observational learnings are most common in our day-to-day life. Observational learning in most cases is a simple type of learning whereby watching others in activities we learn a lot. Even we leam abstract rules, concepts, and ideas by observing others’ behavior either in reality or from cinema or T.V. Thus while watching T.V. people also learn to do things.

People leam social customs, rules, regulations, traditions, rituals, and cultural heritages of the society by observing others so that many embarrassments are avoided. When a child sees his mother showing respect to another person, the child also does the same. The child also does the same. ‘In society we leam from other people’s experiences by observing them, watching them. In fact, people leam both positive and negative behavior patterns like sociability and aggressiveness through observation of models.

Bandura, the pioneer of observational learning opines that it is a third major way by which we leam next to trial and error and conditioning. Several research findings suggest that observational learning places some role in every aspect of human behavior and we cannot manage without this method of learning. We leam cooking, stitching, washing clothes, toilet habits, knitting, making art and drawings, decorations by watching other people doing the same.

Even we leam a lot of necessities of day-to-day life by watching the T.V. Most of the household activities and various exercises are learned through observation. Many experiments on children prove this point. The famous Bobo doll experiment of Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) indicate how children leam to be aggressive by observing an adult aggressive model. They took two groups of nursery school children as samples. The control group was exposed to a non-aggressive amiable adult model.

But the experimental group was exposed to an aggressive adult model who kicked a big doll, scolded and insulted it. Then the children of both groups were allowed to play in a room with several toys. Children of the experimental group showed more aggressive behavior towards their toys and dolls compared to the children of the control group. This may also be called “Imitation Learning”.

Social scientists explain the indisciplined, aggressive, unruly violent, and ruthless behavior of many modem youths as a consequence of imitating the same from T.V. Cinema and video films. The ability to learn by observing others’ activities is due to the cognitive influence of learning. Even Toman’s experiment on rats learning to run mazes substantiates the fact that simple creatures can learn from experience to form internal models to guide later behavior.

Basic Principle of Observational:
The principles of observational learning explain what factors and conditions determine whether and to what extent we learn information skills, concepts, and ideas from others’ behaviors. Following are four basic principles of observational learning as suggested by Bandura.

The direction of attention to appropriate models performing a particular activity:
People generally imitate such people’s behavior which seems appropriate to serve their purpose or aim. Intelligent, pretty, attractive people demonstrating cognitive ability, having unique status, and success come under this category.

Remembering the actions, behaviors and skills shown by the model:
In order to be successful in observational learning, the person must retain what he has observed from his model so that he can behave in a similar way when required.

Production process or conversion of the retained behavior of the model into appropriate action at the time of requirement:
According to Bandura production processes depend upon one’s own physical abilities which can give a clear representation of its memory at the appropriate time, and the capability to monitor one’s own performance and manipulate it till it matches the behavior of the model.

Motivation:
In Bandura’s view, one may observe another person’s behavior but he may not convert it to action unless he is motivated to do so. Only those behavior that is required and useful for a person, he is motivated to practice them, so motivation is required to observe actively other’s activities and put them into practice.

Observational learning may not always be as simple as it appears. It is more complex than mere learning by imitation. It plays an important role in modifying our behaviors through observation. Observational learning leads to aggressive behavior (Baron and Richardson, 1994, Central wails 989, Synder, 1991, Wood, Wrong, and Chachese (1997). Children are found to show aggressive behavior after imitating their age mates.

It can also be used as a technique to train workers for the improvement of interpersonal relationships. Sociability, courteousness, and amiability can be developed by observing these qualities regularly in other people. Culture shock can also be avoided through observational learning. Asian and Western cultures differ contrastingly. It becomes difficult for people of both cultures to adjust and interact normally with each other. Similarly, with the globalization of the world economy, people of different cultures have to interact with each other when they meet.

Question 11.
Define the stage of insightful learning. Differentiate between insightful learning and trial, and error learing?
Answer:
Stages of insightful learning:
Need:
Like any learning, the need to leam is essential in insightful learning. The need may be biological like hunger, sex, or thirst or social like gregariousness, or personal like the desire for power, prestige, and recognition.

Preparation:
Preparation is a basic precondition before insightful learning starts. In Kohler’s experiment on the Sultan with problems involving the use of readymade implements, there were preliminary preparations for the learning. The leader makes various surveys, inspections, and acute examinations of the problem and its field.

Incubation:
It refers to the stage of clearness or dormant period when all overt activities are suspended. It is a period of progress when the ‘O’ silently thinks over the problem.

Inspiration:
In this stage, the idea for the solution to the problem comes suddenly. It flashes in the mind at once. The bright ideal, the “brain wave” comes to the mind during this stage. This stage is sometimes characterized by shouting and jumping in joy, as the ‘O’ is enlightened by the bright idea which came in a flash.

Verification:
It is the last stage of insightful learning in which the ‘O’ makes practical application of his bright new idea. In the case of the Sultan, it joined both the sticks, placed the boxes one after another, and got upon the third box, and brought the bunch of bananas hanging on the roof.

Critical Analysis of Insightful Learning Theory:
Kohler, Koffka, and other advocates of insightful learning have stated that perception of the relationship between different parts of the visual field and the goal plays a significant part in learning. They have also said that learning by insight takes a single attempt to solve a problem. But this is not the fact in reality. In most cases, we find that learning is a gradual process and the errors reduce gradually which the insight theory is not ready to accept.

So insight is not the only method of learning. It is nevertheless one of the methods of learning. Practice is also essential for learning. But practice is totally unacceptable to Gestalt psychologists. However, it can be said that in every difficult and complicated situation the only type of learning that is involved is insightful learning. Munn (1953) thus comments, “Insight is rare in animals, not quite so rare in children and quite common in human adults!”.

While American psychologists have mostly used mazes and puzzle boxes, German psychologists, used situations where all relevant aspects of the problem are visible. Thus Bertrand Russel remarked “Animals studied by Americans run about frantically, with an incredible display of hustle and pep, and at last achieve the desired result by chance. Animals observed by Germans still and think and at last evolve the solution out of their inner consciousness.”

Difference between Insightful and Trial and Error Learning:
Trial and error are more often found in lower animals and children while insightful learning is rare in animals, not so rare in children, and commonly found in human adults. Trial and error learning depends upon practice and repetition while insightful learning does not require much practice. Trial and error learning is mechanical, random, blind, a hit-and-miss type of learning where a solution comes by chance, accidentally.

Insightful learning depends upon intelligence, understanding, grasping, and perception of the whole field of the organization. Trial and error is a simple type of learning mostly found in the acquisition of skills, particularly motor skills. Insight is a complex method of learning. It is more effective in cognitive and verbal learning. Trial and error learning is gradual and slow. Several trials are required to lead.

Insightful learning is sudden and comes abruptly at once in a flash. One trial is necessary for learning. Trial and error learning is more or less temporary. When practice is given up, the acquisition of skill fades up. Insightful learning is permanent as it grows out of understanding the relationship between the tools and the goals. In trial-error learning, a reaction to a part and specific stimulus is made.

In insightful learning, the situation is perceived as a whole to bring the solution. Trial and error learning does not involve insight. Learning by the insight in many cases involves some amount of trial and error. Trial and error depend upon practice and past experience. Gestalt School argues that it does not depend upon past experience which is a controversial view. Learning is transferred from one situation to another on the basis of transposition. In insightful learning transfer of training takes place in the form of identical elements,

Question 12.
What is classical conditioning? Describe determinants and basic processes in classical conditioning?
Answer:
This type of learning was first investigated by Ivan R Parlov (1849 -1936). He was an eminent Russain Psychologist and a Nobel prize winner for his work on the physiology of digestion. During his studies, he observed that dogs started secreting saliva as soon as they did. Sighted the empty plate in which food was served. As we are aware, saliva secretion i.e. reflexive response to food or something in the mouth.

This observation led to the famous conditioned response of learning. Pavlov designed an experiment to understand this process in detail. In the first phase, a dog was left in a box and harnessed. The dog was left in the box for some time. This was repeated a number of times on different days. Then a simple surgery was made and one end of the tube was inserted in the dog’s jaw and the other end of the tube was put in a measuring glass.

Then, in the second phase of the experiment, the dog was deprived of food and was kept hungry. Again, the dog was placed in a harness with one end of the tube in the jaw and the other end of the glass jar. Now a bell was sounded and then meat powder (food) was served. The dog was allowed to eat it. This exercise was repeated for a few days. After a number of trials, a test trial was introduced in which the set up was the same except for the presentation of food.

In the first phase, the dog was secreting saliva in response to the Unconditioned Stimuli (US). But after conditioning, salivation started to occur in the presence of the sound of the bell (CS). Here, the bell becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and saliva secretion, a Conditioned Response (CR). Here, it is obvious that the learning situation in classical conditioning is one of the S-S learning, in which one stimulus (i.e. bell sound) becomes a signal of another stimulus (i.e. food).

So one stimulus signifies the possible occurrence of another stimulus. Examples of classical conditioning are many. Suppose someone has finished lunch and was satisfied with his food. But suddenly he saw some sweet dish served on the adjoining table. Then the secretion of saliva in his mouth became automatic. He felt like eating it. This is a conditioned response (CR).

Stages of Condition	big Operations
(a) Before	Sound of Bell -Alertness (No specific response)
(b) During	Sound of the Bell (CS) + Food (US) – Salivation (UCR)
(c) After	Sound of the Bell – Salivation (CS) (CR)

Determinants of Classical Conditioning:
Practically, the acquisition of a response occurs very quickly and strongly in classical conditioning. But how it occurs depends upon several factors. Some of the major factors influencing learning a CR are enumerated below.

Time relations between Stimuli:
Basically, there are four types of classical conditioning procedures. These procedures are based on the time relations between the onset of conditioned (CS) and, unconditioned stimuli (US). The first three are called ‘Forward Conditioning’ procedures and the fourth one is called the ‘Backward conditioning’ procedure.

The basic experimental arrangements of these procedures are as follows When the onset of CS and US are concurrent, it is called simultaneous conditioning. In delayed conditioning, the onset of CS precedes the onset of the US. The CS ends before the end of the US. In trace conditioning, the onset and end of the CS precede the onset of the US with some blank time between the two.

In backward conditioning, the US precedes the onset of CS. Now it is obvious that the delayed conditioning procedure is the most directive way of acquiring a CR. Again, simultaneous and trace conditioning procedures require a greater number of acquisition trials in comparison to the delayed conditioning procedure. But the acquisition of response under a backward conditioning procedure is very rare.

Type of Unconditioned Stimuli:
I.P. Pavlov used two types of unconditioned stimuli in classical conditioning – appetitive and aversive. Appetitive unconditioned stimuli automatically elicit approach responses, such as eating, drinking, caressing, etc. But the aversive US is painful, and harmful and elicits avoidance and escape responses. Examples are noise, bitter taste, electric shock, painful injecting, etc.

The observation indicated that appetitive classical conditioning is slower and requires a greater number of acquisition trials. But depending on the intensity of the aversive US, aversive classical conditioning can be established in one or two trials.

The intensity of Conditioned Stimuli:
The intensity of CS influences the course of both appetitive and aversive classical conditioning. It observed that more intense conditioned stimuli are more effective in accelerating the acquisition of conditioned responses. In other words, the more intense the CS, the fewer the number of acquisition trials required for conditioning.

Basic Process in Classical Conditioning Parlov’s classical conditioning is an extremely simple form of learning. Truly speaking, it is regarded as the building block of all forms of learning from simple to more complex. The basic processes involved in Pavlovian conditioning are enumerated below.

Acquisition:
In the classical conditioning experiment, the paired presentation of CS and UCS is called a trial. The period in which the organism learns the association between the CS and UCS is the acquisition phase. As the trials continue, the CS becomes gradually stronger to elicit the CR. Presenting UCS with CS during the acquisition phase is a critical operation in classical conditioning.

Here the UCS serves as a reinforcer because it reinforces the connection. Again, the trials on which UCS occurs are called reinforced trials and the trials on which the UCS is omitted are called unreinforced trials. At the beginning trials of the acquisition phase, the strength of CR increases rapidly.

The rate of acquisition during the reinforced trials depends on several factors. The important factors are the time – interval between the CS and the UCS. the intensity of the CS. the intensity of the UCS and the reliability of the CS in predicting the onset of UCS. As the reinforced trials continue, the strength of CR increases but not as rapidly as it used to be in the beginning trials.

Extinction:
When the CS is repeated without UCS then the CR gradually weakens and finally disappears. The disappearance of the CR due to non reinforcement is called extinction or experimental extinction. In the classical conditioning experiments, if a bell is presented time and again without food (reinforcement).

the amount of salivation gradually decreases and finally disappears. In short, when the reinforcement is withdrawn, the CR fails to appear. But extinction is not forgetting. The CR is only temporarily suppressed and after a brief rest period, a part of CR appears.

Spontaneous Recovery:
According to Pavlov, complete or permanent extinction of conditioned response is not possible. The reappearance of an extinguished CR after a Rest period is known as spontaneous recovery. Here the CR is partially recovered after a Rest period. hr classical conditioning experiment, after the salivation response, was given a rest period for thirty minutes.

After this span of rest, the bell was presented without food (UCS), following it. Then the salivation to bell suddenly reappeared. Very often, the response is successively extinguished when it reappears, then the spontaneous recovery diminishes. As a result, the CR fails to be shown even following the rest period. This is known as permanent extinction.

Stimulus Generalization:
In conditioning, generalization occurs to a certain class of stimuli rather than to a specific stimulus. In short, it is a tendency for the CR to be aroused by a similar stimulus.

In Pavlovian conditioning, the dog was conditioned to salivate to a specific tone. Then the CR is generalized to a second tone similar in characteristics to the first tone. As a result, a new procedure began. The first tone (CS) and the second tone (new stimulus) were presented on alternate trials. The first tone was followed by food (reinforcement) and the second was never followed by food (no reinforcement).

Consequently, the CR to the first tone was maintained and the generalized response to the second tone invited extinction. The dog learned to salivate to the first tone and to withhold salivate to the second tone. Finally, the dog was able to discriminate between the two stimuli because of differential reinforcement.

Like generalization, discrimination has also an adaptive significance, too much generalization is over-responsive, whereas, too much discrimination is over-selective. In a sophisticated manner, conditioning is a process in which discrimination ultimately wins over-generalization. Salivation to light by frequently associating it will bell but without presenting the food is called second-order conditioning.

Question 13.
Define operant conditioning?
Answer:
There are two main forms of simple learning. One is Classical and the other is Instrumental, Instrumental conditioning is also known as operant Conditioning. You can take a simple example here to describe instrumental behavior. When a dog responds to the commands of its master to get some biscuits, the dog has learned an instrumental response. The dog is rewarded for a particular response.

In nutshell, the dog’s response was instrumental in fetching a sought-after reward. That is why it is called instrumental conditioning. This type of conditioning was first investigated by B.F. Skinner. He studied conditioning of voluntary responses found when an organism operates on the environment. He called them operants. Operants are that behavior or responses, which are emitted by animals and human beings voluntarily and are under their control.

Here the very term ‘Operant’ is used because any organism operates on the environment. Skinner conducted His experiments on rats and pigeons in specially designed boxes, known as Skinner boxes. A skinner box usually contains a mechanism for delivering a consequence whenever the animal in the box makes a readily identifiable response that the experimenter has decided to reinforce or punish.

In experiments that involve rewards, the delivery mechanism is often a small lever or bar on the side of the box. Whenever the animal inside presses it, the response is rewarded (B.F. Skinner, 1938,1956). In his experiment, Skinner put a hungry rat in the chamber, which was so built that the rat could move inside but could not come out. In the chamber, there was a lever, which was connected to a good container kept on the plate placed close to the lever.

The hungry rat accidentally pressed the lever while moving around and pawing the walls (exploratory behavior). The hungry rat ate the food and in the next trial, after a while, the exploratory behavior again starts. As the trials increase, the rat takes lesser and lesser time to press the lever for food. However, conditioning is complete when the rat pressed the lever immediately after it is placed in the chamber.

It is obvious that lever pressing is an operant response and getting food is its consequence. In this situation, the response is instrumental in getting the food. That is why this type of learning is also called instrumental conditioning. Examples of instrumental conditioning are around in our everyday life. Flumen beings leam shortcuts to attain desired goals through instrumental conditioning. Through this process, children learn to be polite and say please to get favors from their parents and others.

Here the response is changed according to the need and the demand of the individual. The response is made and determined by the organism himself. This is the most distinguishing feature of operant behavior. The organism is capable of making varied types of responses according to the demand of the environment.

Recently biofeedback technique is being used in instrumental conditioning which informs the individual about his unknown physiological function. But if is still unknown whether biofeedback provides direct control over involuntary responses or whether this control is mediated by voluntary processes.

Determinants of Operant Conditioning:
No doubt, operant or instrumental conditioning is a form of learning in which behavior is learned, maintained, or changed through its consequences. Such consequences are known as reinforcers. A reinforcer is defined as any stimulus or event, which increases the probability of the occurrence of a (desired) response. In other words, the stimulus event which increases the probability that behavior will reoccur is called a reinforcer (Or reward).

The impact or consequence generated by a reinforcer is called reinforcement. By contrast, a publisher is a stimulus event that decreases the probability that the behavior will reoccur. The impact of punisher punishment. Punishment is more likely to be confused with negative refreshment since both involve an aversive stimulus that the individual likes to avoid or escape from Always remember that the negative refreshment increases the response probability whereas punishment decreases the response probability.

On the whole, positive and negative reinforcements are procedures that increase or strengthen behaviors. An organism obtains reinforcement in two ways by obtaining a pleasant stimulus and by avoiding a painful stimulus. There are two types of reinforcement – Positive and Negative. In positive reinforcement, the probability of a response increases, because it is followed by a pleasant stimulus. In negative reinforcement, the response probability also increases, because the response removes an unpleasant stimulus.

Schedules of Reinforcement:
The reinforcement schedule refers to the arrangement delivery of reinforcement during conditioning trials. Each schedule reinforcement influences the course of conditioning in its own way. In our life instances, reinforcement comes on and goes off unpredictably. In many instances, reinforcements are delivered according to rules. For example, we receive a salary every month according to the rules. When the reinforcement is continuous, every occurrence of behavior is reinforced.

This simplest form of reinforcement delivery is termed a “continuous reinforcement schedule If the pigeon receives a food pellet every time it presses the tire lever, it is on a continuous reinforcement schedule. The other type is partial reinforcement (intermittent reinforcement). In partial reinforcement, the response is not rewarded every time it occurs. This type of reinforcement is conducive to maintaining learned behaviors. Once a response is learned under this schedule, it takes a longer span of time to be extinguished.

Four types of partial reinforcement schedules are:

• Fixed-interval
• Variable-interval
• Fixed ratio and
• Variable-ratio.

In the fixed-interval schedule, the organism is rewarded for the first response occurring after a fixed interval of time. Students increase their study hours as the examination approaches. The pigeon is rewarded for the first lever-pressing response occurring after one minute interval.

In a variable-interval schedule, the organism is rewarded after a variable amount of time has elapsed. The hungry rat gets the food pallet after 2 minutes, the next one after 5 minutes, the third one after 3 minutes, and so on. 1 Here, the organism responds at a steady rate in the variable interval schedule as reinforcement may come any time. Gambling behavior is the best example here.

Schedules of Partial Reinforcement	Time Interval (Interval)	No. of Responses(Ratio)
Predictable	Fixed-Interval (low response) rate after each  reinforcement	Fixed-Ratio (high) response rate with brief pauses after each reinforcement
Unpredictable                 (Variable)	Variable-Interval Steady response rate	Variable-Ratio (high and steady response rate)

Question 14.
What is cognitive learning? Describe insightful learning and its stages or features?
Answer:
The process of acquiring knowledge about the environment which has an internal mental representation is called cognition. But learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency. The two terms are put together to generate the term ‘cognitive learning.
Two forms of cognitive learning:

• Insightful learning.
• Observational learning.

We first discussed the:
Insightful Learning:
I. P. Pavlov, S.L. thorndike and B.F. Skinner was all behaviorist. Obviously, they have ignored the study of learning based on reason and intelligence thinks when it learns. The chimpanzee evaluates the information in the learning situation and learns to reach a goal by developing insight. Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1968) arrived at Tenerife, the small island of the West Coast of Africa, to take charge of an institute for the study of the anthropoid apes, he was a German psychologist.

He was forced to stay on the island during World War-I. He engaged himself in an intensive study of how chimpanzees perceive, think, and learn. The results were translated into English in 1925 with the little ‘The Mentality of Apes’. Kohler used five types of problems to study how Chimpanzees solve complex problems. The two most fascinating and important problems were the ‘stick’ problem and the ‘box’ problem. Both these problems involved insightful solutions.

Besides chimpanzees, he also used dogs, hens, and little girls as subjects in his experiments. Kohler placed a hungry chimpanzee named Sultan inside a cage in the ‘stick problem. A bunch of bananas was kept outside the cage beyond the direct reach of the Chimpanzee. Two hollow bamboo sticks were kept inside the cage. One of them is very short and the other one is long. Since the sticks were hollow, one stick could be pushed into one end of the other to form a longer stick.

The bananas were kept at such a distance that neither of these sticks alone would be sufficiently long enough to reach the banana. But the Chimpanzee could get the banana if the two sticks were joined. The goal of the Sultan was to fetch the banana since he was hungry. Initially, he has shown all types of reactions that, generally, a Chimpanzee shows inside a cage. First, he used one of the sticks to draw the banana towards him but did not succeed. Then he tried the other sticks but in vain.

After some unsuccessful attempts, Sultan gave up the idea of getting food and sat in one corner of the cage. Then, after a short span of rest, he started playing with the sticks. He pushed one stick out as far as it could go and then pushed the first stick with the other until the first touched the banana. He started playing with the sticks again and accidentally one of the sticks went into the hollow end of the other. A sudden insight dawned upon Sultan and he solved the problem mentally.

Then he used two sticks to form longer sticks and with the help of this long stick, he pulled the banana inside the cage. When he faced the same problem on the next day, he solved it immediately. In another situation, Kohler demonstrated insightful learning in the ‘box’ problem. Here a bunch of bananas was kept on the tire ceiling of a cage, which Sultan could not reach. There were some empty boxes inside the cage. After some trials and errors, the animal could be able to snatch bananas by stacking several boxes.

Stages of Insightful Learning:
Here, the organism needs to reach a goal by solving a problem. The subject (learner) makes inspections, surveys, and examinations of the problem and the stimulus field. The ‘incubation period’ begins after an initial period of trial and error, all overt activities are withdrawn at this stage. The organism sits silently and thinks over the problem. Suddenly the organism develops insight into the problem after the incubation period.

The subject (learner) makes an attempt to make practical verification of his idea or insight about the problem. Once the subject achieves insight and solves the problem, the organism repeats the same method of solution without any hesitation. The organism attends to the relevant aspects and ignores the irrelevant ones when it attempts to solve similar problems in the future.

Common features of Insightful Learning:
Very often, the question arises – what does Kohler mean by ‘insight’ According to him, the common features of insightful learning are as follows The experimental situation is very important in insightful learning. The organism must be able to perceive the relationship among all relevant parts of the problem before insight can occur.

In this type of learning, the organism reacts to the whole situation, not to its component parts. Perceiving the relationship between the means and goal is very important in insightful learning. He also restructures the perceptual field during experimentation. Insight is followed by a period of trial and error behavior. During this span, the organism does not exhibit blind and random attacks as shown by Thomndike’s cat.

On the contrary, he tests behavioral hypotheses in the form of accepting some and rejecting others. The insight solution comes all of a sudden. Once the insight is reached, the organism shows a high degree of retention and transfer to similar problems. There is a correlation between insight and the capacity of the organism. This capacity depends upon age, experience, and individual differences.

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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part 1.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is memory? Discuss the stages of memory?
Answer:
Memory is otherwise known as the retention of materials with the passage of time. When some materials are learned they are retained in a particular area of the brain for some time. While STM is forgotten quickly LTM is remembered for a long time. The term ‘memory ’ is derived from the Latin word ‘memoria’ which means long retention or historical account.

Ebbinghaus to short made simple experiments to explain practically what the term memory is But currently with the advancement of information technology Ebbehghansion’s old concept of money has changed. Present psychologists emphasize the information-processing concept of memory which is based on computers.

Stages Of System Of Memory / Model Of Memory:
Encoding, storage, and retrieval take place in each of the three basic memory systems. The three systems of memory are also called some stages of remembering or models of memory. They are conceptual models of processing incoming information, retaining the same, and then recalling or retrieving it as necessary.

Human memory has been compared to a computer having different storage systems. Some psychologists have presented most of the theories of memory in the form of information-processing models. As to which of the information will be stored in a particular system of memory and which axe to be eliminated is controlled at the level of information processing. Similarly, the stored information may not always be retrieved or recalled.

Sensory Memory:
It is a non-conscious memory developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin which is also called a sensory register. Sensory memory is an impression formed from the input of any of the senses. lnpìit means the stimulus received from the environment. Sensory stimulus when reaches the receptor is stored in the sensory memory for a very brief period i.e. 0.25 seconds to 02 seconds in case of visual sensation and about 04 to 05 seconds in case of auditory sensation.

The storage of visual memory is about 11-16 items before it is lost. If attention is paid to this information, ¡t is sent to short-term memory or short-term storage. it is lost. Since the STM has a very limited capacity it cannot hold all information received from the environment and that too for a long period. The visual and auditory information is stored in the sensory memory in the form of an image.

Working Memory or Short-Term Memory:
The information which and attended is passed from the sensory memory to short-term memory. Working memory occurs between the sensory memory (which comes in a flash) and tire more permanent storage of Long Term Memory. Working memory has a very limited capacity and therefore, very little information is stored here. It has a short retention duration. What is stored here is lost after 15-20 seconds unless it is consciously processed.

Those materials which get conscious attention stay far beyond the 20 seconds limit. Both sensory and long-term memory are non-conscious memory. When materials from sensory memory are transferred to working or short-term memory they are processed here, thought about, and organized. Someone told you his mobile phone number, but there is no pen nearby to record it. So you try to recite it, rehearse it, repeat it till you get the pen to note it down.

Encoding and storage are done here Chunking and Rehearsal (discussed elsewhere under the Memory chapter) are two important methods used to increase the limited capacity of short-term storage so that more information from the short-term memory can be transferred to long-term memory (Also see Short Term Memory elsewhere in Memory chapter).

Long-Term Memory:
Long Term Memory (LTM) is the storehouse of all experiences, events, occurrences, and information transferred from sensory and short-term memory to long-term memory. Long-term memory constitutes each person’s knowledge of the word and knowledge of himself. Materials in long-term memory help one to solve new problems, manipulate abstract symbols, and reason.

This further helps in creativity like creating and coining new words and ideas and thinking about new Situations that one has experienced earlier. In a second exact information about something can be given such as “who is the father of modem experimental psychology? Or who established the first psychological laboratory and when etc.

The knowledge in long-term memory is stored in an orderly and organized manner and different cues help him to recall exactly what he wants to recall. Every item in the long-term memory is connected by its meaning.
Long-term memory is of two types:

• Procedural Memory (see under kinds of Memory)
• Declarative Memory

It is the method or technique to recall explicit information which involves some degree of consciousness. Remembering how to drive a car is procedural memory as driving a car requires a process, which is done as per the procedure. Similarly, recalling directions for driving to specific place requires declarative memory. Declarative memory is of two types:

• Episodic memory
• Semantic Memory (see under kind of memory)

Long-term organizations help in storing the memory in the L.T.M. for a long period, even till one dies. That is why we remember meaningful associative materials better because of their associative value. Chunking and elaborate rehearsal and other methods of improving memory help long-term memory as they organize materials for storage and make it more meaningful, (also see Long Term Memory elsewhere).

Question 2.
Define the process of memory?
Answer:
According to some modem psychologists memory process consists of:

• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval

Encoding:
According to Baron “Encoding is a process through which information is converted to a form that can be entered into memory”. Code means form. Encoding means putting material into a form that the memory system can accept, retain handle. Zimbardo holds that “encoding is the translation of incoming stimulus energy into a unique neural code that your brain can process”.

For example to retain SIH one man to keep trying in the form of South Indian Hotel or mentee Hotels”. Encoding is made possible through meaningful association which the memory system can easily handle and store. In a generalized manner, encoding refers to the signals or codes which can be transmitted through a communication channel.

The encoding requires to first selecting a stimulus from among so much information available in the environment. You have gone to the crockery exhibition. There you selected a crystal fruit bowl. You identified the distinct and intricate designs engraved on it and stored the visual image in your memory. Then you tried to connect this bowl to the one you saw in a shopping mall in the USA and wanted to buy it, but could not.

When one tries to associate a newly encoded stimulus with one already there in the memory because of its associative value. The encoding process is usually automatic and mechanical. It is so rapidly done that it occurs without the awareness of the person doing it. its encoding process relates the new experience with an old one, like relating the crystal fruit bowl you purchased in India with the one you saw in the USA last year, remembering becomes better. This process is called Elaboration.

Storage:
Storage refers to a process by which the encoded information is retained in the memory. Storage retains the encoded information for some time. Those memories which associated with some other memory are more often used and better stored or retained than isolated memory having no link with any other memory. When the encoded information fails to link with the already stored information or if they are not practiced at intervals they are lost and hence forgotten.

But when the stored materials are repeated periodically, the possibility of retaining them is greater. The storage, therefore, can be short-term or long-term depending upon the degree of learning, the need of the person, repetition, and association. In fact, immediate and short-term memory supply the code that the person uses to store materials for a longer period and later on to recall or retrieve them as and when necessary.

Rehearsal or repetition is one of the means through which the encoded materials are stored in the memory. Rehearsal may be Maintenance rehearsal or Elaborate rehearsal and these two types serve two different purposes. Maintenance rehearsal or mere mechanical repetition of information over and over again (rote memory).

it keeps information in short-term memory at least till it has served its purpose. For instance, retaining a phone number till one is able to make the call and after the call is made we may possibly forget it or we get by heart some points in the night before the examination and once the examination is over, these materials are forgotten.

Elaborate rehearsal on the other hand deals with the newly learned materials according to their meaning and association we understand the information and try to remember it for a longer period by associating it with some other material or situation. While maintenance rehearsal is processed at a superficial level elaborate rehearsal is processed at a deeper level.

Various experiences in memory of day-to-day life and also results of a study conducted by Fergus, Craik, and Endel Tulving (1975) indicate that words processed at a deeper level through elaborate rehearsal were better retained than words processed at a superficial level (rote memory). When tilings are learned elaborately and their meaning and application are properly understood, it becomes fit for effective retention storage.

Retrieval:
Retrieval is a process through which information stored in memory is located and recalled. The process of retrieval, use to recall periodically only those that are required at a particular occasion. Recall and recognition are two very popular methods through which retrieval takes place. Brown and Me Neill (1968) studied the phenomenon of retrieval in a group of students.

Question 3.
Define the kinds of memory?
Answer:
Some psychologists have tried to clarify memory into:

• Episodic memory
• Semantic memory
• Procedural memory

Episodic memory:
It stores autobiographical information and immediate memories of personal experiences such as the first day of marriage, the day you get your Ph.D., or your appointment in a long-cherished job.

Semantic memory:
It refers to abstract knowledge. It is organized knowledge about the world including the verbal world of words and how they are used. The information associated with a particular time or place is contained in semantic memory. Once you get an electric shock while attending a marriage ceremony. The marriage ceremony.

However, episodic and semantic memory cannot be separated by water-tight compartments as memories of personal experiences cannot totally segregated from organized knowledge apart from the world and the environment. As we are aware, personal experience occurs in the same environment where organized knowledge about the world is also experienced.

Hence both episodic and semantic memory in spite of their differences is very much related. According to Kimbel et al, unless we have innate knowledge about the world, all memories must start as episodic, nevertheless, the distinction does provide a useful way of dealing certain important phenomena in the study of memory. The successful recall of the factual information learned in General Psychology involves episodic memory as the information has been stored according to contexts, events, or personal symbolism.

The context in which an item was stored in memory as well as the item itself are important for episodic memory. Findings show that the item can be recalled only in the context in which it was coded. You were introduced to someone at a marriage party. Subsequently, if you want to recall her name or retrieve your introduction to her you have to remember the context i.e.

the marriage party In semantic memory, the basic meanings of words and concepts without reference to their time and place are stored. While semantic memory is an encyclopedia, episodic memory is autobiographical. Facts about grammar, music, composition, scientific principles, the things one knows and the lesson he learns are stored in semantic memory. Kimbel views that semantic memory can have considerable control over how one’s episodic experiences are perceived; interpreted and stored.

A study conducted by Loftus Palmer (1974) on students indicates that semantic memory has a strong influence on episodic memory. Various studies that test memory immediately as well as afterward show how information is represented there. They also show that with passage of time the representation becomes less sensory and literal and more semantic and meaningful.

This also suggests the difference between episodic memory and semantic memory. As indicated earlier, episodic memory stores, the events of personal experience and experiences of other persons while semantic memory stores knowledge. In short, remembering a list calls upon episodic memory while the organizing structure is provided by knowledge in semantic memory.

While semantic memory lasts longer in memory, episodic memory lasts for a short period. It is more susceptible to forgetting. Older people have less episodic memory but have very good semantic memory information or incident which has more episodic than semantic value would be stored in Episodic Memory but the knowledge part of it will be stored in Semantic Memory.

Procedural Memory:
Otherwise known as implicit memory procedural memory is the knowledge of how to perform work It is the way of remembering how things are done. Procedural memory is used to acquire, retain and employ perceptual, cognitive and motor skills (Anderson, 1982, Tulving 1985) like bicycle riding, typing, or wearing a dress, without thinking consciously these are done mechanically.

It is easier to perform the task than describe how to do it. In simple terms, it is a memory of the procedure, say how a task is performed or how a grant is utilized. So procedural memory deals with the how of work or how of a procedure. Sometimes, we get at the correct solution of a mathematical.

Question 4.
Define memory failure?
Answer:
Memory Failure or forgetting takes place due to encoding failure, storage failure, and retrieval failure. Failure to remember, memory failure, or failure to develop new memory leads to tremendous inconvenience. As per estimation, the average human mind can store 100 trillion bits of information. we experience many forgetting in our day-to-day life. Sometimes, we recognize an old face but cannot recall his name.

Encoding Failure:
Encoding failure is an important cause of forgetting. As discussed earlier, the process by which information is put in the store of memory or accepted by it refers to encoding. But when there is a failure in the encoding procedure one may not be able to store information hence most forget. When one gets meaningless information that does not have associative value the Nonsense Syllables or consonant combinations or one fails to associate and organize them encoding failure takes place. That is why in rote learning forgetting takes place very quickly.

Storage Failure:
It is another major cause of forgetting. After encoding, information that is attended is stored in the Short Term Store (STS) for a brief period. Others are ignored or lost and so do not go for storage. The short-term store has, however, a limited capacity, and if information’s transmitted to .it for storage purposes some of this information which is not kept but pushed out from the short-term store is forgotten.

Similarly, the information kept in short-term stores which are not rehearsed or repeated they are also lost or decayed and so does not go to the long-term store. If the information is lost due to encoding failure or storage failure, it will not reach the long-term store. This type of forgetting is said to be due to storage failure.

Retrieval Failure:
To inadequate memory. One may, however, succeed to retrieve information from long-term stoic only if appropriate retrieval cues are present and if the information is distinguished from other information. Experience shows that when there is recall failure if some cue or clue is given immediate recall becomes possible. Suppose you are not able to recall the name of a bank you visited only once some days back. When you are told about the location-or color of the building where the bank is located, you immediately remember the name.

As a year old boy was admitted to a new school in Prep Class, on the first day he was taken to his class by the attendant. On the second day, he went alone and entered another class. Then immediately he came out of the class realizing that it is not his class since he did not find there the pictures hanging on the walls of Prep Class. He then proceeded further and entered the class.

Question 5.
Define the forgetting curve and its characteristics?
Ans:
Retention Curve / Forgetting Curve:
The course of retention which is represented by a curve is called the retention curve. It is a graphic representation of the process of retention or forgetting. The measures of retention or forgetting is plotted in the vertical axis ‘O’ ‘Y’ and the amount of time (in days or hours) is shown on the horizontal axis. If the amount Of retention is plotted, the curve will be a descending one.

If the amount of forgetting is plotted, the curve will be an ascending one. Most curves of retention for nonsense syllables measured by relearning and saving methods commonly agree in showing a negatively accelerated form. Different experimental conditions also indicate that not only the form of the curve, but the percentage of saving also varies with variation in material.

In fact, the retention curve for meaningful material may run at a different height from those of nonsense syllables. But, by and large, different retention curves have more or less similar characteristics. Though time has a direct effect on retention, the rate of forgetting is not directly proportional to the time elapsed. For instance, if half the material learned is forgotten during the first 24 hours, it does necessarily mean that during another period of 24 hours the entire learned material would be forgotten.

Ebbinghaus (1885) conducted an experiment to determine the rate of forgetting with the passage of time. The S learned a list of nonsense syllables. Retention was measured after the 1 st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th day by the relearning method. The results were plotted in a curve. This curve showed that at first forgetting is rapid and as time lapses the rate of forgetting becomes slower and slower.

Within the first 24 hours, about 65 percent of the material was forgotten. Gradually the rate of forgetting became slow. As time passed, a very small amount of the material was forgotten. At the end of the 6th day, the loss was only about 75 percent. This curve by Ebbinghaus was also accepted by later psychologists. It is a typical curve of retention or forgetting. Looking at this curve we can find out the general characteristics of the curve of forgetting.

Characteristics Of the Curve Of Forgetting:
There is a stiff fall at the beginning of reproduction. At first, forgetting is rapid but as time lapses, the rate of forgetting becomes slower and slower. There is a gradual flattening of the curve, i.e. the rate of forgetting becomes slow. It is not as speedy as it was in the initial stage. There is almost no loss in the amount of material after a good deal of interval.

This quantitative study of memory presented in the curve of retention or forgetting is the most important contribution of Ebbinghaus and later psychologists could not disregard it. Retention curves, by and large, suggest that forgetting is never complete. The curve always levels up at some low value above zero. Observation of cases over a number of decades shows that forgetting anything cannot be cent percent.

The following is a curve showing retention from different types of materials over a period of months. This curve shows that forgetting is most rapid for nonsense syllables and next for prose and minimum for poetry. But the basic law that the rate of forgetting is rapid in the beginning and then slows down with the passage of time holds good for all types of materials.

Williams from the records of adults who studied 30 nonsense syllables for 5 minutes recalled them immediately and after an interval, he plotted it into a curve and found it running at a relatively high level of retention. The curve obtained from memory for substance plotted by Dietze and Jones (1931) and the study by Briggs, Red, Stroud, etc. both concludes that a negatively accelerated retention curve is most commonly used.

(Curve showing retention for different types of materials). Various studies show that the rate of forgetting is slower with meaningful materials. Perceptual motor skills appear to be retained quite well in comparison to verbal skills.

Question 6.
Define the measurement of memory?
Answer:
Measurement of Memory Recall Method
Recall was made famous through Ebbinghaus’s experiments on memory and he used the recall method for studying, remembering, and forgetting. The ‘ S ’ is required to make the response that he has learned previously. In recall, the previously learned materials are brought to the present consciousness in their absence. This is called the free recall method. For instance, when a student is answering a question in the examination hall, he is exactly using this procedure.

In laboratory experiments, a list of items, say 15 to 20 is presented to the ‘ S ’ through the memory drum, one after another. After exposure, he is asked to recall the list. The list is produced again and again until one perfect reproduction which suggests 100 percent learning. Now after an interval of 30 minutes, the S is asked to reproduce the already learned items. The amount reproduced is his amount of retention by the recall method. This is also known as the method of reproduction. The items which the ‘ S ’ fails to recall, suggest forgetting materials.

The recall is of two types:

• Immediate recall,
• Delayed Recall

When the recall is made immediately after learning, it is called immediate recall. When the recall is made after an interval, it is called delayed recall. Four objections were raised against Ebbinghaus’s recall method.

Retrograde Amnesia:
Critics argued that lack of recall need not necessarily mean forgetting. Due to emotional disturbances like fear, anxiety, and sudden shock sometimes one fails to recall the material learned. This has been experimentally demonstrated in the laboratory and observed in practical life. Soldiers on the battlefield after some shock forget the incidents experienced just before the shock. Similarly, a person reproduces everything but forgets when he faces the interview board. It is to some extent a case of forgetting due to emotional blocking.

Lack of recall may also be due to associative interference, friability to recall in many cases is due to repression which need not necessarily suggest forgetting. If there is no will to recall, recall, also may not be possible. The concept of reminiscence is also said to be a defect of the recall method. In spite of these criticisms, the recall method is very much in use for the measurement of memory. It is nevertheless a difficult method to measure retention in comparison to other methods.

Recognition Method:
Recognition according to Guilford (1917) literally means ‘knowing again. When one recognizes an object or stimulus he behaves as if he has experienced it before. Recognition simply means to identify. Recognition is the easiest method of measuring retention. It is easier recognize a name or face than to recall it. Similarly, you may not be able to recall the lines of a well-known song, but you can recognize it instantly.

According to Guilford (1917), “the essential difference between recall and recognition is that in the first case the stimulus is not there for one’s identification while it is there in the second case.” It has been found that maximum retention is possible with this method. Recognition scores are usually quantitatively more than recall scores keeping all other factors constant.

This has been substantiated by field and laboratory investigations. In a study on the recognition method, Bahrick and his associates found that people who graduated almost 50 years back/were able to recognize 75 % of the names and photographs of their classmates accurately. During the same period recall of names declined to under 20 percent.

The present author met recently one of her school-mates studying with her, in the year 1948. She could readily recognize her face but could not recall her name. Recognition is easier than recall because in recognition the object is present and mixed with some other new materials. The ‘S’ has only to select the learned materials while in the recall method the materials are absent and they have to be reproduced from memory. Thus, the sensitivity is greater in the case of the recognition method to measure memory.

Experimental studies indicate that the number of words that one can recognize in reading is much greater than the number. One could sit down and write out, even if given plenty of time. In the recognition method, the ‘S’ is presented with a list of 20 nonsense syllables or Trigrams (nonsense combinations of consonants like QSZ, even) to learn up to a perfect reproduction.

After an interval of one hour, this list is mixed randomly with a new list of another 40 nonsense syllables or trigrams. The ‘ S ’ has to identify the earlier learned materials from the new list. Say, he could identify 15 correctly and 4 wrongly, out of the 20 items. His actual retention score would not be 15 but Jess than that as would be penalized for the wrong identifications.

Clearing or Saving Method:
The relearning or the saving method was originally introduced by Ebbinghaus as a method of measuring retention. In the relearning method, the ‘S’ is given a list of materials to learn up to one perfect reproduction (cent percent learning). After 30 minutes retention interval, he is asked to recall the list. If he recalls the entire list correctly, there is no need for relearning trials and the percentage of relearning hence is zero.

On the other hand, if he is unable to recall some items, the list is again exposed to him until he recalls all the items correctly. The trials required for perfect learning at this stage are called relearning trials. The amount of savings refers to the difference between the original learning trial and relearning trials. The percentage of savings is found by the following formula:

\(\frac{\mathrm{OL}-\mathrm{RL}}{\mathrm{OL}}\)x100

When OL means original learning trials and RL means Relearning trials. For instance, when tire ‘ S ’ has taken six trials for original learning and two trials for releasing, his saving score would be \(\frac{6-2}{6}\) x 100 = 66.67%. The 66.67 percentage saving, in this case, itself the evidence that S remembers a certain percentage of the items learned even after the time gap or retention interval.

Question 7.
Define error in recognition and discuss the cause of forgetting?
Answer:
Errors in Recognition:
Only the other day while the author was attending a dinner party, one lady observed her for a few seconds and said hesitantly. “You are Jayanthi, are not you? When I said, “No I am not, “she immediately felt embarrassed and said, “Oh, sony”. “But you very much look like her.” On another occasion, one of this author’s old students failed to recognize her when they met in a film show.

When she gave her identity, the student was very embarrassed and said, “Oh, you have grown so thin that I was unable to recognize you.” Such mistaken identities are experienced daily. Usually, two kinds of errors of recognition are noticed Failing to recognize the familiar, and False recognition of the new and unfamiliar. The above two incidents represented examples of these two types of errors in recognition. We fail to recognize familiar objects or stimuli when it undergoes changes seen under changed circumstances.

When we do not expect to meet somebody at a particular party or place we may not recognize him, particularly from a distance. Secondly, we accept a new stimulus as the old stimulus when there is a lot of similarity between the two. The greater the amount of resemblance, the larger the chance for the error to be committed. Lunel conducted an experiment where he took three lists of materials.

The words of list ‘B’ are the same as list ‘A’ with one letter changed. In list ‘C’ two letters of list Aare changed and hence are debarred from appearing in the examination. other problems pose-great botheration for us. Failure to recall the learned items in the examination or in an interview leads to failure or loss of a job respectively.

The question, therefore, is what one should forget and what one should not Those skills, knowledge, and memory traces that are essential for existence, for adjustment with life, and for achieving different goals, should be remembered while the unnecessary, unpleasant, painful and miserable experiences should be forgotten. Forgetting refers to the negative aspect or opposite of remembering.

According to Underwood (1968) “retention and forgetting are thus reciprocal terms for the quantitative aspect of memory, with retention indication the amount remembered under specified conditions and forgetting the amount not remembered under same conditions.

Causes Of Forgetting:
The basic question that everybody asks is “why do we forget?” There are several factors responsible for forgetting which are discussed below: Factors operating at the time of leasing Some of the factors have been discussed in detail under conditions of efficient memorizing. Precisely, the strength of original learning, nature of the material, method of learning, speed of learning, etc. are the factors operating at the time of learning.

Strength of Original Learning:
It has been found experimentally that when the original learning is weaker, the neural traces formed in the brain are fainter and hence are properly retained. But the amount of retention cannot increase indefinitely as a function of the degree of overlearning. A point diminishing return is to be reached. However, over-learning is ways preferable to under-learning.

Nature of Material:
From various studies discussed earlier in this text, it is found that meaningful and rhythmic material, decreases rate of forgetting. Ebbinghaus found that any material with an associative value decreases forgetting. Even when one is learning meaningless material like tri grams or nonsense syllables, he may try to relate some meaning or association to these, for quick remembering.

For example, the trigram JNF may stand for John F Kenedy or Sih may stand for South Indian Hotel. If this is done remembering becomes economical. when one is studying meaningful material, like a poem passage he may try to find out the relationship between different parts of the material.

This type of learning is emphasized by the Gestalts Materials which belong to each other and are easily learned. When one is memorizing 3 passages a poem and 3 passages of different poems, the former is quickly remembered because the different passages are parts of a general whole and they belong to each other. Many laboratory findings and day-to-day life.

Question 8.
Discuss the improvement of memory?
Answer:
Improvement of Memory:
Memory can be improved by efficient learning. Only memorizing the material does not mean improvement of memory. In one study one group tried to improve their memory repeating a material over and over again, while another group tried to improve by following the principles of efficient learning. The second group showed improvement in memory compared to the first group.

Ebert and Neumann (1905) following better techniques and principles to learn and remember a material found improvement in memory. For example, farfetched associations were avoided, and groupings of the material were made on a rhythm basis. Worry, strain, and useless muscular tensions were eliminated. The conditions of the lab were made familiar for the better adoption of the subjects.

The effect of transfer was used as far as possible and its effect on the improvement of memory was also demonstrated. Reed (1917) conducted the same, experiment taking two groups but found a very small improvement in memory due to the effect of transfer. But it was difficult to get a matched control group. Sleight conducted the same experiment with certain modifications like keeping a controlled group that was perfectly matched but found very little effect of transfer.

Any effect of transfer found was due to rhythm. On the contrary, in another experiment of the same kind, taking adult subjects Sleight found significant transfer, but negative in nature. While learning different kinds of materials, different techniques are better memorization Of course, some techniques may be used in general because of the effect of transfer. Woodrow (1927) did an experiment taking 3 groups of subjects to demonstrate this fact.

Controlled Group:
Did only the forests and after tests.

Unistructcd Practice Group:
For a total of 3 hours without any intervening practice did specific memorization of poems and nonsense syllables, and no specific technique was instructed for the use of nonsense syllables.

Instructed Group:
This group used proper techniques of memorization being specifically instructed. So in the first group, there is no intervening practice which is found in the second and third tests.

Result:
In the after-test, the practice was nearly equal to the control group, but the instructed group (the third group) did definitely better compared to the first two groups. Thus, Woodrow concluded, “In short, the experiment shows that in a case where one kind of training, undirected drill produces an amount of transference which are sometimes positive and sometimes negative; but always small,-another kind of training with the same drill material may result in a transference the effect of which are uniformly large and positive.

The following specific methods of memorizing were given to the third group:

• Learning by wholes.
• Use of active self-testing.
• Use of grouping and rhythm.
• Attention to meaning and use of images.
• Mental alertness and concentration.
• Confidence in one’s ability to memorize.
• In certain cases as in learning nonsense syllables, the use of a second association was made.

The following are some of the techniques of efficient learning which are improvement in memory. The intention or motivation to learn sometimes our memory is poor because we have no intention or desire to learn and remember the topic. Intentional or incidental learning improves memory. Giving close attention to the material to be learned improves memory of that material.

Understanding leads to little forgetting and more storage, more long-term memory. Images should be used as much as possible visual and auditory images to more remembering. a theoretical background along with visual, and auditory images improve remembering. Visual educations, cinemas and excursions, and study tours are therefore more helpful than mere lecturing only.

To improve memory one should always make attempts to associate things with another so that when one thinks of one the other easily comes to your memory. Just for this reason, meaningful words are better remembered these meaningless words. In addition to the above methods of improving memory, some further methods have been developed by psychologists engaged in tire research of memory improvement.

Organization of materials is extremely important to improve memory. The term “Mnemonics” is derived from the Greek word which means to “Remember”. Mnemonics are short, verbal devices that encode long series of facts by associating them with familiar and previously encoded information recent past. If materials lack natural organization, artificial organizations are necessary to be used by the learner for better memory. The old organization already present in the memory system is utilized for organizing unfamiliar and new sets of materials. The following Mnemonic devices are also used to improve memory.

Question 9.
Discuss in detail Mnemonic devices used to improve memory?
Answer:
Methods of LOCI:
At a banquet hall, the seating arrangements provided a spatial structure wherein he could remember the guests sitting around the long banquet table. The spatial position or place of a situation can be used to remember the name of the guests and other items. In the instant case, Simonides could be able to perfectly recall all the guests present at the banquet by remembering the seating position of the guests.

By putting images of items to be remembered at various places can be an effective method of improving memory and remembering things. By the method of LOCI by having mental images of the spatial position of the stimuli one can remember information perfectly. In our day-to-day life if we try to remember things, objects, and stimuli linking them to their spatial positions or locations.

our memory for this information can be easily strengthened. Thus, according to Kimbel. “The method of LOCI requires (the person to place each item to be remembered at some definite location on one’s mental tour and to form a vivid, image of the item in its spot.” Bower (1972) has recommended developing bizarre or unusual associations like keeping some eggs on the bed instead of the kitchen or keeping an attached in the kitchen instead of the box or bedroom.

Several experimental results indicate the effectiveness Of the method of LOCI particularly for visual memory. In .a study by Ross and Lawrence (1968), a group of students was presented with a list of 40 items to be associated with 40 locations present on their campus like a letter box, a Banyan tree, a bank near the NCC office, and each subject was given 13 seconds to form each association.

An immediate recall test showed that the average person remembered 38 to 40 items. However, after a day the recall score came down to 34 on average. This suggests that for many subjects recall was 100 percent. Kimbel holds that such excellent recall depends on the previously mastered or familiar organizations, (b) taking fairly a long time to deal with each item, and making effective use of imagery. By choosing a familiar organization the SS are free from the burden of making a new organizational structure which takes a lot of time and energy.

Numerical Pegs:
Otherwise called Number and Letter Peg. Numerical pegs serve as a good memory aid. By teaching children to remember numbers through pictures that resemble the shapes of the numbers (like a stick for one), memory is improved. In numerical pegs, each number of a series is presented with its pictures in order to make it easy for the association. The following example will explain the concept of numbers and letter pegs.

One is a fan	Four is a door
Two is a shoe	Five is a knife
Three is a tree	Six is a disc
Seven is a pen	Eight is a light
Nine is fine	Ten is men and soon.

If through such associations one tries to remember information, it becomes easy to retain. Like the method of LOCI here also as each item is presented to remember, the closer forms an image that is in association with the corresponding stimulus in the service. It has been observed that when learning is imparted with the method of numerical pegs or number and letter pegs human beings normally remember one item with one presentation only.

Those who find difficulty in retaining information can use the method as a memory aid. I taught my two-and-a-half-year-old grandson to leam the names of seven days in a week in a serial order like Sunday, Monday, etc. He failed to retain serially. But when I bought seven toothbrushes for him in seven colors and gave him one colored brush on a particular day, as I gave him a Red one on Sunday, a Blue one on Monday, a Yellow one on Tuesday, and so on, he could retain very quickly the names of seven days in a serial order associating the days with respective colors of the brushes.

Chunking:
When by using artificial grouping technique one learns to retain information where grouping is not provided, it’s called chunking. Particularly to remember long materials or long digits use of chunking is essential. The span of immediate memory is normally seven items, etc. between 5-9 items. But as experience shows we also remember longer items than the above in our life without much difficulty.

This is possible because of groupings. A five-year child remembers the mobile numbers of his mama, pappa, aunt and grandfather, and uncle, etc. along with their area code. This is an extraordinary case since the age of the child is only 5 years. But adults normally can remember mobile numbers along with their area code. This is possible by the chunking method.

The numbers are divided into small groups and remembered for example 0671-2615 308 can be remembered easily if it is divided into 3 groups – 0671 – 2615 – 308. Where grouping is not provided, one has to make the grouping himself to remember the long materials easily. Kimbel et al. have reported the case of a person who by means of some additional techniques could improve his memory span by up to 17 numbers in just 05 trials.

When initially tested his memory span was 09 digits. He was then asked to increase his memory span. He increased it up to 17 digits by the following techniques devised by him Strict attention was paid to the number of digits to be expected in each trial. Grouped the digits in sets of 3 and five depending on their number. Decided on his strategy by grouping before each trial.

Made verbal association to each group of numbers, weights, dates, or anything that came to Iris’s mind. Even made associations between groupings when he could. A group of college students increased their span of immediate memory from (9 to 12) digits in 11 trials of practice by following the above strategies.

Narrative Stories:
It is another Mnemonic method of improving memory of information received from the environment. If the items that are to be retained are presented to the person in story form it is retained for a longer period. Natural observation in day-to-day life and experimental findings prove this point. We generally teach children various values, ideologies, morals even different educational materials through stories.

Children, it is found, retain these materials for a long time when taught through the narration of stories. In an experiment two groups of subjects were taken, one control group and the second experimental group. While the SS of the experimental group was given to leam and remember 12 different lists of simple words in a story.

the SS of the control group were asked to study each word for the same amount of time that the SS of the experimental group took to make up stories. Immediate recall tests of both groups indicated that there was no difference between the two groups in the recall of each list.

Question 10.
What is Reminiscence? Discuss the factors influencing reminiscence?
Answer:
According to Stevens, “As against the curve of Ebbinghaus, sometimes retention curves show a period of increased retention immediately after the practice is stopped. This phenomenon of initial rise is leveled as Reminiscence’ Ruch (1940) defines reminiscence as “ a continuous increase in skill after practice ceases.” In the usual pattern of the forgetting curve initially, there is a stiff decline. There should thus be a progressive decrement in the curve of forgetting.

Learning by List	Recall	Recall Score	Percentage
	after 5 mints	8/10	50
	10 mints and	7/10	70
	15 mints	9/10	90

In the third recalled words would have been less than 7 according to the usual characteristics of the forgetting curve.

Factor influence Reminiscence:
The degree of reminiscence depends upon so many factors. Some of the important factors are discussed below.

Rehearsal:
In the retention interval which is the interval between test-retest situations, if there is scope for rehearsal of the original learning, there may be reminiscence.

Meaningfulness of the Material:
Martin (1940) has found greater reminiscence within meaningful material than with nonsense material. Nonsense syllables, trigrams,s, and erection are difficult to remember and hence show less reminiscence.

Degree of Learning:
Particularly mean of motor learning reminiscence is observed when practicing increases of course up to a certain point.

Positive Transfer:
English, well-born and et al have found that the students of psychology curve given materials of psychology to learn.

Reproductive Interference:
According to Leavitt and Schlosberg (1977) absence of interference during the interval between test-retest situations.

Set:
the difference in instruction and practice may affect recall tests.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 4 Method of Teaching English Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Unit 4 Method of Teaching English Questions and Answers

Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.

Last night Mr. Khanna _______ a noise. He ________ a torch from his table, he _________ the light and saw ________ thief. The thief was taking Mr.Khanna’s clothes ________ and ________ hold of the man’s collar and ________ I am going to call the police.
Answer:
signed, caught, heard, switched on, picked up, about, quietly

Multiple choice:
This type consists of test items that are to be answered by choosing a correct answer from among several possible answers.
Example:
The following questions have four distractors. Choose the appropriate one and rewrite the sentence.

Question 1.
They could scarcely believe their eyes when they saw the violets. Here the word scarcely means _____________?
(a) reading
(b) not at all
(c) hardly
(d) quickly

Question 2.
It was the man who _______ the killing?
(a) has done
(b) is doing
(c) done
(d) did

Question 3.
Delicious food was served at the feast. Here the best meaning of the word, delicious is?
(a) sweet
(b) fragrant
(c) is happening
(d) had happened

Completion Test:
The test consists of sentences to be completed with the use of the correct form of verb indicated with the brackets. This can be reliably used to test the knowledge of the sequence of tense and such other abilities.
(a) Mohan (seem) tired today.
(b) You (remember) the name of the boy who (walk) on the other side of the road.
(c) You (look) very thoughtful what do you (think) about?
(d) You (see) this box? It (contain) watches.
(e) He will meet me when I _____ arrive.

Substitution Table For example:

Mohan	had	his trousers	tailored
Gopi	got	his watch	painted
We	our	house	repaired
I	got	him	punished

 

The test can reliably be used to assess the pupils, ability to use sentences correctly.

Matching Test:
Match the words in column’ A’ with the appropriate words in column ‘B’.

A	B
right	soft
black	soft
beautiful	wrong
beautiful	ugly
hard	bad
good	white

Joining the sentences:
Example:- Join the sentences using the words in the brackets. It was time for dinner. They went on talking up to time till.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What advantages of the Structural Approach?
Answer:
It facilitates the learning of English by imparting knowledge of its structures. The structural approach promotes the use of everyday English As such it stimulates the activity and interest of the pupils. It enables the children to speak English which is more important than to be able to read and write it only. The pupils listen to sentence patterns as spoken by the teacher.

By learning the structures of sentences child automatically learns some grammar, word order, and use of words. Thus, he avoids common errors in grammar and composition. It teaches four language skills to children. They are listening and understanding, speaking, reading, and writing.

Question 2.
Explain the principles of the structural approach?
Answer:

• Importance is given to the child’s activity rather than the activity of the teacher.
• Importance of the speech for family foxing all groundwork.
• Importance of the formation of the language habit to arrange words in suitable English sentence pattern of the child’s mother-tongue.

Question 3.
Principles of direct method?
Answer:
Direct Teaching:
Teaching by the direct bond between foreign words and their meaning.

Oral practice:
Oral practice will give the children fluency in English speech.

Inductive Approach to Grammar:
In the direct method, there is the functional use of grammar rather than formal grammar learning precedes grammar.

Inhibition of mother tongue:
It prevents the intervention of the mother- tongue. The foreign language is directly associated with its meaning without the use of the mother tongue.

Limited vocabulary:
The method works on the principle of graded teaching of vocabulary.

Question 4.
What advantages of the direct method?
Answer:
Pupils acquire good speech skills, including the use of proper pronunciation, stress and intonation, Pupils acquire a reasonable mastery over correct spoken English. Good command over the spoken language. Lack of interference of mother-tongue results in quick and economical learning of English. Grammar is learned without the help of rules through repetitions of various patterns.

Question 5.
What disadvantages of the direct method?
Answer:
The direct method emphasizes only the teaching procedure irrespective of language material which must be controlled and graded. Skills of reading and writing neglected. Banishment of the mother tongue altogether makes teaching difficult in many situations. The method can be employed effectively only by efficient teachers but such teachers are not available in large numbers.

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Explain the aims and objectives of teaching English?
Answer:
In the process of teaching and learning aims are more important. When the teacher is clear about the aims his teaching becomes more meaningful and planning 1 becomes more effective. In the present system of education, the teacher should be clear about the aims and objectives. The objectives of teaching differ from the lower class to the higher classes and different linguistic activities general aims of teaching English.

There is four general. aims in teaching English in the school stages. They are as follows:

• To hear and understand English
• To speak in English and to understand.
• To read English with understanding.
• To write English with understanding.

The four aims correspond to the four language skills such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These skills are the foundation of language learning.

The specific objectives of Teaching English:
The Semantic Aspect:
This aspect emphasizes the structural approach and usage of rudimentary grammar and fundamental principles of making sentences. The child is taught how to know the meaning of words and writing.

Pronunciation of English:
Pronunciation of the English language is the most important aspect. The spelling of words in English is a paradox speaking well in English is an art. To speak English correctly requires a good deal of practice. So a student should be carefully taught to speak English with the correct pronunciation.

The graphic aspect:
Writing makes a man perfect. To acquire the habit of writing in English the student should listen to the language, understand the theme and then write.

The phonetic cue-graphic aspects:
The success of learning the English language depends on both reading and writing side by side.

The literary aspects:
The beauty of the language lies in representing the things in which there is a lucid style and appropriate meaningful words. Most of the books are translated into English.

The linguistic aspects:
English is a world language. The linguistic aspect of the approach helps students to acquire a working knowledge of the language.

Specific objectives in primary classes:
As the child in the beginner’s stage, they should be devoted to oral exercise in the English language. The children are to be acquainted with simple words by drilling. The words should be expressed through simple sentences like Rama is a boy. I am going etc. By the end of class (IV). In Class V the pupils should be able to count the numbers, figures, and oral work, and able to answer the questions from textbooks. In Classes VI and VIII, the pupils are able to read, write, speak correctly and write correctly. In this stage, English is considered a skill subject rather than a context subject. The child is able to construct various sentences.

In secondary classes, the aims of teaching are as follows:
Understand English when spoken. Speak English correctly with correct pronunciation and fluency. Write English correctly with good handwriting. Read English silently and in a low voice. The pupils acquire knowledge of elements of the English language. The pupils develop an interest in English.

Question 2.
What is the translation method in teaching English? Write the merits and demerits?
Answer:
The translation method is the oldest method of teaching English. Though this method is outdated still it is continuing in most of the classrooms of Indian schools. Mother- tongue or the regional language is maintained as a reference system in teaching English in this method. It means English is taught in the mother tongue. In the translation method English words, phrases, and sentences is taught by means of the word for word translation into the mother- tongue. In this method unit of speech or reading is not sentenced.

Principles of Translation Method:
The translation method is based on the following three principles. They are:
Translation interprets foreign phraseology best. In the process of interpretation foreign phraseology is assimilated. The structure of a foreign language is best learned when compared and contrasted with that of the mother- tongue.

Merits of Translation Method :
Method:
There are certain merits of translation. The pupils proceed from known language to unknown language. English is best interpreted through this method. The method gives better clarity and easy understanding. English is best assimilated in the process of interpretation. The pupil leams the accurate meaning of the words and sentences.

It develops the knowledge of grammar and the mother tongue. In the translation method the pupil’s associates with the foreign word, with the word spoken by him, and a strong memory bond is established. The child proceeds from known to unknown and derives better comprehension of English.

Demerits and Limitations:
This method does not promote speech training in English. It obstructs the pupil’s thinking of English. Language learning is difficult with this method. All the objectives of teaching English are not achieved by this method. The method does not encourage direct thought expression in the language to be learned. The structure of the English language is different from that of any Indian language. This method is dull and mechanical and the learner does not take part actively in the learning process. Objectives of teaching English are not achieved by this method.

Question 3.
What is the direct method of teaching English? What are the principles underlying the method? Explain. Give, its merits and demerits?
Answer:
The direct method of teaching language consists in teaching words and phrases of the target language by associating them with objects. It consists in establishing a direct relation between a word and its meaning, between an. experience and its expression. Thus in English, the direct method consists in teaching English through the medium of English.

In this sense, the use of translation is totally out of question. To Webster’s New International Dictionary any direct method is a method of teaching a foreign language especially a modem language through conversation, discussion, and reading the language itself without the use of the pupil’s language, without translation, and without the study of formal grammar.

The word is first taught by pointing to an object or picture or by performing the action. For instance, when the teacher wants to explain to the students the meaning of the word’ book’ he should not bring in the mother- tongue. He should show a picture of the book and present the symbol (that is a book) and the real object (that is a book).

Characteristics of Direct Method:
It proceeds from simple living situations too complex abstract situations. It lays emphasis on oral work. The sentence is the unit of teaching. There is the use of the situation, action, and audio-visual aids. Grammar is taught functionally. Emphasis on pronunciation.

Principles of the Direct Method:
The principle of Direct Bond:
The method is based on the principle of creating a direct bond between foreign words and their meaning. The learner is initiated into thinking in a foreign language and then expressing themselves by using the same medium.

The principle of oral practice:
Oral practice will give children fluency in English speech.

The principle of an inductive approach to grammar:
In the direct method, functional use of grammar rather than formal grammar is emphasized. learning grammar is not a precondition to learning the language. In the direct method, learning precedes grammar.

The sentence as the unit of speech:
In the direct method sentence and not a word is taken as the unit of speech. Emphasis is laid on speaking in full sentences.

Inhibition of mother tongue:
Everything in a foreign language should be directly associated with its meaning without the intervention of the use Of the mother tongue.

The principle of limited vocabulary:
The method works on the principle of gradual teaching of vocabulary.

Merits of Direct Method :
Pupils acquire good speech skills including the use of proper pronunciation, stress, and intonation. Pupils acquire a reasonable mastery over correct spoken language. Good command over spoken language prepares the ground to lay the foundation for the development of the skills of reading and writing. Lack of interference of the mother- tongue results in quick and economical learning of English. Grammar is learned without the help of rules, through repetitions of various patterns. It offers direct learning of foreign languages.

Demerits of Direct Method :
The direct method emphasizes only the teaching procedure: The language materials are to be controlled and graded. Skills of reading and writing are neglected. Only listening and speaking have a dominant role. The banishment of the mother tongue together makes teaching difficult in many situations. Efficient teachers are not available to teach the indirect methods.

Question 4.
What is the structural approach? Give its principles characteristics and advantages/ disadvantages?
Answer:
In order to learn a language effectively, one has to master the tools of language. These tools are sounds, words, and structures. Working with these tools and teacher has to develop the foretold skills of language-skill in reading skill in writing. Structures are important tools of language, words are put and arranged in a particular order to make their structure.

Hence, we should approach the problem of its learning through structures. In the structural approach to the teaching of English, the learner will learn some of the structures of their preliminary stage some at their later stage. This requires the selection and gradation of structures. The advocates of the structural approach say that in the learning of a foreign language mastery of structure is more important than the acquisition of vocabulary.

Characteristics of structural approach:
Every structure embodies an important grammatical point. The structures are carefully graded to give the young learner a working command of spoken and written English. In grading structures, attention is paid to both meaning and form. Only one meaning of a word is taught at a time and is established by practice before another meaning is taught.

Principles of structural approach:
The importance of forming language habits, the habit of arranging words, in English standard pattern. The importance of speech as the necessary means of fixing firmly all groundwork. The importance of pupils, activity rather than the activity of the teacher.

Advantages :
The method facilitates the learning of English by imparting a language of its structures. Promotes the use of everyday English as such stimulates the activity and interest of the pupils. So it is called English through play way. In this method, oral practice is done. It helps the students to acquire the habits of language and helps to communicate language. In this method language, learning becomes stable.

Disadvantages:
In this method, the selection and gradation of structures do not solve the problem of teaching English. It only helps the teacher to know what he has taught and what he should teach next. The method is suitable for students of lower classes. It is not applicable to higher classes where many branches of the English language are taught. We cannot successfully apply the method in overcrowded Classes. It does not help that the teacher how should present a new teaching point or give drills for assimilating it.

Question 5.
Discuss different types of Evaluation. Explain the need for objective-based test items with examples?
Answer:
The examination is one of the evaluations of English language teaching. It is used for testing the objectives of language learning i.e. knowledge skill and attitude.
There are mainly 3 kinds of examinations such as:

• oral
• practical
• written

Oral examination:
In the oral examination, the teacher makes some questions and the children answer them orally.

Practical examination:
ln practical examination child is given some task to perform such as preparation of flash, cards or cutting the letters from newspapers etc.

Written examination:
In written examinations, the students give written answers of 3 kinds such as:

• long answer type,
• short answer type and
• objective tests.

Different types of questions:
There are three kinds of questions as there are three kinds of written examinations, such as

Long answer type or essay type questions:
This type of question requires some descriptions etc. Example: What do you do on Children’s Day?

Short answer type questions:
These questions are answered with one word or so. There are two types of questions objective-based oral and written, English vocabulary is tested through objective tests.

Vocabulary Test:
Oral test:
Objective type written test in English is designed to test the different linguistic abilities of the specimen of some questions are given below.

Comprehension type:
This type consists of a sentence or paragraph from which some words and phrases are omitted. The pupil is to fill in the blanks with suitable words or phrases. Correct use of prepositions and vocabulary can be tested with the type.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 1 What is Psychology? Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 1 What is Psychology? Short Answer Questions

Short Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Watson?
Answer:
J.B. Watson (1878-1958) developed the Behaviouristic school of psychology, otherwise known as Behaviourism. Watson advocated the S-R approach towards psychology instead of the S-O-R approach.

Question 2.
Freud?
Answer:
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), was making his contributions to the study and treatment of abnormal behaviour. Freud who was a neurologist and a psychiatrist developed a “school of psychology”.

Question 3.
Behaviouristic Approach?
Answer:
The behaviouristic was influenced by Russian physiologist Pavlov’s principles of classical conditioning and other related works in the area of learning. The behaviouristic perspective deals with overt or external behaviour that can be objectively recorded and manipulated.

Question 4.
Legal Psychology?
Answer:
It is also a branch of applied psychology. Legal psychology is concerned with the discovery of motives behind the crimes and methods required for the detection of crimes.

Question 5.
Kohler and Loffka?
Answer:
Kurt Loffka (1856-1941) and W. Kohler (1887) were the founders of the Gestalt School of Psychology (1914). They mainly did research on the area of perceptual and learning processes.

Question 6.
Jung and Adler?
Answer:
Alfred Adler (1870-1937) and C.G. Jung (1875 – 1961) were the earlier associates of Freud. Adler developed the school of individual psychology “Jung’s school of Psychology” is known us the school of Analytical Psychology.

Question 7.
E.B. Titchener?
Answer:
He was an English Psychologist who wait in Leipzig to work under Wundt and propounded the structural school of psychology. He was also determined to establish psychology as a pure and perfect science.

Question 8.
Participant Observation?
Answer:
When the application of experimental and use of naturalistic methods may not be feasible, that is called participant observation. In this method, the observer takes part or participants with the ‘O’ in a particular and simultaneously observes the behaviour.

Question 9.
Introspection?
Answer:
Self-observation is popularly known as introspection. It is a unique method used in psychology which is not found in any other science.

Question 10.
Experimental Method?
Answer:
According to Ruch (1970) “The most highly developed scientific method is the experimental method. The experimental design is important aspect of an experiment.

Question 11.
Non-participant observation?
Answer:
It is the opposite of participant observation. In this method, the observer does not participate in the activities of the subject being studied but he tries to observe the behaviour from an observable distance through one vision screen.

Question 12.
Field study method?
Answer:
Application of experimental technique requires a well-equipped laboratory it can not be earned to different fields of life. The field study is used as an alternative to laboratory investigation.

Question 13.
Survey method?
Answer:
Political attitudes, consumer preference, attitudes towards family planning, dowry, marriage and divorce, women’s liberation, health care etc. are studied by survey method. The survey method used questionnaires, interviews, rating scales, checklists etc.

Question 14.
Independent Variable?
Answer:
The independent variable is the factor which is manipulated or changed in an experimental design. In complex experimental designs, more than one independent variable is introduced particularly when it is necessary for the investigation.

Question 15.
Health Psychology?
Answer:
Health psychology has gained tremendous importance as an emerging branch of psychology. Health psychology’s main purpose is to make people conscious that “prevention is better than cure”. Health psychologists can give counselling for a lifestyle characterised by high levels of commitment, flexibility in attitude and a strong motivation to change one’s irrational and anti-health activities. Health psychology also aims to maintain a harmonious and cordial relationship between the doctor and the patient. Several channels of T. V. have regulated programmes on health and health care.

Question 16.
Cognitive Psychology?
Answer:
It is originally based on Gestalt Psychology, it has developed in recent years into a separate field of psychology. Cognition means knowing or knowledge. Modem psychologists hold that emphasis on human thought, perception, knowledge and all processes of cognitive functioning centre around the heart of psychology. Cognitive psychology stands as a direct challenge to the limited view of behaviourism that scientific psychology is only the study of the overt behaviour of the organism. The cognitive model is a very broad one encircling consciousness, attending, thinking, problem-solving etc.

Question 17.
Social Psychology?
Answer:
Social psychology has been accepted as a major branch of psychology. Social psychology like clinical, educational and industrial psychology is an applied branch of psychology. It deals with the behaviour and experience of an individual in a group situation, in a community and in society. Social psychologists are taking a tremendous interest in the study of mass communication, cognitive dissonance and population research. Social psychology mainly aims at solving the various social, political, and economic problems of our life.

Question 18.
Abnormal Psychology / Clinical Psychology?
Answer:
Abnormal psychology also studies the topographical aspects of the mind, the id, ego, superego, conscious, subconscious and unconscious, and the psycho-sexual development of the child. The credit for extending the scope of psychology to the study of abnormal behaviour duly goes to If Freud, Jung and Adler. Clinical psychology applies its principles and therapies to deviants and mentally disordered persons. The clinical psychologist is mainly engaged in the classification, diagnosis and treatment of behaviour disorders. According to Morgan and King (1978), clinical psychology is now the largest field of specialisation.

Question 19.
Developmental Psychology?
Answer:
Developmental psychology studies the physical and mental development of human organisms from conception to old age. According to Morgan and King (1978), developmental psychologists attempt to understand complex behaviours by studying their simpler beginnings. Child psychology occupies a large place in the study of developmental psychology. Developmental psychology includes the study of sensory and motor development of the child and his specific abilities. Developmental psychology also deals with superior, disturbed, disadvantaged and backward children.

Question 20.
Sports Psychology?
Answer:
It is also an emerging branch of psychology. Sports psychology helps athletes to concentrate their attention on competitive goals, makes them more motivated and enables them to deal with their anxiety and fear successfully which often accompany competition in a sports field. Sports psychology is used as a therapeutic technique in hospitals and psychological clinics. The sports psychologist has a very crucial role to play particularly when the player is discouraged because of missing a ball or a catch or losing a match. A sportsman may be in high physical form but if he is psychologically unfit he cannot be a successful player.

Question 21.
Field study method?
Answer:
Psychology has extended itself to various spheres of life. Since application of experimental techniques requires a well-equipped laboratory. It can not be carried to different fields of life. The field study is used as an alternative to laboratory investigation. The method is free from artificial nature. The field study method is used in this study of children, industrial employees, animals etc.

Question 22.
Experimental Design?
Answer:
A traditional experimental design involves two groups or conditions, such as :

• Experimental condition
• Controlled condition

The independent variable is manipulated in the experimental condition. Subjects of the experimental conditions will not be given only rest during the retention interval. Experimental conditions would indicate the effect of interpolated activity on remembering. There are different designs one balancing another factor.

Question 23.
Limitations of experimental methods?
Answer:
For the application of the experimental method, a well-equipped laboratory, tools and equipment, and subjects are necessary. Human beings and animals are the subjects used in the experimental method. The artificial arrangement of the experimental set-up. The artificiality of laboratory experiments is a source of strength and a source of weakness. On the side of weakness, this control may make experiments so different from real life that the results do not apply to real situations.

Question 24.
Dependent variable?
Answer:
It is also called the response variable. According to Ruch “The dependent variable in an experiment is the factor which the experimenter predicts with change in the same way as a result to changing the independent variable. The dependent variable is better memory in the case of meaningful words. The dependent variable is the effect while the independent variable is the cause. The effect of the independent variable is observed in the results which are called the dependent variable.

Question 25.
What advantages of Naturalistic observation?
Answer:
This method does not require the cooperation of the subject. The ‘S’ is completely kept ignored that he is being observed. the artificially of the laboratory is completely absent here. Spontaneous reactions of the ‘S’ are observed and the ‘S’ makes no change in his response same to the presence of the observer.

When it is not possible to study the behaviour of children, adults, human beings and animals. Under artificially constructed laboratory situations the naturalistic observation method becomes extremely useful. Pinget feels that only through the naturalistic observation method one can get into the heart of the child’s various problems.

Question 26.
Survey Method?
Answer:
Political attitudes, consumer preference attitude towards family planning, dowry, marriage and divorce, women’s liberation, health care etc. are studied by survey method. The survey method used questionnaires, interviews, rating scales, checklists etc. to obtain information about the tire problem of the study. The survey method is a procedure of collecting certain information from the population by carefully prepared questionnaires.

The survey method has extended from mere administration of questionnaires and tests and interviews to telephone surveys, surveys by postal questionnaires etc. The personal interview technique is more popular and extensively used in survey methods. The survey method is extremely useful in social sciences like psychology, providing carefully prepared questionnaires, well-trained interviewers, carefully and cautiously selected samples and appropriate methods of data analysis and reporting used.

Question 27.
Case study method?
Answer:
it is qualitative research used mostly by clinical psychologists. A case study or case history is an in-depth look at a single individual. Mainly case studies are performed by clinical psychologists. A case study provides information about the person’s fears, hopes, fantasies, traumatic experiences, upbringing, and family relationships, herewith. A case study is the most exhaustive method of collecting data about the behaviour of a person. The case study has a clinical orientation with a focus on helping the individual self-improvement.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 1 What is Psychology? Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 1 What is Psychology? Long Answer Questions

Long Answer Essay Type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the nature and scope of psychology.
Answer:
Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behaviour. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including relating to an individual’s daily life and the treatment of mental illness. Psychology differs from the other social sciences anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology in that psychology seeks to explain the mental processes and behaviour of individuals.

Whereas biology and neuroscience study the biological or neural processes and how they relate to the mental effects they subjectively produce, psychology is a priority concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behaviour on a systemic. subfield neuropsychology studies the actual neural process while biological psychology studies the biological bases of behaviour and mental states.

Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behaviour mind and thought and the subconscious neurological bases of behaviour psychology also refer to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals’ daily lives and the study of mental illness.

It is largely concerned with humans, although the behaviour and mental process of animals can also be part of psychology research, either as a subject in its own might i.e. animal cognition and ethology, or somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison (including comparative psychology).

Scope:
Psychology is a scientific study that relies on conspiracism, the use of experimentation, evidence and observation to draw conclusions. It is not based on common sense, reasoning or logic alone. There are two general grouping of psychologists: research psychologists and applied psychologists. Research Psychologists experiment and gather observations to improve understanding of the nature of the mind and behaviour.

Applied psychologists take these observations and leave the lab to deal with everyday problems. In order to obtain responses from individuals a number of psychological tools or instruments are used psychology has various methodological ways or approaches to understand and explain psychological phenomena.

Question 2.
How is psychology a science?
Answer:
Wundt gave psychology a scientific status by opening the first psychological laboratory at Leipzig. Thus, psychology as a science has its beginning in the psychological institute at Leipzig and it went through several phases to reach the status of current psychology. Critics from different quarters, however, questioned the scientific status of psychology.

They asked, “Is psychology a science line physics chemistry ?” Even people make sarcastic remarks when we describe psychology as a science. Science is a systematic body of knowledge gathered by careful observation and measurement of events. The things and objects are systematized mostly by classifying them into various categories.

The general laws and principles are established which describe and predict the events as clearly as possible. Science seeks to explain the phenomena within its scope. The explanation is the ultimate aim of science. Psychology deals with oriental processes and activities of the organism in relation to its environment. It deals with experience and behaviour. Psychology seeks to explain the law of mind.

The aim of psychology precisely is to describe, understand, predict and control conditions and situations both in the world around him and within himself. As indicated earlier, it is mainly the scientific procedure adopted for the study of psychology that gave it a scientific status. Science uses methods like observation experiments, manes comparison and classification to investigate and collect data.

Psychology uses both observation and experimentation; which are scientific processes. The scientific procedure, according to mum (1950) “involves making systematic rather than aimless observations, being impersonal in one’s search for truth, seeking information to test rather than to prove ideas already had making it possible for others to repeat one’s observations under essentially the same conditions and to confirm or modify them.”

Science, in other words, uses experimental methods for the purpose of investigation. Instead of mere observation, certain conditions or variables of the object of study are changed (independent variables) and the effect of these changes on the subject matter of study is noted. Science starts with some assumptions or hypotheses and postulates about its subject matter.

Psychology as a science usually starts an experiment with some assumptions or hypotheses. In a scientific procedure like the experimental method, all variables are controlled except the independent variable of science should be quantitative. In other words, results obtained from a scientific study should be quantified or measured. Psychology uses statistical methods for the analysis of results.

Question 3.
Examine the contributions of Wundt and Titchener to Experimental Psychology?
Answer:
William Wundt (1832-1920) opened the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, German. Thus he took the first step in making psychology a science. He gave the first touch by assembling the parts together formulated by the earlier investigations. It is, therefore, rightly called the father and founder of modem experimental psychology.

The psychological institute at Leipzig thus started programmes of making psychology an independent science. Though prior to Wundt the attitude towards scientific psychology was growing in the minds of various investigators. Wundt alone gave it an independent status by separating psychology from philosophy and giving up speculation and armchair observation in favour of scientific methods of study.

Wundt, a German physiologist took a lot of interest in the subjective and personal experiences of the organism, a response to sensory Stimulation. After publishing “fundamental of psychological psychology (1871)”. Wundt opened his psychological institute at Leipzig.

A large number of students from all over the world came to Wundt’s institute to conduct research on scientific psychology under his able guidance. Wundt defined psychology as the science of immediate experience with consciousness being the main subject matter, which simply means the science of consciousness.

E.B. Titchener:
Titchener, the English psychologist who went to Leipzig to work under Wundt, propounded the structural school of psychology. Like Wundt, he was also determined to establish psychology as a pure and perfect science. Thus, he established a laboratory at Cornell, in America, to develop a structural school of psychology.

He based his work and research on the pattern of Wundt. He was a staunch believer in the experimental approach towards the study of mental science. He published a number of books on psychology and thus helped in the enrichment of psychology as a science. In fact, it is Titchener who owes the credit for establishing Wundt’s concept of psychology in the U.S.A.

Titchener defined psychology as the science of conscious experience which is dependent upon the experiencing person. He developed a monistic approach towards psychology with the view that all sciences have more or less the same content, which refers to some aspect of the human experience. Only the approach is different.

Mind according to him is the sum total of human experience and the subject-matter of psychology is conscious experience. Titchener was a very devoted worker. He sincerely tried to develop fully the concepts of psychology put forward by Wundt. The above two psychologists’ contributions are discussed.

Question 4.
Discuss briefly the different branches of psychology?
Answer:
Modem psychologists have developed certain conceptual approaches to the understanding of psychology keeping in view the current needs. Zimbardo and Member (1997) have identified six broad conceptual models which are normally used in the study of human behaviour.
They are:

• Biological
• Behaviouristic
• Cognitive
• humanistic
• Psycho-dynamic and
• Evolutionary.

We will discuss below the first three models widely used by psychologists.

Biological Approach:
The biological approach is basically interested in the functioning of genes, the nervous system, the brain and the endocrine glands to trace the causes human behaviour. Zimbardo (1997) views that the biological approach makes four assumptions. Psychological and social phenomena can be understood in terms of biochemical processes.

Complex behaviours can be understood by analyzing them into smaller and more specific units. All behaviour or behavioural potential is determined by physical structures and hereditary processes. Experience can modify behaviour by changing these underlying biological structures and processes.

a conglomeration of these two sciences has led to the development of a biological approach to psychology. The biological approach also includes the Biophysical; or Neuroscience approach. Which attempts to find out the physiological or biological changes that take place in the nervous system. brain, glands and chores when we learn, perceive, think, emote, became angry, hungry see a movie, dream or engage in daydreams.

Behaviouristic Approach:
Structuralism was too mentalistic because it attempted to deal with mental processes. In the early twentieth century, some scholars pioneered an approach in America popularly known as Behaviourism which placed importance or the overt behaviour of organisms. The propounder of behaviourism was Y.B. Watson.

He and his associates reduced psychological understanding to a simple ABC formula:

• first, identify the antecedent (triggering) stimulus conditions, that elicit behaviour,
• secondly, measure changes in observable behaviour and friendly,
• record the consequences that the behaviour has on the environment.

All these three, ABC elements, antecedent conditions, behaviours and consequences or change must be objectively observable. Watson viewed drat mental events could not be studied scientifically and that psychology must look not within the individual for the causes of behaviour, but outside the individual at the environment and the observable stimuli that lead to behavioural responses.

Another learning theorist, B.F. Shinner restricted the domain of psychology to the study of how behaviour and environment operate on and affect each other. Modem scientific psychology has however accepted to quite an extent the behaviouristic approach of Watson, particularly those aspects of behaviour that are carefully and objectively measured by contemporary.

psychology because of its scientific orientation still consists of overt behaviour. According to Baron (1999) “Behaviouristic approach to psychology has stood the test of time and continues to remain as an important approach to modem psychology”.

Cognitive Approach:
The behaviouristic approach seems somewhat limited because it excludes mental processes. Cognitive psychology stands as a direct challenge to the limited view of behaviourism that scientific psychology is only the study of the overt behaviour of the organism. The cognitive model is a very broad one encircling consciousness, attending perceiving or knowing, thinking, problem-solving, even numbering etc.

Cognition means knowing or knowledge modem psychologists hold that emphasis on human thought, perception, knowledge and all the processes of cognitive functioning centre around the heart of psychology.

Question 5.
State the subject matter of psychology. How is it related to biology and medicine?
Answer:
The subject matter of psychology includes air branches and all aspects of psychology, particularly those which deal with human behaviour, internal and external experiences and various mental processes. The mental processes include physiologist bases behaviour, sensation, attention, perception learning, memory process, thinking reasoning and creativity, personality, intelligence and emotional and motivational processes etc.

Among the above, learning is the core of psychology and its central subject matter. Humans’ adjustment to a tired environment is impossible without learning and the ability to learn and remember things. Psychologists study human behaviour as used as a mental process exploring the thinking process, ability creativity and reasoning capacity.

Cognitive psychologists, therefore, put emphasis on the cognitive behaviour of the organism as an important subject matter of psychology. I Human being is an intelligent person. His cognitive ability or intelligence determines his mental activities to a great extent and hence the complete without the study of intelligence or cognitive behaviour the subject matter of psychology subject matter related to Biology and medicine.

Biology :
Biology is life science. It studies the life of plants and animals which includes the study of the growth and development of living beings and how they reproduce and continue to exist. The scope of biology is very wide in the sense that it is concerned with the study of genetics physiology, zoology, neurology embryology etc. Since psychology has an intimate relationship with physiology, animal psychology and neurology, it is logically related to biology.

Animal experiments truly speaking, have enriched our knowledge in understanding human behaviour. Animals are of then used in research and experiments in psychology, for instance, Pavlov experimented on dogs, Thomdive on cats, Kohler on chimpanzees, Lashley on rats and Skinner on pigeons. The laws and principles of learning drawn from these studies have provided valuable chees to the psychology of learning and motivation.

Medicine:
Medical science deals with both physical and mental disorders. This knowledge is a must for psychologists because both deal with the human organism, medicine, however, is more concerned with physical disease and psychology with mental disease. Since mind and body can not be separated from, each other and are interrelated, one influencing the Other, medicine and psychology are just like the coils of a rope, interwoven and interrelated.

Just as it is essential for doctors to know about human psychology and behaviour patterns it is equally necessary for psychologists to have knowledge of physical diseases and the various physiological organs and their functions. Both psychologists and medical men take each other’s help in the conduction of research on human beings.

Question 6.
Discuss the observational methods and their advantages?
Answer:
The methods which a particular branch of knowledge uses, determine its scientific nature. Psychology as already indicated is described as a social science. In order to clarify the fact that psychology is a science. It is necessary to examine the methods used in psychology to study the behaviour of the organism. Methods in psychology refer to the ways or procedures to study behaviour, both inner and outer.

Methods are also used to analyse, predict and control behaviour in a given situation. Thus psychology like any other science subject uses observation and experimental methods. The introspective method comes under the observational method unique in psychology and not used in any other science for the purpose of investigation. That is why Morgan and King have said that psychology is both Science and Arts.

Observational Method:
Psychologists have attempted to divide observational methods into various categories which are given below.

Subjective observation (Introspection):
Self-observation is popularly known as introspection. It is a unique method used in psychology, which is not found in any other science. Titchener developed the introspective method. Wundt also suggested as a method of studying conscious experience. According to Titchener, psychology must deal with the inner states of consciousness in order to find out its structure. As already pointed out introspection means slef-observation or ‘to look within.

In the case of introspection, the person observes his own feelings and experiences at a given tinie and reports the same to the investigator. By self-observation, only the experiencing person says what he is feeling or experiencing. To introspect means to attend to one’s own experiences. If a person is having a headache or toothache, only he can report it.

If one is thinking of somebody it is he who can make it overt. Thus the person himself can give an account of his experiences. That is why it is called self-observation. But, the inner mental activities can be made public by the experiencing person. Whatever one is feeling experiencing or thinking, he can only – give a report of same.

Here the job of the psychologist is to encourage the person under observation to look within and observe his own thoughts feelings, and experiences and report the same psychologist. Introspection as self-observation. But every self-observation is not introspection. Self-observation of one’s mental activities only refers to introspection.

Advantages:
Psychology is the study of behaviour and experiences. Behaviour is studied by observation technique. In fact, there is no other method by which private and personal experience can be studied except the method of introspection. Introspection is an easy, simple and traditional method. Many psychologists gathered lots of valuable information, particularly in the field of sensation with the help of the introspection method.

When the other scientific and objective methods fail to serve the purpose, introspection solves the problem. Specific principles are followed for the use of other scientific methods; no rules are to be followed for observing one’s own feelings and experiences. Introspection can be applied at any time and at any place. Further, no laboratory or test materials are necessary for introspection.

Introspection provides direct and first-hand knowledge to the person about one’s mental state. The data obtained by the introspective method can be compared with the data obtained by the observation method, later on, both the subjective and objective data can be synthesized. Attributes of sensation can be known through introspection.

A number of impressions and experiences about the tactual, auditory, gustatory and factory sensations can be known by introspection. Similarly experiences about like and dislikes applying the self-observation method. The subject’s response to a stimulus is revealed through introspection. How he registers the stimulus and his reaction to stimulation can only be known by introspection.

Question 7.
Define observation methods used in psychology?
Answer:
The observation methods are defined below:

• Naturalistic observation
• Participant observation
• Non-participant observation

Naturalistic observation:
Naturalistic observation is made in an environment which is uncontrolled and unrestricted but natural. It is incidental and unplanned. The attitude of the teachers towards their students can be observed in classroom situations where the observer plays a passive role. Piaget’s studies on the cognitive development of children were frequently preceded by naturalistic observation which he called the clinical method.

Advantages
This method does not require the cooperation of the subject. The ‘ S ’ is completely kept ignorant that he is being observed. The artificiality of the laboratory is completely absent here.

Disadvantages
Data collected by the naturalistic method are different to reproduction, standardisation and quantity. It violates the standards of specificity, quantitativeness and standardisation of the observational procedure.

Participant Observation:
When application of the experimental method and use of the naturalistic method may not be feasible the method of participant observation comes into the picture. In this method, the observer actually takes part of participating with the ‘O’ in a particular act and simultaneously observes his behaviour. For example, while studying the play activity of children, the observer also plays with them, and the child never knows that he is observing him.

Advantages
For studying cases on a large scale, when experimental methods are not practically possible, this method is used to sort out various problems of the employees, in industries and organisations and in a classroom situation.

Disadvantages
In addition to the disadvantages and limitations of the observational methods, the additional disadvantage of this method is that once the subjects start suspecting the participant observer’s motive and the situation they may become furious considering him a spy.

Non-participant Observation:
As the name implies it is the opposite of participant observation. In this method, the observer does not participate in the activities of the subject being studied but he tries to observe the behaviour from an observable distance through a One-way vision screen.

Question 8.
What is the case history method? Define its limitations?
Answer:
Psychology has adopted the use of a number of investigative methods for the understanding and analysis of human behaviour. Case history is one of these methods which is being used particularly by clinical psychologists for the diagnosis and treatment of behaviour disorders. Otherwise known as the life history or case study method. It involves making observations for a considerable period of time to trace the cause and development of a particular behaviour pattern.

This method actually has been borrowed from medicine and it has got special implications t in the study of problem children and in the study of problem children and in the treatment of abnormality. It is a two-way process in which the investigator uses tests, checklists questionnaires like the survey technique.

Under case study method :

• the day book method,
• clinical method.
• Biographical method

are includes case history is a very comprehensive and useful method. But it requires specialised skills for the collection of information. The main purpose of the case study method is diagnosis and prognosis. In other words, it aims at finding the cases underlying human behaviour as well as making recommendations about rectifying the present behaviour.

Limitations:
It is held by some that the case study method is highly subjective. Unless trained and competent investigators conduct the interview collect case history, it may lead to erratic and erroneous findings. However, the subjective nature of the case history method can be reduced by using a particular format of a case study which can provide guidelines to the person collecting the information.

He can thus have the scope to add or to subtract very little and this can ensure objectivity and reduce subjectivity to a minimum. Some have argued that case study is retrospective in nature. It is based on the contemplation of an event after it has occurred. Thus many valuable experiences from that standpoint of psychological analysis are forgotten, disturbed or actively.

Question 9.
Discuss the characteristics of the experimental methods in psychology?
Answer:
According to Ruch (1970) “The most highly developed, formalised and accurate of all scientific methods is the experimental method”. It is the most reliable of all the methods used in psychology. In 1879 Wundt started the first psychological laboratory at Leipzig and since then most psychological data are collected through well-designed and scientifically conducted experiments.

The experimental method is a procedure in which certain hypotheses framed on the basis of previous findings are tested by systematically varying certain conditions and controlling some other conditions. In other words, it is observation used in pre-arranged conditions. When the behaviour of a person is not studied under natural conditions, or in the field, but under artificially controlled conditions in the laboratory it is called an experiment.

The E should use the proper method for the presentation of the stimulus and should see that he gets the necessary cooperation from this. He must have a procedure for collecting data and testing the hypothesis. Proper instructions to the “S” must begin before starting experiment. The verbal and introspective report of the subject should be taken to interpret and verify the obtained findings.

Characteristics of the experimental method:
Variable Slid Conditions:
The experimental method involves certain variables. A variable is a factor which varies or changes in the experiment. A variable is any aspect of a condition that can vary or any quantity that can change in a valve.

Independent Variable :
The independent variable is the factor which is manipulated or changed in an experimental design. It is the factor whose effects are being studied on the result.

Dependent Variables:
It is also called the response variable. According to such, “The dependent variable in an experiment is the factor which the experimenter predicts will change in some way as a result of changing the independent variable.

Relevant Variable:
The relevant variables are those variables which are kept constant throughout the experiment except the independent variable. For example, in the experiment on memory for meaningful words and nonsense materials except for the nature of the material all other factors are kept constant in both conditions.

Question 10.
Show the significance of survey and statistical methods in psychology.
Answer:
Survey While attempting to understand the dynamics of human behaviour one may come across certain problems which are difficult to study by observations experiments or case history methods. Political attitudes, consumer preference, attitudes towards family planning, dowry, marriage, and divorce, women’s liberation, health care, etc. Are studied by survey method. The survey method used questionnaires, interviews, rating scales, checklists, etc. to obtain information about the problem of the study.

In other words, the survey method is a procedure of connecting certain information from the population by carefully prepared questionnaires. The information is obtained from a scientifically selected sample which represents the view of the entire population. For social surveys, the sample must be randomly selected and it must be large enough to represent the population.

Currently, the survey method has extended from mere administration of questionnaires and tests and interviews to a Telephone ‘survey’. survey by postal questionnaires, etc. This is done for quick collection of data. Although the personal interview technique is more popular and extensively used in survey methods, it is very costly and time-consuming. A report is necessary at the first place.

Statistical Method:
Psychologists have borrowed the statistical method from mathematics as they felt that it is indispensable for psychological research. The design and interpretation of any data obtained by psychological research are incomplete without statistical analysis. To determine the average performance of a group or a person in a test or tests, the application of statistics is a must.

Similarly to find out the difference and relationships in the performance, intelligence score, anxiety, aptitude, and prejudice of two groups or members of groups, say, boys and girls, rural and urban children, of different age groups, the psychologists have to take the help of statistical procedures. Mum, therefore, comments “statistical analysis is an application of mathematics which enables the psychologist to arrange his findings so that he can discover their significant trends and relationships.”

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 History Solutions Unit 1 Sources of Indian History Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class History Unit 1 Sources of Indian History Long Answer Questions

Long Type Questions and Answers

Sources Of Odisha History Question 1.
Discuss the various aspects regarding the relevance of History?
Answer:
History is a pressing social need. Whether he may be a play writer, storyteller, doctor, scientist, pact, educationist, or the common. It is for all History teaches us about the past. The study of the past is important to understand the events of the present. history continuous story of one event leading to another, the present cannot be understood without understanding the past.

History provides identity to a nation. It is a natural instinct for the people of every country nation or society to know of their past. Because it contains the descriptions of generation. A nation needs its identity before the world community. History provides identity. History is not merely a certificate of praise for any nation. It is both a source of inspiration as well as of warning.

If some particular reasons lead to a downfall at one time, the nation should remain wide awake against those follies not to suffer again. Thus, to the thinking minds and the rulers of men, History holds lessons about the strength and weaknesses of the nation. History because learn many lessons from it. If we study history, there is a lesser chance of repeating the mistakes made by our ancestors.

History teaches us how harmful and destructive wars can be. History reminds the people of its past glories and inspires the nation to face the challenges with courage. For example, during the evil days of British rule, the Indian Nationalists thought of their glorious past and inspired the people to stand up against the foreigners. Thus, history proves, how a small band of united people can defeat a much stronger enemy.

History of ancient and great countries has greater relevance in modem age when the man has conquered time & distance of the world is regarded as a ‘global village’ countries with rich historical heritage invites countless visitors from all parts of the world. This led sot greater understanding among nations. The teachings of great men in the mirror of histories such as Buddha, Gandhiji, Gum Nanak, Sri Chaitanya, and many others are of great relevance.

We try to follow their teaching in our daily lives. This makes us better human beings and helps society to function better. History is regarded as the highest court of justice to pass judgment on the deeds or misdeeds of great men of the past. However, a great one could have been he cannot escape the verdict of history. History is the eternal witness to man’s virtues and vices, good deeds wind evil doings.

History also holds lessons about good and bad governments. It is witness to various systems such as monarchy, oligarchy, aristocracy, despotism, and democracy. Showing the merits and demerits of different systems of governance helps modem society to choose its own method. History holds examples of how smaller notions like Greece.

Italy could fight for Independence against stronger powers by deriving pride from its ancient past. History has relevance for self-revival in times of crisis. To sum up, it may be said that the relevance of History in the supreme lessons of upholds regarding the victory of truth over untruth of justice over injustice, and of moral values over forces of evil. History shows the causes and consequences of various actions. It provides an ideal for mankind to uphold.

Sources Of History Question And Answer Question 2.
Verify the dignity of Archaeological and Epigraphical sources of Indian History?
Answer:
Historians reconstruct events of the past system manually and scientifically using various tools and sources of information. They depend on archeological and literary sources along with the study of coins, inscriptions, and accounts of foreign travelers. Archaeological sources include houses, temples, tools, jewelry, fossils, and other objects left behind by people.

Archaeological sources:
For collecting information about the pre-historic, past historians have to depend solely on the remains or nuns of the past. Archaeologists dig up sites where people might have lived and bring out various objects which have been lived and bring out various objects which have been buried under the earth for many years. These objects may include fools, jewelry, fossils, and arts and crafts. At times houses where people lived, temples where people went to worship, and even the log out of an entire city have been excavated by archaeologists.

These provide valuable clues to historians for reconstructing the history of that period. The knowledge of most of the ancient civilizations such as Harapan, Mesopotamian, and Egyptian is based on archaeological evidence. Archaeologists while digging have found such objects which throw light on the life of the people and give information about the objects they used.

However, the task of archaeologists is extremely difficult because in most cases, the excavated objects are in fragments and archaeologists have to study the pieces minutely and carefully to get an idea about their use. In their work, they have to take anthropologists, physicists, and biologists to determine the bone structure or age of an object, etc. However, in the case of monuments, buildings, and other objects found above ground level, they may not have such problems.

Epigraphy:
The study of inscriptions in knowledge as Epigraphy. In the absence of paper, people used sharp instruments to write on hard surfaces. These are referred to as inscriptions. Inscriptions may be found on seals, copper plates, stone pillar rocks, or temple walls. They provide valuable information. Though the Harappan were the first to inscribe their script on seals, these have not yet been deciphered.

The oldest Indian inscriptions to have been deciphered so far are those issued by Asoka in the third century B.C. Though the earliest inscriptions have been found on stone, copper plates were used by the First century A.D. such copper plates have been found near Taxila. Earlier inscriptions were in Prakrit. Ashok and edicts were inscribed in Greek Aramaic and karoshi Scripts in the language of the local people.

Sanskrit was used in inscriptions bearing the history of the Mauryan post-Mauryan and the Gupta period has been published like. Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta, Junagarh inscription of Rudraman I. Aihole stone inscription of pulses II, etc. From the language, script style of composition, and the occasion when inscriptions were engraved we come to know about the political, social, economic conditions of the period to which they belong. The inscriptions being engraved on metals and stones cannot be tampered with without detection.

Numismatics:
The study of coins is known as numismatics coins struck at different times by different rules provide valuable clues regarding dates names of rules, regions where these have been struck as well as the metal sued. Ancient coins were made of Copper, Gold, Silver, or lead coin molds made of burnt clay have been found in large numbers. Coins made of metal first appeared in the Buddhist period.

They were made of silver or copper and were called punch-marked coins because pieces of these metals were punched with certain marks such as trees, fish, etc. Early coins were known as cricks or stamina. Most of the coins however belonged to the Kushana. period. People kept the coins in earthen or bronze used as precious hoards, to be used in times of heed. Such hoards coins have been found in the southern part of India especially in Arikameda on the eastern coast, indicating commercial contact with the Roman empire.

The Gupta period is well known for gold coins. Coins bore the names of the rules and often carried the image of the gold they worshipped. For example “Samudragupta’s coins show him playing the veena, so we can see that coins provide various types of information about a particular period. Socio-economic and cultural aspects of a particular period may be inferred from the details Quailable on coins. Thus, coins are important sources of information.

Sources Of History Question Answer Question 3.
Stress regarding the builders of the Indus valley civilization?
Answer:
Who were the builders of the Indus civilization on this point, historians hold different opinions. According to some, long before the Aryans came to India, the Dravidians lived on the soil of this land. They were highly civilized. They built the Indus civilization. It was thus pre-Aryan and pre-Vedic civilization. To others, Ariane was the makes of Indus civilization. They came much earlier than it is supposed.

Their early settlements were in the northwestern regions of India and the Indus valley. Mohenjo-Dara and Harappa were their work. The third opinion is the builders of the Indus civilization were the Sumerians of Mesopotamia or some other people of that group of men. It is for this reason that there is a good deal of similarity between the civilizations of the Samer and Indus valley. The last of the three opinions do not seem to be correct.

There were trade relations between Mesopotamia and India from very ancient times. Different goods of Mesopotamia came to this country and many Indian goods were sold in Samer or Babylon. It is for this reason that similar goods have been found from the rains of the Samer and Indus cities. It is also natural that many ancient peoples used similar things for their livelihood. But comparing such things one cannot say that people of both places belonged to the same race or group.

Thus the Indus Valley people and the people of Sumer or Babylon were not the same. The question, however, remains if they were Dravidians or Aryans. Enough though has been to this subject. It is seen at last that there were some basic differences between the Indus civilization and the Aryan civilization. In view of these differences, it is difficult to suggest that the Aryans were the author of the Indus civilization. John Marshall has described those differences in the following manner. The Vedic Aryans worshipped the Bull.

The Aryans were the worshippers of Nature, they performed yajna and offered prayers to their Gods. But the Indus people were devoted to a mother Goddess and they worshipped trees, animals, and snakes. The Aryans did not like to live in cities, they loved to live in a simple rural atmosphere a mind the beauty of Nature. But the people of Indus culture built beautiful cities and loved to live prosperous urban life.

The Aryans were not in great favor of trade and commerce, they did not like sea Voyages. But the Indus people were fond of trade and commerce for which they traveled far and wide across the seas. The ancient script and writings of the Aryans have not yet been discovered. But the Indus valley people had developed scripts that are available in plenty from the rains. The Aryans were a race of warriors, they used various weapons to attack others. But the Indus people seem to have been a peace-loving race.

The Aryans used horses very much. But the Indus people knew very little of that animal. With such differences between the Aryans and the Indus people, it will be perhaps wrong to say that the Aryans built the Indus civilization. It is imagined, therefore, that the Indus valley civilization was the work of the Dravidians. It may be said, however, that history needs still more evidence to accept this theory.

Sources Of History Questions And Answers Question 4.
Explain the Chief features of town planning in Harappan civilization?
Answer:
The ruins of the cities of the Indus valley civilization display the remarkable skill of the people in town planning and sanitation. The main features are cities with their wide and straight stress efficient and covered drainage, structurally comfortable houses with bathrooms, and built of burnt bricks of various shapes.

Roads:
The cities of the Indus valley were well-planned. The main roads followed a straight course from north to south and east to west intersecting at right angles. Houses were constructed in an orderly fashion on both sides of the Street. Harappa was famous for its town planning.

Drainage:
The drainage system was very impressive. The main drains covered with bricks or stones ran below the streets and were connected with the house drains. The bathrooms had sloping floors and drain that were connected to the street drains. The kitchen too had drained. The street drains ran along the sides of the street and were covered with bricks. They were cleaned at regular intervals. This system shows that the people paid great attention to health and Sanitation.

The citadel:
The cities were divided into two parts. The upper part has built on raised ground. It has been called the citadel or the acropolis. The citadel had high walls which provided protection during floods. It contained public buildings, religious structures, and granaries probably, the rating classes lived here. The lower part called the lower town was much bigger. It contained the houses and workplaces of the common people.

The Great bath:
The most striking feature of Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath. It is a rectangular structure resembling a swimming pool. There were some small bathrooms attached evidently for bathing before entering the Great bath provision was made for draining the bath when needed.

Granaries:
At Harappa, a number of granaries have been found surplus grains were stored in these granaries. Granaries were located near the bathroom. Near the granaries, circular brick platforms have also been found. They were probably used for threshing grain.

Sources Of History Question Answers Question 5.
Explain the socio-economic and religious life of the Indus valley people?
Answer:
Many things have been discovered from Mohenjodaro and Harappa. They include small images and seals. From the designs on the seals and the images, scholars, from ideas regarding the social economic, and religious conditions of the Indus civilization. There is other evidence also to give a clear picture of the Indus life. Below is given a brief account of the social, economic, and religious life of the Indus Valley people.

Social life :
The social life of the Indus people was highly developed. The Indus people were as advanced as the ancient. Egyptians and Sumerians are spheres of education. This is proved countless seals which contain very find scripts. Unfortunately, scholars have not yet been able to read the Indus scripts.

Attempts are being made to read them when they will be read many things will be known about the culture of that time. For the time it is enough to say that the existence of letters meant the existence of the art of writing. As many as 396 letters have been discovered so far. The Indus people lived a luxurious life. It is known from their ornaments and dress. People were fond of beautiful ornaments. The rich and the poor alike used them. The rich people used ornaments of gold, silver costly stones, and ivory.

The poor people used ornaments of copper, bones, and even burnt clay. Neckless, rings, earrings, and armlets are commonly used by women. Even men used different types of ornaments. The ornaments were artistic and attractive. The Indus people also used good dress. They were experts in the art of weaving.

In their food habits, the Indus people were quite advanced. They ate wheat, rice, barley, meat, fish, fruits, and vegetables and drank milk. They used cows, lambs, pigs, buffaloes, camels as domestic animals. Elephants were also used for various purposes. It is, however, not yet clear if they knew the use of horse and dog. The latest discoveries suggest, perhaps they did know. The Indus people knew the use of several metals.

They prepared many things of day to day use from those metals. Gold, silver, copper, tin bronze and lead were of common use. It is to be noted however that no iron has been discovered from the ruins of Mohenjodaro and Harappa. People made their utensils in copper or bronze. Earthen pots were used in plenty. They were painted in color. Toys of many kinds have been recovered from the rains.

Small figures of animals, birds men, and women were prepared in clay. Perhaps children used those as toys. The grown men and women played different games. They lived happy life. They enjoyed dancing. An attractive dress was used. Both men and women used combs and they liked attractive hairstyles. The bathrooms in every house prove that people believe in cleanliness. The Indus people were patrons of art.

Excellent ornaments, painted earthen pots, earthen toys of any kind, images made of bronze or stone, and the attractive designs on the seas give testimony to the love of the people for art. The figures of animals on the seas prove that the Indus artists and craftsmen were very competent in their work. The Indus valley people used copper and bronze weapons.

Battle axe dagger, spear, bow, and arrow were their main weapons. It is not yet clear if they used swords and shields. The Indus people used to bum or bury their dead. All these points give some idea about the social aspects of the Indus Valley civilization.

Economic life :
It can be easily said that the people who built great cities like Mohenjidaro and Harappa were economically prosperous. It is on economic foundations that an Urban civilization grows up. Mohenjudara and Harappa passed that foundation. It is believed that in those remote days there used to be heavy rains in the Indus region. Side by side the river Indus supplied much water for rice cultivation.

The soil was fertile and the Indus people were hardworking. They produced plenty of wheat and barley. According to some scholars, the living standard of the common men of the Indus valley than the standard of the common people in the Nice valley and Mesopotamia. The areas around Mohenjodara are still known as Pakistan or the ‘Garden of Singh’. The Indus people were also efficient in art and Crafts.

They were excellent weavers. They prepared beautiful dresses both in cotton and wool. Ornaments, weapons, utensils toys, and other goods of luxury were prepared by able artisans. Those groups of people were economically well off. The people of the Indus valley is wre great in trade and commerce. Inside India, they carried their business from the Kashmir Valley to the Deccan. For external trade, they moved far and wide. That was one of their chief achievements for fame.

They had trade relations with outside countries both through land and sea routes. It is known that the Indus people had close commercial relations with Sumeria, Egypt, and create. The seals of Mohanja-dar have been discovered in Mesopotamia. Similarly, the cuneiform writing of Mesopotamia has been discovered at Mohenjo- Daro. This proves the contact with the people at those two distant times. Agriculture, industry, and trade were the three chief occupations of the Indus valley people. Their economic condition, therefore, was prosperous.

Religious life :
From the relies on the Indus valley we get some idea about the religious life of that time from small female figures discovered from the rains some scholars believe that the people perhaps worshipped a mother Goddess, of course, it has not yet been possible to form a clear idea about that goddess. A female figure on a seal has created much interest. Some say it is the figure of the Earth Goddess. To others, it is the goddess of Nature.

The worship of the mother Goddess was prevalent in many ancient societies. The Indus people also might have believed that some people think that Mother Goddess of the Indus religion appeared as Goddess Durga or kali in the Indian Religion of the future ages. Besides the Mother Goddess, the people also worshipped a God. A beautiful figure appears on a seal which is like a powerful God.

Fie has three faces. There are harps on his head. He is sitting in the posture of a Yogi. On his four sides, there are figures of four animals, such as elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, and buffalo. Near his feet is the figure of a deer scholars feel that this god was Siva Pashupati. From a study of these figures, Sir John Marshall imagined that perhaps Saivism was the earliest religion of India. No temple has been discovered from the reigns of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, It is not clear, therefore how the people worshipped their Gods and Goddess.

May be the temples of Mohenjodaro are still lying buried under the Indus sands, not yet discovered. Similarly, the temple bricks of Flarappa might have been carried away from their original sites. The images or figures were all found in the dwelling houses of common men. It may be that the people of the Indus valley offered worship in their own houses. Besides the Mother Goddess and Siva, the Indus people also worshipped several other things and symbols.

They paid religious respects to the Bull, Tiger, Elephant, and some other animals that were also considered sacred, Perhaps these animals were regarded as the bananas of the deities. Some say that the Indus valley people worshipped even snakes. Similarly, worshipped several trees. It seems as if the religion of the ancient Indus Valley and the future Hinduism of India have similarities in many respects worship of Gods and Goddesses, animals, and frees, as was prevalent in the Indus valley, is also seen in the Hindu mode of worship.

It may be that the earliest religion did not disappear with the fall of the Indus civilization. The Aryans were influenced by the prevailing faiths of the Indus region. They accepted many features of pre-Aryan worship. From the faiths of the early Aryans later Hinduism developed. Sir Mortimer Wheeler believed that the worship of Siva came to later Hinduism from the ancient Harappan religion. The Harappans regarded the Bull as sacred.

So too, did the Hindus of later times. The similarities between the Indus religion and the later Hinduism prove that the civilization of India has maintained its unbroken continuity from a remote pre-historic past to recent times. The religion of India is a product of ages. It is vast and broad enough to cover the faiths of all peoples of all times who lived on the soil of this great country.

Sources Of Odisha History Pdf Question 6.
Discuss the authenticity of foreign accounts and their impact on Indian history?
Answer:
Accounts of Indian life and civilization written by foreign travelers are important sources for the writing of ancient Indian history classical or Greek writers have recorded information about India beginning from the Persian invasion in the 6th century B.C. Hero dots and Ofesias have narrated the history of the Persian domination over north-western India. The floodgate of Indian contact with the west was opened with the invasion of India by Alexander the Great.

The historians like searches, one serious, etc. who accompanied Alexander have recorded remarkable accounts about North-Western India and the story of Alexander’s invasion. Among the classical authorities in India, the most renowned is Megasthenes, the Seleukidian envoy to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote a remarkable book named the Indika, which depicts the political, and social life of the Indians.

The value of Indika as a source of ancient Indian history of Immense. Unfortunately, the contents of the book are not available in full. Strabo has recorded fragments ofMegasthenes account in their books. Dr. Sehwanbeek has collected and edited them. Platarch wrote a biographical sketch of Alexander in which narratives about his invasion of India are included. Justin wrote a book named Epitome which throws light on the early life of Chandragupta Maurya.

The periplus of the Erythralan sea supplies accounts for Indian ports, harbors, and goods. An unknown Greek sailor wrote this book in the first century A.D. No. a correct account of the economic and commercial life of India for the late centuries before Christ and for the late centuries before Christ and for the early Gentries can be written without the help of this book. Ptolemy’s Geography is a famous work.

Pliny has furnished a study of India’s flora and fauna in his Natural History. Quintus has written an account of Alexander’s Invasion of India depending on earlier records. The spread of Buddhism in China promoted contact of china with India. Buddhist pilgrims from china came to India to visit the holy places of Buddhism in India. Some of the pilgrims left valuable accounts about life and society in India.

Chinese historian SSA-ma chiefs composed an annual about India in the first century B.C. Chinese historian Fan-ye recorded information about the Yue-chi and the Kushanas. The Chinese pilgrim Fa- Hien visited. India in the reign of Chandra Gupta II. He left a good narrative about India which is regarded as a source of Gupta history. Fa-Hien visited North-western India and the Gangetic Valley.

His writing is devoid of any political matter. He was interested in Buddhism and social life in India. He lived in Pataliputra for six years and sailed for China from the port of Tamralipta in Bengal. He wrote several books on Buddhism in India, was Hiuen-Tsang. He visited India during Harshavardhana and left a detailed account of the political and social life of India. The name of his book is si-ya-ki.

This narrative is more descriptive and elaborate than the account left by Fa-Hien. But Huen-Tsang was not above a Buddhist bias which is evident from his unblessing eulogy for the Buddhist emperor Harsha. Tibetan historian Lama Taranatha’s writings named Dawa and Tangyur are also valuable sources. A comparative study of the classical and the Chinese sources would reveal that the classical writers were particular in the observation of political and administrative matters.

The Chinese travelers being mostly Buddhist pilgrims were indifferent to political events and administrative matters. They, however, give emphasis on the condition of Buddism and the social fragments contain details about Chandragupta’s administration his court and camp life, and the general condition of the People the flora and fauna of India. The Chinese accounts are not so complete and versatile.

From the 8th century AD, Arabian scholars like Al-Beruni visited India. Al-Beruni was a great scholar of Sanskrit. He has left a capital account in India. Al-Beruni’s work is named Tahaki Hind. It is a mine of information about India and her people other Arab writers like At Biladuri etc. may also be mentioned. The historical value of the foreign accounts about India can hardly be exaggerated.

These foreign writers often wrote with great detachment and critical observation. But their narratives suffer from several general defects. Firstly, most of the writers did not know the local languages and customs. Secondly, they did not stay in India for a long time. Thirdly, some of these writers particularly the Greeks did not always write from personal observation but from hearsay. As a result, they occasionally recorded wrong information,

Question 7.
Evaluate the relationship of the Indus civilization with the Sumerian civilization?
Answer:
Sumerologists find a striking resemblance between the Indus civilization and the ancient civilizations of Sumer and Mesopotamia. pictorial writings, the developed city life, burnt bricks, wheel-made potteries, the cult of the mother Goddess, the hairstyle of-Indus women, the use of bronze and copper for making implements are great points of similarities between the civilizations of the Indus, the summer and that of Mesopotamia.

The second notable point of resemblance between the three civilizations is that they flourished in the valley of great rivers like the Indus, the Euphrates, and the Tigris. The above similarities coupled with the mature character of the Harappan civilization have led some scholars to suggest that the Indus people had borrowed the pattern and ideas of their culture from the Sumerians and the Mesopotamians.

It is also argued that the citadels found at Harappa and Maheiijodaro bear the influence of the architectural designs of Sumer. Probably the firsts at Harappa and Mahenjodaro were erected by a foreign race most possibly the Sumerians. They built these first in order to impose their authority upon the local urban population. The citadels were drowning the cities with a hint of alien domination.

However, on a sober consideration of the matter, the theory of the Sumerian authorship of the Indus, civilization is-still in-the speculation. There is still a lack of concrete evidence to prove the theory of the Sumerian origin of the Indus civilization. Despite its close contact with Sumer, the Indus civilization had many peculiarities and features of its own. This has led prof Gordon childe to emphasize the distinctive character of the two cultures. In spite of many appearances.

Similarities between the two, the Harappan was distinctly Indian. In its origin, the Harappa culture was not a fruit of burrowing transplanting from the Sumerian culture. Dr. Basham has pointed out that the Indus civilization was the creation of a people who lived in the Indus valley for several centuries and that this great civilization and little to the Sumerian culture of the Middle East. Firstly, there was very little intellectual exchange between the two sister cultures.

Secondly, the Indus style of sculpture, the stone saving, the terra-cotta, and the art of Indus seals are basically local and peculiar to the Indus people. They bear no trace of foreign Influence. Thirdly, the resemblances between the two, civilizations may be their inherent cousinship or due to the Dravidian authorship of the Sumerian civilization. The same Dravidians are also supposed to be authors of the Indus civilization.

Thus, the integrity of the Indus civilization stands unchallenged. Kumaraswamy has suggested that the Indus civilization spread from the Indus Valley to the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris and became known as the Sumerian Mesopotamia civilization sir ariel stein has concluded that possibly a parent civilization grew up in a place in between the Indus valley and the Euphrates Valley and branched off to the east and the west. However, all these are hypothetical theories.

Their authenticity has not yet been proven. Though the theory of the Sumerian origin of the Indus civilization is a hypothetical one the fact remains that there was a good deal of intercourse between the Indus, Sumer, and Mesopotamia people. There is an overwhelming through the land route via Baluchistan and probably through the sea routes across the Persian Gulf also. Numerous Indus types of deals have been discovered at Sumer. Akkad and Elan. Again Sumerian articles though fewer in number have been discovered in the Indus Valley.

Question 8.
Discuss regarding the earliest home of the Aryans and their coming to Indian Soil?
Answer:
Among the various groups of mankind, the Aryans are the most famous. In the Sanskrit language, the word Arya means the man of noble character the ‘free-born’. The descendants of the ancient Aryan race spread over wide areas of Europe and Asia. From the, earliest Aryan language, classical languages such as Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek came into being. From these languages, several other languages developed. They are all from the Aryan family of languages.

The Earliest Home of the Aryans :
Nobody can say exactly which place on earth was the earliest home of the Aryan people. To some Indian scholars, the Aryans were the original inhabitants of India and they did not come to this land from outside. On the other hand, some Patriotic European scholars believe that the Aryans originally lived on the shores of the faraway Baltic sea. The majority of historians, however, believe that the early Aryans lived in that region of Europe which now comprises such places as Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia.

From their original home, the ancient Aryans spread away to different places. Going south and westward they divided themselves into several branches and entered Greece. Italy, Germany, Spain, and England came in another direction, they entered into Iron and India. The name Iran (Persia) comes from the word Aryanam which is the country of the Aryans In India, the Aryans first settled in the area known as Punjab.

At first, the name of that place was captained, or the land of the seven rivers. Subsequently, it was called Panchanada, or the land of the Five Rivers. Punjab means the land of the five1 Rivers. The fact that the Aryan tribes of Europe and Asia came; from common ancestors is known from their earliest religious and social ways of life. From the original Aryan word Dyu, came the words Deva in Sanskrit, Deas in Latin Zeus in Greek.

Tiu in Saxon and Zio in German. The original fire God of the ancient Aryans became Agni in India, is in Italy, and in East European lands. The use or Dawn of the Indian Aryans was the same as the EOS of the Greeks and Aurora of the Italians. Similarly from the root family terms of the ancient Aryans came such words as Peter Matar.

Bharat and Duhitar in Sanskrit and Father, Mother, Brother, and Daughter in English. Many such words in Sanskrit and several European languages came from the same Aryan roots. Though they came from the same ancestors, the different branches of the Aryan people in course of time lived as separate races and developed their separate individualities.

Coming of the Aryans to India:
The time when the Aryans entered India is yet a subject of debate. Attempts are made to know that time from Vedic literature. According to some learned Indians like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the earliest Veda, favors as the Rigveda, was composed about 4,500 years before Christ. The Aryans must have come, therefore, several generations before that time. According to a famous western scholar. H.T. Colebrooke discovered the Vedas for the Western people the composition of all the Vedas was perhaps finished by the 14th century B.C.

For several centuries before that, they must have settled in Punjab. Max Muller believed that the Vedas were composed about 1500 years before Christ. Another western scholar Whitney believed that the hymns of the Rigveda were composed between 2,000 B.C. and 1,500 B.C. Most likely, the Aryans entered India around 2,000 years before the birth of Christ.

This opinion is held by the majority of historians. Soon after their entry into India, the Aryans began to compose the Vedas. Much about their early life in India is known from the descriptions in the Vedas. At first, they settled in the Punjab region where the rivers, Sindhu, Vitasta, Chandrabhaga, Iravati, Bipasa, Satadru, and Saraswati flowed.

At that time they had to fight against the primitive people of the land as well as perhaps with the civilized Dravidians. The enemies were described in the Vedas as Dasyus and Asuras. In course of time, the Dravidians migrated towards the south, and the primitives retired into mountains, hills, and forests. The conquered or subjugated enemies were described as the Dasas.

From Punjab, the Aryans moved eastward into the river valleys Ganges and Yamuna. They called that region Madhya Desa. Gradually they spread over the whole of the Uttarapatha. The Landmass between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas and from the western seas east was named as the Aryavarta.

Question 9.
Evaluate Regvedic society and discuss their economic life?
Answer:
The early Vedic society represented human quality and simplicity at their best. It was a society of high moral standards. It showed advanced civilization, a settled and organized human relationship. The Aryan families were the backbone of the society. Society was organized on the basis of the family as a unit. Each home was like an abode of happiness. This is because the Aryans laid great emphasis on the virtues of family life.

A good family man was a good social being. Usually, the father was the head of the family. As the head, he controlled the other members. The younger members senior members. The relationship between father, mother, brother, and sisters rested on a sense of duty, devotion, affection, and cordiality. The size of a family could be big enough to contain many members from grandparents to grandchildren.

But they all lived in peace. In their daily life, the Aryan householders lived in plain living and high thinking. Truth, mercy kindness, goodness, mutual help, and understanding were the ideals of family life. The Aryans believed in the system of Chaturashrama or the four-fold division of one’s life. At a young age when the man received education and training, he practiced Brahmacharya.

Thereafter he married and led the Garhasthva life or the life of a house-holder. When the man reached the third stage of his life, he adopted Vanaprastha. During that period he lifted in a cottage away in the forests to perform religious duties. In the final phase of life in old age, he practiced the Sannyasa Vrata by renouncing everything. These practices showed the disciplines of the Aryan life.

Women held a high position in the Aryan Society. Inside the family, they played a prominent role. They exercised much influence in domestic affairs. In religious ceremonies and festivals, women enjoyed equal place with men. Before their marriage, Aryan daughters received education in the house of their parents. The word Duhitri in Sanskrit and Daughter in English came from the root Aryan word Dough which means milking the cow.

Perhaps the Aryan girls were fond of looking after the cows as their domestic duty. There was no child marriage in the Rigvedic society. Girls lived in the house of their parents till they attained marriageable age. They had the freedom to select their husbands of arranged marriages were a more usual custom. Marriage was considered a sacred obligation in Vedic culture.

It was indissoluble. There was no secession of women in the Vedic society. The Vedic women took part in the highest socio-religious duties. They studied the Vedas. Some of them like Lopamudra Ghosh, Vishwavara and Apala became mortal as the authors of the Vedic hymns.
The most praised worth feature of the early Vedic society was the social equality of men. All Aryans were equal among themselves.

There was no caste system to separate man from man. Every Aryan could learn the Vedas could fight battles as a soldier, and work as a cultivator. It is only the conquered people who were given a lower rank in society as the basis. In brief, the Rigvedic Aryans lived in an ideal society that was unique in the ancient world.

Economic Life:
The economic condition of the people in the early Vedic society was prosperous. The Aryans were a hard-working race. They were also believers in the simple life. They loved to live in villages. Their economic activities mostly centered around their villages. Agriculture was the Chief occupation of the Vedic Aryans. They regarded cultivation as the main source of their livelihood. Around every village, there were plenty of cultivable lands and wide pastoral fields for cattle.

Each family had its own land to grow crops. Grasslands for the animals were held in common by all villagers. The lands under cultivation were called kshetra. The Aryans depended much on the rains and rivers for agriculture. They also took water from canals to their fields. To make the land service, they used manure. Dhan and you were the two chief products of agriculture. Since the lands were fertile in those days and the population was small, there was enough food in Vedic India to keep the people happy and self-sufficient.

Next to agriculture, the Vedic Aryans paid great attention to the rearing of cattle and various other domestic animals. Milk was regarded most useful and cows paid the minimum care. In every village, there were cowherd boys to drive the cattle to the green pasture lands. Sheep, goats, and horses were the other useful animals in Vedic society. The early Aryans also developed trade, commerce, and industry.

Merchants were there to carry various useful goods from place to place. Varieties of cloth, metal goods, and skin products were sold by traders in different markets. Carts drawn by horses and oxen usually carried the articles of trade. Boats were used in rivers for internal movements of goods. Rare evidence is also there to prove that the Vedic Aryans had maritime activities across the seas.

Cottage industries flourished in Vedic society. In most villages, there were weavers smiths, metal – workers carpenters, and also tanners. Artistic goods were made at select centers ornaments, weapons, chariots, implements for cultivation, utensils, and many other useful things were made by the people for regular use. The Aryans loved to eat rice, barley, milk, meat fish, and fruits.

In festivals and religious occasions. They used to drink soma rasa, on the whole, the economic life of the Vedic period was a life of plenty and prosperity. It is said that the early Aryans did not build big cities or Nagara. But they built strongholds and forts known as PURA with walls around and strong houses inside.

Question 10.
Evaluate the political status of the early Vedic people?
Answer:
The Aryans were a powerful people. The Aryans were a powerful people. They came to India in an organized way. As they spread themselves in India and settled permanently they developed political organizations in their society for a better life.

The nature of the Vedic political organization was as follows:
Several families formed a village or the Gram. The head of the Grama was called Gramani. He regulated the affairs of the village maintained peace in his area. Several villagers formed a district or canton which was very big in size, and the visit ruled more or less like a king. Several districts formed A Jana or people, which was like a big political unit or the Rastra. The Rastra or the state or the Jana was ruled by a head named the Rajan or the king.

He was said to be “without a rival and a destroyer of rivals” In later times, when the territory became big in size the Rajan became a Samrat In Vedic India, the kingship was generally a hereditary institution. The kind occupied a position of honor. He was appointed by the chief priests. He usually enjoyed the confidence and loyalty of the people. He lived in his palace. In dress, manners, and style he maintained the dignity of royalty. The son of the king had his right to his father’s kingdom.

Because of such continuity, it was the duty of the railing king to train his successor in the art of good government as well as in various virtues required of a monarch. In places, the subjects also could elect or select a king for their land. The king appointed several officers. Among such officers, the purohit or chaplain, the scenario or the commander of the army, the Duta or the messenger, and the Gramani or village headman played a prominent role.

The king also had his adviser or ministers. He appointed spies to collect information about the people. The king was required to perform two main duties. One was the protection of his land and the people from outside enemies. For this, he maintained his army. The other was to serve and please tie people. The king or the Rajan of the Vedic age was not an autocrat.

He governed according to the laws and customs of the land according to religious beliefs and with the advice of the seers, Sagar, and elders. There was even some kind of popular assemblies in those days called Samiti to give opinions on the affairs of the state. There was also the Sabha or council of Elders, containing wise men to advise the Government. The monarchy was thus limited. It is also understood that in places there was some kind of republican can government among some of the Aryan tribes.

The term Gana or people was perhaps used for such a state. Its head was called Ganapati or Jyeshtha (elder). On the whole, the Vedic political organizations were sound and stable. The state rested on the foundations of ethics, morality, virtue, and popular will. In course of time, smaller kingdoms fielded place to bigger kingdoms. Powerful monarchs wanted to rule over larger territories. Stronger political units and organizations thus became the need of the time.

Question 11.
Narrate the religious life of the early Vedic people?
Answer:
The Aryans were deeply religious. Their spiritual thoughts were of the highest order. Among the ancient races of the earth, no race was equal to the Indian Aryans of the early Vedic age in spiritual and religious thoughts. While the whole world was in the darkness of ignorance and blind beliefs, Rigvedic India held the lamp of wisdom. Among the ancient most religious of mankind, the Vedic religion is considered the best.

The Rigvedic Aryan’s thoughts of the supreme creator through the creation. Nature represented the different manifestations of that creation. They, therefore, became the worshippers of Nature. The mighty elements of Nature were regarded by the Aryans as their gods. All the useful elements of Nature appeared in divine form in the Aryan religious thoughts.

While the whole world was in the darkness of ignorance and blind beliefs, Rigvedic India held the lamp of wisdom. Among the ancient-most religions of mankind, the Vedic religion is considered the best. The Rigvedic Aryans thought of the supreme creator through creation. Nature represented the different manifestations of that creation. Therefore became the worshippers of Nature.

The mighty elements of nature were regarded by the Aryans as their Gods. All the useful elements of nature appeared in divine form in the Aryan religious thought. Dyaus or the shining sky, Prithivi or Mother Earth Indra or the God of Rain and Thunder, Varuna or the Lord of waters, Surya or the illuminator Market or the Lord of stones, Vayu pr the God of wind.

Agni or the God of Fire, and Usha, or the goddess of Dawn, were the famous divinities of the Aryan worship. Every one of them was a part of nature. While believing in several Gods and Goddesses the early Aryans developed faith in the supreme Being who was the creator of all Every other god was only his representation.

Therefore, they sang:
“They call him, Mitra, Varuna, And Agni To what is one the poets give much anime, They call it Agni, Yama, Matrisvan.” The seers and sages of Vedic India were the epitomes of wisdom. They searched for the origin and meaning of the universe and came to know the first cause of creation. “Neither death nor deathlessness existed of day and night there was yet no distinction. Alone that one breathed calmly, supported, other than it was none, nor aught above it.”

While the religious faith of the Vedic Aryans was deeply spiritual their religious practices were simple. They performed Yajnas in which they made offerings of ghee, milk, grain, and other things while singing hymns in honor of gods and goddesses. In their religious conduct, they became virtuous, kind charitable, and truthful. This was the early Vedic civilization glorified. The social political and religious conditions of the time were the brightest proofs of that great civilization.

Question 12.
Explain the inner system of Later Vedic Society?
Answer:
The greatest change that the later Vedic period saw in the Aryan society was the rise of the rigid caste system. It destroyed the values of human equality of the earlier days and created a distinction between man and man. It was natural that there should be different kinds of work in any society at any time. Generally, the people were required to perform four sets of duties. Some were bound to perform worship, prayers, and religious rites.

The second group of men had to learn the arts of warfare to fight battles against enemies or invaders. The third set of people was called upon to cultivate lands, carry on trade and commerce, and produce necessary goods for the need of tire society. The fourth group of people had to perform various social-service works from sweeping or cleaning to other works of personal needs. Any man could do any such work according to his own free choice or ability.

In course of time, these four main works led to the rise of four main castes. Those who performed religious duties formed the priestly caste known as the Brahmana those who looked to agriculture, trade, or other productive works came to be known as the Vaisya. And finally, those who performed social and menial services to the society formed the lowest caste and were called the Sudra.

The supreme tragedy of this division of labor was that the castes became hereditary. son of a Kshatriya even if learned could not be a Kshatriya. Secondly, the Brahmana and ‘the Kshatriya regarded themselves as higher classes and made a monopoly of social privileges. key looked down upon the other classes. Intermarriage among the castes stopped. Two more evils followed. First, some castes broke into several sub-castes.

For example among the Vaisya caste, several divisions rose up according to hereditary professions. Cultivators, merchants, smiths, carpenters, and artisans formed distinct castes. The studies were also divided into many sections. Secondly the Sudras, because of their mental works, came to be regarded as impure. The Upper castes needed their services in most matters but denied them many social privileges.

The non-Aryan tribes who were taken into society became members of the Sudha caste. That also was a reason for considering the Sudra as inferior. The caste system became more and more rigid. The evils of inequality became more painful to the lower castes. A time, therefore, came when Buddhism and Jainism appeared as strong movements against such evils. During the later Vedic age, women also lost their earlier status. Polygamy or marrying several wives by the man became a social vice.

The higher castes practiced this system because of their wealth child marriages also appeared. The Dowry system was practiced. Women gradually lost their right to property cause women still enjoyed their equal position with men in religious matters. They still received education and could show their talent. Celebrated women like Gargi and M’aitreyi showed their merit in the spheres of highest learning. On the whole, the later Vedic Society became the forerunner of the social systems of the future Hindus India.

Question 13.
Evaluate the religious life of the later Vedic People?
Answer:
During the later Vedic period, much of the simplicity of the Rigvedic religion was lost. The hold of the priestly class became more absolute. The priests developed complicated modes of worship. Sacrifices became more common. The rites and rituals became difficult. Superstitions entered in the name of religion. Fear of evil spirits and witches came in. Philosophical and theological speculations became more complex.

In the spirit of such developments, the later Vedic sages laid greater emphasis on the faith in the supreme being the Absolute. The concept of the param Brahma or the Paramatma dominated the man’s mind. The supreme Gods like Vishnu or Siva were paid greater devotion. The later Vedic period produced many religious doctrines to influence Indian thought forever. The doctrine of karma or results according to deeds.

Maya or illusion, Mukti or the supreme release, Jan antra or the transmigration of souls, etc. made a deep impact on the Aryan mind. The individual soul or Jiva came from the universal soul or Brahma and could go back to that origin. This was possible through the most correct ways of life and thought. Tat Twain Asi or That Thou Art was the identification of the individual Atman with the universal Atman.

The supreme goal of life was the Moksha or the liberation when the individual sous were absorbed in the universal soul. Thus, cm side there developed deep spiritual ideas in the later Vedic age which had no parallel elsewhere in the world. The deep-rooted superstitions began to dominate the mind of the common man making religious practices mostly meaningless. Amid such developments future Hinduism was beginning to take its shape.

Ramayana and Mahabharata:
Towards the dose of the Vedic age the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were composed. These two great Epics became the fountain source of Indian religious and spiritual thoughts, Balmiki was the author of the Ramayana. The Chief .characters of this Epic represented the highest ideals of worldly life. The Aryan virtues and nob RV were reflected in them.

The political social and religious conditions of that time arc known from the Ramayana. Vyasa was the author of the Mahabharata. describes every aspect of life and thought of that remarkable period. Its influence on the future is deep. Srimad Bhagavad Gita is a part of the Mahabharata. It contains the highest spiritual thoughts of everlasting value

Question 14.
Narrate the economic condition of later Vedic Aryans?
Answer:
In the later Vedic age the economic activities of the Aryans grew greatly. The population began to increase and so also did the number of Aryan settlements. New kinds of works and efforts appeared side by side. New means of livelihood were discovered and developed. The Aryans became more concerned with the progress of agriculture. In the fertile soil of the Gangetic valley, they cultivated many types of crops. They improved the modes of cultivation.

For example, for using heavy plows in fields, they even engaged as many as 24 bullocks in each plow. The Aryans learned more and more about the use of different metals. They made different types of weapons, ornaments agricultural implements, various tools for work, and other equipment. With the expansion of Aryan settlements and the rise of bigger kingdoms, roads and communication systems, began to develop.

As a result, the volume of trade and commerce increased. It is known from the Atharva Veda that there were different types of roads in those days. There were ordinary paths for walking winder roads for bullock carts, and better roads for swift-running chariots. The traders and merchants carried their goods to distant places for better communication facilities. Side by side, travel by boats in rivers became more common.

Trade relations between distant places on the river banks developed rapidly. Both by land and water routes the merchants carried on their economic activities. It was during this time that the Aryan traders ventured into the seas for external trade. This was a notable feature of the later Vedic age. It was during the later Vedic age that the Aryans improved the art of weaving to a remarkable extent.

Various types of costly and attractive dresses and clothes were made to meet the new social demands. As the people became richer, there were greater demands for gold ornaments. Goldsmiths of that time were more advanced in their profession than in earlier times. They made ornaments in new designs and in a good many numbers. The art of pottery was also developed.

The blacksmith, too, enlarged the scope of their work to meet new demands. During the later Vedic age, plenty of fertile lands were available all over the Indo-Gangetic plains. Being very hardworking, the Aryan Cultivatoks produced enough to meet the needs of society. On the whole, the later Vedic Aryans Lived an economically prosperous Life.

Question 15.
Discuss the socio-economic condition in the 6th century B.C. or at the time of sixteen Mahajanasadas?
Answer:
In the sixth century B.C., most of the people of India lived in the villages. The villages were of varying sizes. They were inhabited by a number of families. These families were very large consisting of various members from the grand-father to the grandsons including their wives and children. Agriculture particularly the cultivation of rice was the Chief occupation of the. people, other kinds of grains, sugarcane fruits, and vegetables were also cultivated.

A method of irrigation by community attempt and protection of field by community fencing came into vogue. Channels were dug at the boundary of each plot for cooperative irrigation. The village headman supervised the operation of these schemes. Arable land was absent of big estates-peasant proprietorship was the general custom. Land could be sold by the owner. But custom demanded that he should not sell his land to an outsider of the village.

There were common pasture lands for grazing cattle. The burden of taxes varied from 1/6 to 1/12 of the produce which collected through village headmen. The tax was generally paid in kind. We have no direct evidence regarding the system of taxation in the republican states. But Prof. Rhys Davids has suggested that the republics must have some system of taxation. Famine and scarcity due to floods or failure of rain were not unknown. The Buddhist records refer to famines.

Cattle rearing trade and commerce formed other occupations of the people. Partnership for trade was a common practice. Trade relation within India was wide. Trade with foreign lands by sea became fashionable also. Inland trade was carried by caravans while foreign trade was carried by ocean-going vessels. Many parts grew up along the coast for the export and import of goods. Bhrigukachchha or Bharuch, support known so para on the western coast became famous parts.

Inland cities like Taxila, Ujiaini, Champa, Rajagriha, and Ayodhaya also became great emporiums for trade. Occupations tended hereditary in the sixth century B.C. caste system began to be crystallized in this period. Though there was no iron-bound truth for the son to follow the calling of the father. There are many instances of the chance of occupation. A brahmana became a cultivator or a trader.

Again many Kshatriyas were cultivators of the soil spite of such departures there was a marked tendency towards rigidity of caste. Change of hereditary occupation was disliked inter-dining and inter-marriage between different castes were disfavoured. The barter system has ceased to exist and transactions were made with copper coins called Kar shaping weighing 140 gains.

Gold coins were rare in this period. Arts and crafts in this period were generally practiced for the needs of society. The black-smith, gold-smith, fanner, potter, etc made their articles for the people. Specialization in arts tod crafts appeared. Guides of work with elected presidents were also formed.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 4 Method of Teaching General Science Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Unit 4 Method of Teaching General Science Questions and Answers

Short Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What advantage of demonstration-cum- discussion method?
Answer:
This method is economic from the point of view of money and time. This method obeys the rule of learning by doing. It is useful When the apparatus required for practical work is costly. There the teacher can improve the apparatus and demonstrate it. Through this method, free discipline is seen. The method develops skills in handling apparatus free thinking and cooperative spirit among students.

Question 2.
Main features of the demonstration method?
Answer:
Demonstration-cum-discussion method is not a single method, It is a combination of two methods, This method involves active participation of teachers and students. It encourages a maximum amount of participation among students than other methods. Through the group, participation develops observation and scientific reasoning in students which is not possible either in lecture or the Heuristic method. Demonstration-cum-discussion method is the only method in which the interest of students is mentioned. It develops skill in scientific thinking.

Question 3.
Aids used in science teaching?
Answer:
Audio Aids:
Audio aids include the radio, tape recorder, gramophone, and speeches. Through the radio, scientific facts, news, inventions, etc.

Visual Aids:
The visual aids include samples model, pictures, graphs, etc. The samples give the real thing. Pictures, charts, diagrams and graphs and maps give clear knowledge.

Audio-visual aids:
Through T.V science films are seen. Scientific facts are known.

Magic lantern and epidiascope:
Through these arts valuable things and distance, things are seen in a real manner and in big size.

Activity Aids:
Science fairs and exhibitions are arranged with seminars, discussions, and debates. Through traveling industries. agricultural fields, radio centers, T.V centers, and mine, the children can leam better.

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What are the aims and objectives of teaching general science?
Answer:
Science has occupied a valid place in the school curriculum. Education of science which emphasized physical law and properties of matter and the application of scientific principles met in our daily life is an essential supplementary to general education. Science should be taught not with a view to making each pupil a future specialist but make him a useful citizen.

Thus, the school science course should form part of a sound general education. It should train the mind of students to reason about things he has observed and develop their power of weighing and interpreting evidence. It should also make him acquainted with the broad outlines of great scientific principles with the ways these are exemplified in familiar phenomenons and with their application to the service of man.

The objectives of science teaching may be classified into some categories. The first aim of science teaching is that students shall demonstrate a knowledge of the fundamental of science that may be brought into use in daily life. The knowledge will bring positive change in students, behavior. The second objective of science is that students should demonstrate abilities that are the by-product of knowledge.

These abilities will be exhibited in their behavior scientifically. The third most important aim of science teaching in high school is to make the students into more citizens and better equipped to improve community life. In order to achieve this aim, the course content in science should have practical applications to daily life. The fourth aim of science teaching is that the students shall demonstrate knowledge of the contributions made by our Indian scientists, in the science world.

The science teacher must stress their achievement science in class to that students must develop pride in their scientifically rich heritage. Thus, the science program should be aimed at causing the level of scientific knowledge, skill, and attitudes of the students to make them more productive in their home environment.

The other objectives of science learning are as follows:
Knowledge:
This means pupils should acquire knowledge of scientific terms and concepts, natural phenomena, modem inventions of science animal life and plant life human-machine and functioning, and so on. The knowledge is realized if the pupils recall and recognize scientific terms, facts, concepts, and symbols.

Understanding:
This means the pupils can explain and discriminate between facts, concepts, and data, illustrate specific terms, and concepts phenomena, locate errors in faulty statements, and so on.

Application:
Having realized this aim a pupil can give reasons for scientific conclusions, analyze the given data, formulate and test hypotheses, and predict new happenings and soon.

Skills:
Having realized this aim the pupils are expected to develop three types of skills.

• drawing skills
• manipulative skills
• observational and recording skills.

Interest:
It creates interest to read scientific literature, collect specimens, take scientific hobbies, visit places of scientific interest, and participate in science clubs and science fairs.

Ability:
This activity of the pupil’s ability to use scientific terminology, improvise and manipulate the scientific instruments, collect suitable data from relevant sources, interest in the given data, and so on.

Attitude:
Having developed a scientific attitude the pupils will become free from bias and prejudices and they will become honest and truthful in recording and collecting scientific data.

Appreciation:
This means the pupils will be able to realize the importance of science in human progress appreciation. The contribution made by scientists to human progress and appreciation of the history of scientific development through the ages.

Utilization of leisure:
Having developed manipulative skills the pupils will be able to engage themselves in useful leisure time activities as making things of daily use such as ink, soap, candles, cosmetics, boots Polish, etc.

Vocational opportunities:
Vocational preparation is an important aim of science education. Science will open up career opportunities in such professions engineering, medicine, agriculture, and so on.

Question 2.
Write a note on the use of lecture methods in the teaching of science in schools. Give its merits and limitations?
Answer:
The lecture method involves teaching by means of spoken word, a format talk by the teacher. The method may profitably be used at a higher level and also at a lower level and its success will depend on individual teachers. This method is also known as the storytelling or conversational method. The teacher is well prepared and will present lectures that will stimulate better learning. In the lecture method, the lecture is taken as a technique of description, explanation, and clarification. This method is useful and effective with young and college students.

Merits:
The lecture method has the following merits:
It develops the power of concentration in the students, and also their power of experience, expression, thinking, and reasoning. economical and time-saving. It keeps both the teacher as well as the students active. Through this method, it is possible to establish direct contact knowledge between the teacher and the taught. Through this method, it is possible to elucidate difficult and complicated thoughts and ideas. This method is very useful in introducing a lesson. It also threw light on the practical aspects of education.

Demerits of lecture method:
The method kills the liveliness of the class. It is the teacher who reigns supreme and the students remain passive partners. This method is not useful for the students of the lower class In this method it is the teacher who remains active and the students remain passive. This method is not psychological and scientific. The knowledge that is required through ‘this method is neither complete nor perfect nor stable.

Through this method it. is not possible to provide practical education to the students because there is little creativity or activity in this method. This method has very little scope for evaluation and examination of the students by the teacher while he is teaching them. It strikes a severe blow to the originality of the students. Their curiosity remains unsatisfied and the thirst for knowledge continues:

Question 3.
What are the main features of the demonstration cum discussion method in teaching science? What are the advantages and disadvantages?
Answer:
The main features of the demonstration and discussion method are as follows:
Demonstration-cum-discussion method is not a single method. It is a combination of two methods, more clearly a result and method resulting from the combination of discussion method as well as demonstration method. This method involves the active participation of the teacher and students at the same time which is unlikely in other methods say, the lecture method. The teacher is in active the laboratory work and heuristic methods are active and so on.

Demonstration-cum-discussion method through group participation develops keen observation power and scientific reasoning in students which is. not possible either ill the lecture method or in the Heuristic method. Demonstration-cum-discussion method ‘ of teaching science encourages a maximum amount of participation among students than other methods.

The demonstration-cum-discussion method through group participation develops keen observation power and scientific reasoning in students which is hot possible either in the lecture method or in the Heuristic method. Demonstration-cum-discussion method is the only method in which the interest of the students is measured. Through this method force, and discipline is maintained. This method develops skills in handling apparatus, free-thinking, and cooperative spirit among students.

Disadvantages:
If deconstruction-cum-discussion method is not properly used then all students get a chance to take part neither in a discussion nor in experimentation: Thus, the principle of learning by doing is not aided by the method. The student’s donor gets the direct experience of doing experiments. So their skill in apparatus handling is not properly developed. If the teacher does not take care of students to become undisciplined. through this method.

Question 4.
What do you mean by laboratory method in teaching science? How can you make use of this method? What are the merits and demerits?
Answer:
The laboratory method is one of the best methods of teaching science. In this method teaching the subject is done in a laboratory. The students are given an opportunity to carry out experiments independently. The teacher observes their activities. He asks them to write out their observations. Theoretical studies get verified through laboratory work and thus learning experiences are gained.

In the laboratory method, the student performs a particular work of the experiment. He learns to follow directions, conduct experiments are record observations to find out results. While the student performs experiments, the Demonstration-cum-discussion method develops skills in scientific thinking. These are some of the main features of demonstration-cum-discussion method.

Advantages:
This method is economic from the point of view of money and time. The method obeys the rule of learning by doing what the students do or see they learn. So this method is very much psychological. It is useful when the apparatus required for practical work is costly. There the teacher can improvise the apparatus and demonstrate it.

If the teacher wants to revise some of the principles of science subject, he can do it by demonstration-cum-discussion method. the teacher is free to help students to perform experiments. The teacher is free to help the students having difficulties in their work. The teacher acts as a friend, philosopher, and guide in laboratory work.

How to use it effectively:
Laboratory methods should be used when a class can be divided into small groups. A good laboratory method is guided by a heuristic approach; The teacher should take the help of students in showing up for laboratory demonstrations. The students should be trained in the art of observing and recording reporting. The reporting of the laboratory, work includes areas like a statement of the problem procedures used observations made and conclusions drawn, etc.

Advantages:
It is based on the principle of learning by doing. It is interesting and joyful for students. It develops skill and efficiency as the students do experiments by themselves. An activity when performed is remembered for a longer time. Team teaching can be possible with this method.

Limitations:
It is not economical. It requires resources like a laboratory, equipment, furniture, etc. which, can not be made available in each school. It requires a small teacher-pupil ratio. It has been criticized as wasteful because of students in the high school stage. Sometimes this method does not develop the heuristic talents of students.

Question 5.
What are the main features of the problem-solving method? Discuss the merits and demerits of this method?
Answer:
Problem-solving approach presupposes the existence of a problem in the teaching-learning situation. A problem is a difficulty or obstruction which has to be overcome to reach, the goal. A human child has to meet and solve problems as he grows older and older. the problem-solving method aims at presenting the knowledge to be learned in the form of a problem. It begins with a problematic situation and consists of continuous, meaningful, and well-integrated activity. The problems are set to the students in a natural way and it is ensured that the students are genuinely interested to solve them.

Main features of the problem-solving approach:
It is a research-like method lt involves scientific thinking as a process of learning the essential features are as follows Formulation and appreciation of a problem or the emergence of a problem or selection of a problem. Collection of data or information to solve the problem. Analysis of the data. Formulation of hypothesis Conclusion. Applying the idea to a new situation.

The problem:
The problem arises out of the felt needs of the students. The problem must be familiar to the students. Before setting the problem the teacher should look at the following things. The problem should be suitable to the maturity level of the students. The problem should be easily solved. The problem should be worthwhile for the reader.

Collection of data:
After formulation of a problem, the teacher should stimulate the students to collect data in a systematic manner from various sources like textbooks reference books, magazines, newspapers, and from other sources like observation, discussion, and interviews,s, etc.

Formulation of Hypothesis:
At this stage, the students should look to the following regarding the solution to the problem. Selecting important factors related to the problems. Identifying the different relationships which may exist between the factors. Analyzing, selecting, and interpreting the relevant data. Judging the significance of data.

Testing of Hypothesis :
Checking the hypothesis which recognizes authorities Division experimental procedures suitable for testing hypothesis. Organizing data. Applying the hypothesis to the problem to determine adequacy.

Analysis of evidence and drawing inferences:
Children should be taught to the scientific and reasonable in interpreting the data. It is essential to break the large area into different segments and then to consider ways and means for analysis; the analysis of data should be accurate and to the point.

Drawing Conclusions :
The conclusion should be drawn by the pupils themselves and the teacher is to see how far it is significant relating to the solution to the problem.

Analysis of the data in a new situation:
The students should be able to recognize the common and identical elements in the principle of the problem and apply them in the new life situation.

Advantages:
From the standpoint of learning principle of problem-solving is very valuable since they are the result of the cumulative and generalized experience that makes up the basis of knowledge and understanding. It is much easier for members than the facts through the method. It develops reflective thinking. So. it stimulates thinking, reasoning, and critical judgment in the students.

It develops qualities of dependence on the students as they are to face the problematic situation themselves. It is a stimulating method. It acts as a great motivating force and directs students, attention, and activity. It serves individual differences. It develops desirable study habits in the students. They get engaged in the analysis of the problem, reflective thinking, and systematic.

data gathering, verification, and critical study. It is a method of experience-based learning. Problem-solving is done by self-experience. There is the possibility of close contact between the teacher and taught. The students get valuable social experiences like patience, cooperation, self-confidence, etc.

Disadvantages :
It is a time-consuming method. The progress of students is very slow. It is difficult to organize the contents according to the needs. All topics cannot-be-taught by this method. All require adequate resources. The method does not suit the students of lower classes. They do not possess enough background for a scientific approach to problems.

Question 6.
What are the different steps of the project method in teaching science? Discuss each of the steps and state the merits and limitations of the method?
Ans:
The project method is a pupil-centered method carried out in school or outside the school. The essence of this method is to carry out a useful task on a ground in which all the students work co-operatively learning by doing and learning by the living are the two cardinal principles of this method. Children learn through association, cooperation, and activity.

The various steps of the method are as follows:

• Providing a situation
• Choosing and purposing
• Planning
• Executing
• Evaluation
• Recording

Providing a situation:
The teacher should provide such a situation to the students which may create some problems for them and in which they feel interested to work.

Choosing and purposing :
The children should be tempted to choose a project. The teacher should stimulate discussion through suggestions. The project chosen should be to the need of the pupils. The purpose of the. project be clearly defined and well understood by the pupils.

Planning:
The success of a project depends upon a good planning. The students should plan out the whole scheme under the guidance of the teacher. The teacher should prepare two to three plans in his mind and guide the students Every child should be encouraged to participate in the discussion and to make suggestions. All the students are taught to write the plan properly.

Executing:
The teacher should assign duties and distribute work among the pupils of a group to their interests and abilities. Every child should contribute actively towards the execution of the project. The teacher should guide them.

Evaluating:
The students review the project and find out the mistakes if any. self-criticism is an important training and should not be neglected. The teacher should see that the objective of the project has been achieved.

Recording :
The students should keep a complete record of work, how they planned, what discussions were held, how, duties were managed, etc. and finally criticism of their own work.

Merits of the project method:
The project method is based on the laws of learning, the law of readiness, law of exercise, and the law of effect. It promotes cooperative activity and group interaction.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 4 Method of Teaching History Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Unit 4 Method of Teaching History Questions and Answers

Short Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What advantages of the Dramatisation method?
Answer:
In the dramatization method, the students leam by doing. So their experiences are strengthened through mental and physical activity. It provides them an opportunity to acquire knowledge of historical happening through activity. It helps the students to develop their power of thinking and reasoning. It presents historical facts and events with human feelings and ideas. This method develops the art of speaking and self-confidence.

Question 2.
What advantages of the storytelling method?
Answer:
The storytelling makes the subject of history full of interest for the pupils. This method is useful for the lower classes as small children are interested in the stories. This method helps to develop the historical imagination of the students. Students are likely to imbibe good qualities of character.

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Explain the aims and objectives of teaching, history?
Answer:
The term history is derived from the Greek word “Historia” which means information or inquiry conducted into the account past conditions, occurrences, and events and the knowledge so obtained was called history. History is nothing but a continuous record of events of the past. History is the study of society as a whole in all its aspects changes and growth. History deals with the social development of man. Man’s growth from barbarism to a civilized state is the theme of history.

Aims and objectives of teaching history :
It provides knowledge about the social evaluation of man:
History is not a story of kings and queens but it is the story of a man and his development in society. The story of man’s progress from the beginning to the splendor of his present position is highly educative and satisfying.

To provide knowledge of social institutions:
It is not enough for a cultured or educated man to know the institutions by which he is surrounded and the conditions under which he lives, he must also have a knowledge of how they come to be what they are if he wants to understand them properly and to improve them in the future. In this connection, it should be made clear that our interest in the past is not for its own sake because it helps to explain the countless forms and forces of social life with the present and mold the future.

Cultivation of forward work:
The great aim in teaching history, the lack of which consists of the main defect in our .current educational practice is the cultivation of the forward look, which is encouraging the student to have a vision of the future with the idea of transforming and modifying. If you study history, you study the future, it is the welfare of our country.

To widen the mental horizon of students:
History helps to widen one’s mental horizons and develop a cosmopolitan outlook. The consciousness develops with mental development.

To develop patriotism:
History insists patriotism into the heart of the child and gives the knowledge, of the administration of his country. They become good citizens of the country.

To provide a conception of time and space:
History best reveals to the child the concept of time, space, and society and the link between the past and present. The current state of things has been produced by the events, of the past. History can serve as a compass to guide man into the future.

Intellectual development :
History is the vast state of knowledge that is accumulated through the centuries of the evolution of man. The study and the acquisition of knowledge help to bring about the intellectual development of the students. There is a controversial topic in history that leads to intellectual development.

To teach ethics and morality:
History describes vice it unmakes false virtue and exposes it. errors and prejudices It provides moral training Historical knowledge is practical knowledge History is the lamp of experience which shows a thousand examples of ethics and morality. The present curriculum is designed on ethical, moral, cultural, utilization, and intellectual grounds.

Question 2.
How History is related to other schools/subjects. Discuss, in brief?
Answer:
History is a subject that is related to almost all other subjects, In this connection history is not a subject at all but a house in which all subjects dwell. Here we will discuss the relationship of history with some other important school subjects:

History and literature:
Every branch of literature is the product of historical situations. History is the record of man’s deeds whereas literature is the product of historical situations. Literature is the record of man’s feelings, emotions, and imagination. Historical facts need languages for their expression. Many literary works provide a lot of historical facts. So history is related to literature.

History and Geography:
History, Geography, and Civics are included in social science. History stresses time whereas geography stresses space. Sometimes geography offers an explanation for people or countries that would be complete without some reference to the geographical account of that place.

History and Political Science:
Political science and history are closely related. Political science as a subject deals With the branch of historical studies which mainly gives an account of the growth and development of the administrative setup of different countries. Political science is the science of citizenship and such citizenship refers to good knowledge of history. History gives information about revolutions and political movements which helps political scientists in their study. History without the proper analysis of political events of the time is nothing but simple fiction.

History and Economics:
History describes the story of a man of different ages, which also includes the economic conditions of the people; Analysis of the growth of economic institutions is an important part of history. The history of past economic events throws an important light on the present economic policies and helps the formulation and verification of different economic laws and theories.

History and Science:
History is man’s story on earth. This includes the long chain of discoveries, explorations, and inventions that man has achieved through the ages. Science has its own history. Subjects like Anthropology include both history and science. Besides, those subjects of history is also related to music art, handy work, etc. which are taught in the class.

Question 3.
Write a note on the story-telling method in teaching history?
Answer:
Children arc wry fond of learning stories. That’s why the storytelling method has taken a special place in teaching history. Children derive pleasure in listening story and history taught in storytelling to become effective and easily understood the subject matter. It is suggested that for the age group of 8 to 10 history should mainly be carefully chosen graded series of written with attractive descriptive details.

This would arouse the interest of pupils and provide scope for imaginative understanding and enjoyment. For primary classes in teaching history, the teacher follows that method. He uses necessary aids to make teaching effective so the children feel easy to understand the subject matter and keep the man’s memory easily.

Advantages:
The storytelling method has become effective and fruitful in learning for lower-grade children. While telling the story the teacher makes movements of his body and followed them with actions. It has certain advantages. Enhancement of interest Storytelling can give life to the dead facts. It is a more effective way of bringing out all the aspects- cultural, economic, and social of this ancient society. Development of imagination Stories develops the imagination of people.

They take the pupils far away from this material world and offer ample scope for the play of their imagination. The teaching of creative faculties Stories in historical happenings and materials provide any scope for the children to utilize their creative ability in various ways. Inculcation of virtues The teacher through storytelling can include in the children virtues like pity, truthfulness, charity, etc.

Selection of stories:
The following principles should be taken into consideration for selecting stories. The story should be fully known to the teacher himself. The story should be selected to suit the mental age of the pupils. The teacher may take the stories from any source he thinks suitable, local or world history, cave life, hunting life, etc. but must take the necessary continuity into consideration.  The story should be full of action and details.

role of the teacher:
Storytelling is an art and the story teacher should know this art, the teacher should possess the ability such as historical personages when he narrates stories. He should be equipped with a rich imagination. power, accurate, varied, and wide knowledge of the past.

Question 4.
What is narration-cum-discussion method? Discuss the advantages of teaching history in the classroom?
Answer:
Narration-cum-discussion method is useful both for juniors and seniors. In this method, there is scope for both teachers and pupils for exchanges their opinions. Method, while presenting the subject matter the teachers ask for some anticipation and discussion with the students. Teachers put these questions in such a manner that their answers lead to the development of both discussion and narration methods.

When the teacher was narrating the subject matter, he takes the help of different audio-visual aids for making the teaching attractive and effective in die formation to the students about different events and trends. In order to motivate the pupils to study a new topic the teacher takes the help of narration, a technique for presenting the topic while narrating the teacher can indicate by modulating his voice through gestures and facial expressions, the exact meaning that he wants to convey to the pupils.

In order to aid the memories of children in the primary levels narration work is desirable to give through black-board summary. The children should be asked to take down the blackboard summary in the notebooks Advantages of the method. The method develops the imagination and insight of the pupils. It enables them to apply their learning in new situations. In this method, students do not become passive listeners. They take an active part in discussion and narration.

So the teaching becomes lively and effective. This method clarifies all doubts of the students. He gets a chance to discover what he did not know and what he has overlooked. Genuine potential students are judged by the teacher in this method. The method activates the learners of self-evaluation. It is also helpful in establishing an attitude of looking forward to progress and growth.

Question 5.
How the demonstration method is employed in teaching history. Explain?
Answer:
The demonstration is an important method for making the teaching of history interesting, effective, real, and lively. All children are acting and dramatic instinct young children, often do something quite spontaneously in imitation of others’ actions. By the technique, the natural tendency of the young mind is harassed from the educational end.

Thus historical dramatization is an attempt at presenting historical events with the help of the students. Hence, through role-playing, the students develop insight into the historical scene and actions. On the other hand history a subject for study offers great scope dramatization. So the history teacher should fully utilize this method for making the study of history interesting and real.

The technique of demonstration:
Demonstration of historical events can be of two kinds such as extempore dramatization and prepared dramatization.
Extempore dramatisation:
In this type of dramatization, the whole lesson may be presented in a dramatic fashion. It does not require any previous preparation fashion. It does not require any previous preparation on the part of the students no customer or stage effects are required. The presentation can be done in different ways.

The teacher himself may present the whole lesson in a dramatic style. The teacher may ask a few selected students to come to the front and act out the dialogues and monologues in a dramatic fashion. The teacher may write out home what has to be read by the students in the class.

Prepared dramatization:
In this kind of dramatization, preparation is made in advance. Students are taught to speak out dialogues and act accordingly. When the scene and action have been selected the teacher must help each with the appreciation of his part by rapidly reviewing the main points of the story.

Advantages of this method:
In the dramatization method, the students learn by doing. So their experiences are strengthened through mental and physical activity. It provides them an opportunity to acquire knowledge of historical happening through activity. It helps the students to develop their power of thinking and reasoning. It presents the historical event with human feelings and ideas.

The students find themselves involved in the activities of the past. It thus enables them to understand the persons and events in a historical perceptive. The device makes history teaching real. It makes the dead positive, interesting, and enjoyable for the students. The method helps the students to develop the art of speaking and self-confidence.

Question 6.
Discuss the project method in teaching History. Give its advantages?
Answer:
According to Kilpatrick “A project is a wholehearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment. A project is a unity of activity in which pupils are made responsible, for planning and purposing. So educational projects must be purposeful, life-oriented, and society-based activities that may be problematic and realistic.

Characteristics of project method:
Life oriented:
The project method aims at preparing students for life. It is related to day, today life and its problems. So the method is life centred.

Self-expressive:
A project seeks to bring out what is in the child and develop his innate potential. It gives an opportunity for self-expression and the school environment provides adequate scope for self-development.

Activity-based:
The project is implemented through activities, It is a method of working out the practical Solution to the problem.

Motor Activity in Nature:
A project must use manual or motor activities. The activities need skills and technical knowledge. The activities not only help in executing the project but also develop the personality of the children.

Play way Activities:
Children when engaged in physical activities get immense joy and contribute the most towards productivity. Any kind of imposed activities is uninteresting. In play way activities the monotony is removed and joy is enhanced.

Types of Educational Projects:
Produce type:
Projects when are related to production. Construction of a house, a road, a, garden or a factory, a picnic, or staging a drama are called consumer type of projects.

Problem type:
Projects which are related to a particular burning problem of the life or society are called problem types. Students take up projects to bring peace and harmony among the people.

Advantages of the project method:
Emphasis on:
Freedom The project method encourages adequate freedom essential for school life, and for the effective teaching-learning process. It gives self-direction, leading to successful learning experiences. Students develop creativity and productivity attitudes.

Learning through problem-solving:
In the project, method emphasis is given on practical life situations and their problems and students are unexposed to day, today life with adequate preparedness knowledge, interests, and attitude for learning from their experiences.

Training in citizenship:
Projects are planned and implemented dramatically. The project, method encourages students to cooperate, think, and act together for achieving common objectives. It provides them with training and democratic living sharing responsibility giving leadership, showing respect to individuals, and exercising citizens’ rights and duties properly. Such a program school may work as a kind of preliminary training for citizenship.

Psychological sound:
Organization of a project in school to the natural needs- and conditions promote learning outcomes. This is psychologically sound. The three important laws of learning the law of readiness, the law of exercise, and the law of effect are very well taken care of. In the implementation of the project, students get joy and motivation towards learning.

Social values emphasized:
The school as a society the project work develops social skills, social efficiency, and social cohesion. Through the organization of educational projects students jointly plan and execute the project and less front of each other at various phases of implementing a project.

Question 7.
Discuss the dramatization method in Teaching History?
Answer:
It is a common experience that history does not only deal with material objects but also with events, human ideas, and sentiments happening in time, which have been preserved through verbal symbols. It is impossible to transfer them into audio-visual symbols through models and even through puppets Moreover, historical happenings are not isolated events, but are sequences of happenings one having a connection with the other.

These concepts of casual sequences and movement cannot be represented by models of any kind. Hence, dramatization seems to be the most powerful audio-visual aid in history teaching. In dramatization, an individual acts as somebody had acted in the past. As a result of which the events become quite natural and lively.

In history demonstration means the reconstructing of an experience in the past that is of historical significance, It is the attempt to transcend the barrier of time and place and relieve the experience concerned. A child dramatizing a character has to feel like the character and to a degree must become the character. There is a better way at making historical experience real than through dramatization.

This is the only way of learning by doing in history. The pupils assimilate the essential facts of history by playing the different historical events in the connection. Those who do not directly participate in dramatization but witness it, also get in the way of the character. Their experience becomes almost as real to them as the action.

Kinds of dramatization:
Dramatization is of many kinds. They are as follows:
Full-length play:
It is a vivid, realistic, and full representation of the whole scheme, an idea emotion, a happening, or a situation. It takes hours in performance, and success in it requires one to come up almost to professional standards. Any way it requires detailed preparation and educational implication should be subservient to its beauty as a drama.

Class:
dramatization The teacher may undertake still more informal dramatization within the history class itself. It may not occupy the whole period and may be made to illuminate part of the lesson. To give the teacher a concrete idea of how this class dramatization could be done about half a dozen examples of each type from Indian history are given below. An attempt has been made to Include as many varieties as possible in the selection of topics for dramatization.

The pageant:
A pageant is an attempt to depict an idea or a feeling by arranging a spectacle. The appeal is solely visual, presenting a long and complicated event very effectively within a short compass forcing attention on key points.

Tableau:
Tableau is a picture like some composed of human characters against a background there may be a basic expression but no speaking.

Shadow play:
It is another technique for dramatization. In this technique, there is a thin screen between the actors and the audience.

Puppet shows:
Puppet enjoys a distinguished position as a dramatic art. There are many kinds of puppets.

Question 8.
Describe the different steps of the history lesson plan for class (VIII)?
Answer:
Like all other subjects, a history lesson plan has three steps:

• Introduction
• Presentation
• Evaluation Application

Before starting the introduction it is essential to mention general as well as specific objects, materials or instructional aids to be used and previous knowledge of pupils assumed by the teacher.

Introduction:
The teacher has to introduce the topic in the class. The introduction serves two main purposes. To enable the teacher to know the background knowledge of pupils and to arouse an interest in the children to learn the topic. A topic can be introduced in many ways. The teacher can ask, recite some, or the like to introduce a topic. At the end of the introduction step, the teacher announces the topic of the class.

Presentation:
It is the most important step in teaching history. The new knowledge is presented in the step. In the storytelling method, the teacher tells the story and asks a few thought-provoking questions in the middle of the story. In the narration method, the teacher goes on narrating appropriate points and asks some thought-provoking and anticipation questions to the students. During the narration, the teacher makes use of various teacher skills like narration, questioning, and using audiovisual aids.

using blackboard and the like Thought Provoking Questions:
Few thought-provoking or anticipatory questions are asked during narration. These questions are asked during narration. These questions are put usually when the teacher feels that pupils can anticipate the effect of a cause. These questions are generally indirect involving the insight and foresight of the pupils.

Comprehension questions:
A sufficient number of comprehensive questions are asked after the narration is over. These are small and direct questions. These questions are asked to, know the extent to which pupils comprehend the topic.

Summary Questions:
A few summary-type questions are asked at the end of the presentation step in step to draw the summary of the topic.

Evaluation:
In a third of the plan, a few objectives based objective type questions are asked to evaluate the extent to which the specific objectives of the lesson have been achieved.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 4 Teaching Learning Materials Purpose and Uses.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Unit 4 Teaching Learning Materials Purpose and Uses

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is the importance of Audio Visual aids? Explain?
Answer:
Sensory experiences form the foundation of intellectual growth. It is a common practice with teachers to communicate knowledge by means of written and oral languages. But language has some limitations which result in bearing difficulties. The modem educationist, therefore, recognizes of audio-visual aids to remove learning difficulties by ensuring concreteness and dynamic interests. The most abstract concept can be presented to the pupils in a concrete way by means of more than one aid. Some of the distinct advantages claimed for audio-visual aids are discussed below.

Audiovisual aids are the best attention compellers:
Those arouse interest and motivate the pupils to action and stimulate physical and mental activity.

Audio-visual aids give variety to the classroom atmosphere:
Variety is always attractive and attention-getting to the child. It breaks the monotony and sustains the attention of the child for a longer period.

Audio reduces verbalism:
Audio-visual aids reduce verbalism or the use of unnecessary language, words and phrases and contribute towards clearness of perception and accuracy in observation

Aids extend freedom:
Aids provide some freedom to the child. The child may freely observe, talk, laugh, question, and comment and may act in a natural manner. An atmosphere of friendliness and cooperation proves inside the classroom between the teacher and the students.

Aids provide first-hand experience:
Audio-visual aids provide first-hand experience when the students see a demonstration, handle the apparatus, perform, the activity operates a model specimen, draw a picture or diagram and manipulate the situation.

Aids being a vivid reality in the classroom:
Aids provide some naturality end reality in the classroom. The students from some images of real objects when they observe. This reduces abstractness and increases Concentrate concepts.

Aids may represent actual sources :
In many cases, actual objects may not be brought to the class for various reasons expensiveness, oversize, danger in handling or difficulty in the collection. In such a situation, the teacher may improvise some aids to represent the real object. For example, it is not possible to bring an elephant to the class, but the teacher can use a mode of the elephant past objects, and distant objects represented through improvised aids.

Aids provide an opportunity to inculcate a scientific attitude and give training in the scientific method:
Children become more sincere, industrious and systematic, they develop the powers of critical thinking, reasoning, and judgement. They develop an enquiring bent of mind through questioning and argument.

Question 2.
Discuss the different types of audio-visual aids and their functions?
Answer:
For using the senses children different aids may be used by the teacher. On the basis of the senses, the teaching aids may be broadly divided into the following three categories:

• Auditory aids
• Visual aids and
• Audiovisual aids

Auditory aids :
These aids involve the use of the auditory sense or the ear. The children by hearing various sounds can gain some experiences. Instruments used in such auditory aids are radio, tape recorder, and gramophone records.

Visual Aids:
These aids are meant to utilize the sense of vision, (eye) and therefore are called visual aids. Examples of such aids are many
(a) Charts, globes, specimens
(b) Motion pictures, slides, films
(c) Maps, diagrams, sketches, .models, pictures
(d) Flannel graphs, bulletin board
(e) Printed materials, newspapers

Audio-visual aids:
These aids involve the use of both auditory and visual senses and can be simultaneously heard and seen. Therefore, these aids are called as Audio-visual aids. These includes
(a) Sound motion pictures
(b) Television
(c) Dramatic plays

Broad classification of instructional aids:
Broadly Instructional aids can be classified into three categories, as
(a) Projected aids
(b) Non-projected aids and
(c) Activity aids

Projected Aids:
When a projected aid is used an enlarged image of the material is t projected on a screen kept at a distance from the projector. The room is either totally or partially darkened. A projected aid is bound to be more effective since a darkened room reduces destruction and the bright image on the screen secures the attention of the audience. Colour will make the aid more attractive motio^ more dynamic and motion associated with sound will be most effective.

Projected’aids are suitable for small as well as large groups. Projected materials are shown viewers by means of various projectors. A list of the projected materials is given below. Projected materials include, books, diagrams, pictures, then opaque objects, slides, motion pictures etc. and projectors like Epidia scope, slides projectors, film projectors, motion picture projectors etc.

Non-Projected Aids :
These aids cannot be projected on the wall or on the screen. Such aids individually or in groups can be shown to the students teaching. These can be too, used on the blackboard or classroom walls. All these non-projected aids generally are visual aids.

Examples of these aids are as follows :

• Graphic aids – line graphs, bar graphs, histograms, pictorial graphs
• Diagrams with symbols and labels
• Pictures with various colours, shapes and sizes.
• Maps, illustrations, flat pictures
• Posters, cartoons, sketches
• Charts, models, specimens
• Globes, improvised materials
• Display boards, flannel graphs, bulletin board

Activity aids:
Modern educations give stress on learning by doing or learning by experience. The students can get three types of experience during the teaching-learning process.

Direct Experiences:
It consists of having, immediate sensory content with the actual object or place. It is the purposeful experience that is seen handed tested, touched, felt and smelled. Such experiences give first-hand information and are thus the most educative type of experience.

Various experiences :
It refers to the experience gained through the represented or substituted materials models, pictures and specimens, photographs, exhibits and posters. It is not always possible to get direct experiences.’There are situations, objects and phenomena where a representation is better for instructional purposes. For, example, an atom cannot be seen directly but can be studied only through a model or diagram.

Symbolic experience :
Symbolic or abstract experiences are afforded through verbal symbols – oral or written. These experiences occur at the conceptual level. The verbalism is the quickest method representing an experience, at times it becomes more confusing and abstract. These sensory experiences are such effective than, verbal ones. The more will be the number of direct experiences, the more effective will be the learning of a child. Therefore, the teacher must plan activities that can provide first-hand information to, the learners.

Question 3.
Discuss the activity aids and activities that provide direct experiences to pupils in their learning?
Answer:
From activities, the sensory experiences are gainer which becomes more effective for the learning of a child. The activities that provide direct experiences are as follows.

Field trips:
The learning process should not confine to the four walls of the classrooms. The pupils should be taken away from the school to visit places of educational importance located nearby the school or in the community. They can get some first-hand information regarding the objects or places written in the book or told by the teacher.

Such field trips may be organized to enable the pupils to visit local schools, museums, hospitals, gardens, parks, radio-station, TV stations, telephone exchanges, forests, airports, factories, agricultural and industrial forms, natural spots, and places of such categories situated in the locality. Through field trips, children gather experiences of locality and community life.

Excursions:
Excursions are undertaken mostly for recreation, and pleasure learning experiences outside the local community. The pupils have some knowledge and information the visiting places and the educational information becomes first-hand. They correlate school life with the outside world. Generally, children can be taken to visit lakes, rivers, mountains, forest parks, historical towns, monuments, places of historical importance, airports, zoos, etc. scientific and industrial farms and other places.

Exhibitions:
The exhibitions arranged in schools are usually planned to communicate something interesting educative and valuable to students, parents and the public. Parents and visitors can have an idea of the talents present in the pupils. Self-activity is fostered in the children who take part in the exhibition.

Individual interests, fancies, and skills are exhibited by the participants. Exhibitions are effective models of mass communication instruction on a large scale. The exhibition must be an annual affair. All students of the school must cooperate and contribute something valuable. Students must be trained as to what features of the exhibit must be stressed while giving explanations.

School museums:
Museums are the wonderful media for mass education. These institutions collect passive original objects and specimens available in the locality. The students must be encouraged to contribute exhibits to the museum. Each exhibit kept in the museum must be properly labelled giving details about the exhibit and the names of the donor.

Nature study:
The pupils can leam many things from the nature and environment through observation. They can get a comprehensive idea of plant and animal life.

Community study:
Community resources provide educational learning situations to the pupils. Through community study, the pupils can understand the value of social life, develop citizenship and civic responsibility achieve vocational understanding and economic self-sufficiency. The child leams what is relevant to him. The school must provide a chance for children for talks to and visit postmen, policemen, political leaders, social workers, farmers, and other people, who help the community. Community study must include visits interviews, participation, field trips and journeys Resource persons may be invited to the school to deliver talk to the pupils.

Creative activities:
Creativity in children is manifested in a number of activities. By observing these activities the pupils can leam many things and can also get many direct and concrete experiences are as follows.

• Music, dancing, songs
• Dramatisation
• Arts and crafts,
• Play way. activities, like mock

parliament, and assembly, mock elections, students, self govt., school co-operatives, folk music and folktales etc.

Question 4.
What are objective-based and objective-type test items? What are the different types of objective tests in Mathematics or any subjects?
Answer:
Tests are essential features in the teaching-learning process. They are used for various purposes. The main purpose is prognosis, diagnosis and survey. Very often we talk of objective-based tests and objective tests. They are not the same. The meaning is different objective-based tests are there which are based on specific objectives. At the beginning, based on specific objectives. At the beginning of the teaching-learning process set certain objectives.

In the end, we have to assess the extent to which broken pupil behaviour patterns and test items asked to evaluate each behaviour pattern. Such test items are called objective-based tests. But, objective test items are those which elicit answers in either a word or in number. Now adays educationists put emphasis on objective test items instead of essay-type items. Various types of objective tests are used.

Alternative response type test :
It is the testing situation in which a pupil has to choose one of the two persons. The items can be answered either ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or by true or false. Such items can even be answered by putting either a tick mark or a cross mark. Example – Some of the following statements are true as some are false. Write ‘T’ against the statement and ‘F’ against false statements in the space provided for Q.

• The three angles of a triangle are 360°.
• The sum of two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side.
• The difference in the length of the two sides of a triangle is smaller than the third side.

Completion type :
In this type, items consist of a sentence or statement in which there is a blank space which is to be filled up by the pupils. Alternate responses may be supplied in the bracket among which the pupils have to choose the correct one.
Example – Fill in the blanks:

• The square root of 256 is _____.
• The sum of three angles in the triangle is equal to ______.

Matching type :
In this type of test, two-column of items are given. Each item on the first column is to be matched with the corresponding items on the sound column.
Example Match each item in column ‘A’ with its related item in column‘B’

A	B
Reflex angle	45°
Right angle	90°
Acute angle	140°
Obtuse angle	30°

Multiple choice tests :
In this type of test items with each question are given 4 to 5 possible answers among which only one is the correct answer. The pupils have to choose the correct answer. This type is considered to be the best of objective-type test items.
Example – Choice the correct answer from the four alternatives given below which of the following is correct is a right angle triangle?
(a) All angles are right angles
(b) Two angles are right angles
(c) Only one angle is a right angle
(d) No angle is right angle:

Question 5.
What are the different types of items used in classroom evaluation? What is objective-based evaluation?
Answer:
Objective-based evaluation :
The evaluation process should be based on the intended learning outcomes. The evaluation process should be organized to access the extent to which the instructed objectives are achieved through instruction. If it is found through evaluation that some objectives have not been achieved to the desirable extent.

It will be inferred that the learning experiences and activities provided and the methods of teaching adopted have not been sufficient or appropriate from this consideration evaluation becomes the basis for continuous review and revision. the entire process of education fills the desired level of efficiency is reached.

Types of test items :
A variety of evaluation tools and techniques are needs to be used for making the evaluation process effective. The most frequently used tests that have a direct relationship with classroom instruction, are the achievement tests. The teacher makes use of these tests to access the achievement of pupils in various school subjects.

A science teacher in a similar manner constructs and uses achievement tests at different times. A variety of test items can be asked by the teacher. The different types of test items can be classified in the following manner. The test items include Essay type short answer type, very short answer type and objective types.

The objective-type test questions include:

• Simple recall/fill in the gaps type.
• Alternate response type
• Multiple choice type
• Correct the error type
• Matching type
• Master lost type
• Analogy type

Essay-type tests :
The items that require a long answer are called essay-type items.
Example:
Describe the preparation, properties and uses of carbon dioxide. Explain with a suitable diagram, the cell division (mitosis, in plants and animals)

Short answer type:
The short answer type items usually require answers within a paragraph of about 50-75 words.
Example:
Write down the chemical proportion of chlorine, Distinguish between a solar eclipse and a lunar eclipse.

Very short answer type :
These items require answers within 10-20 words. State two physical properties of oxygen gas, Define buoyancy.

Objective tests :
The objective-type items require answers in a word or a number or a tick mark or the like. As has been mentioned in the classification tables are a large variety of objective-type items. Some of such items with examples are discussed below.

• Simple recall fill in the gaps type – Hydrogen is prepared in the laboratory by the reaction of _______
• A rod made of _______ and H, SO. is, used as an electrode in the dry cell.

Fill in the gap:
Type questions alternate words may also be given in the bracket.
Example: In a dynamic energy is transformed into electric energy (Kinetic, potential, chemical, light)

Alternate Response type:
In this type of item, the examine has to choose the correct answer from among the two alternative answers. The same of each type are yes / no type, right/wrong type (V/x) mark type etc.
Example:
Please write ‘R’ for the correct statement and ‘W’ for incorrect statements in the box provided for the purpose.

• Graphite is an amorphous carbon
• The chemical formula of lime is CaO

Multiple Choice type:
This type is considered one of the best types. objective test items. Usually, four or more alternate answers called distracters are given under each question. The examine has to point out the most appropriate answer from among those alternatives.
Example – Which of the following is used in the extraction of iron?

• Graphite
• Diamond
• coal
• charcoal.

Correct the Error type :
In this type, the examinee has to correct the error if any in a statement
Example – Correct the error if any in the statement without changing the underlined portion. Jupiter is the nearest planet to the sun.

Classification type :
This is also called to find the odd man out type item.
Example:
Underline the item which does not fall under the groups. Iron, copper, rubber, aluminium, zinc

Matching type :
In this type of item, there are usually two columns, one acts as a stem and the other as an alternative. The number of items in the alternatives column should be more by two / three items them of the item to avoid the chance element.
Example – Join each word of column ‘ A’ with the appropriate word of column ‘B’

Column – A	Column – B
Diamond	Ammonium chloride
Alternate Current	Dil. sulphuric acid Voltaic cell       Transformer
Edonita	Armature
Dry cell	Copper sulphate solution Non-conductor of electricity Dil. Hydrochloric acid

Analogy type :
In this type of test item, the examinee has to find out an analogous response having the same relationship as in the case of a known relationship.
Example: Fill in the blanks

• C02 : CaC03 = H2:
• Anophelis : Malaria _______ : Philaria :

Question 6.
Discuss the merits and limitations of objective-type tests?
Answer:
The merits of objective type test:
It can be scored objectively and easily. The scoring will not vary from time to time, from the examiner. In this test, examiner a more extensive and representative sampling can be obtained. This reduces the role of luck and cramming of expected questions. As a result, there is greater reliability and better content validity. It possesses an economy of time, for it takes less time to answer than the easy test, and comparatively, many test items can be presented to students.

It eliminates extraneous factors such as speed of writing, fluency of expression, literacy style good handwriting, neatness etc. It creates an incentive for pupils to build up a broad base of knowledge, skills and abilities. It measures the higher mental process of understanding, application, analysis, predictions and interpretation.

Limitation of objective type test:
Objectives like the ability to organize matter ability to present matter logically and in coherent fashions etc. cart not be evaluated. Guessing is possible. No doubt, the chances of success may be reduced by the inclusion of a large number of items. The construction of the adequate type of test items is difficult. It requires special abilities and is time-consuming. The printing cost is considerably greater than that of an essay-type test.

Question 7.
Discuss the advantages and limitations of short answer items (T/ F) items, matching tests and multiple-choice items?
Answer:
Short answer items – A short answer item is classified as a supply type/recall type objective item.
Example: Who succeeded Akabar?
Advantages:
A relatively large sample of content can be covered. It is easy to construct. It provides little opportunity for guessing. It is useful in evaluating the ability to interpret diagrams, charts and graphs. It is useful in evaluating spelling and knowledge of a foreign language. It is mathematics and science where a computational answer is required or where a formula or equation is to be written. Objectives understanding, application and problems during skill can be measured with short answer items.

Limitation:
It is less objective than the other type of objective item. It is almost impossible to write good short answer items that require a student to exhibit synthesis and interpretation so that one and only one answer will be correct. It is limited to questions that can be answered with a word, phrase, symbol or number. Its excessive use may encourage a student to memorise and develop poor study habits because short answer items are best for measuring highly specific facts like dress, names, places and vocabulary.

True / False items :
Here the student is presented with a declarative statement that is true or false.
Example:
T / F – The sun rises in the east T/F – Columbus discovered America.

Advantages of T/ F items:
They are good for young children who have poor reading habits. They can cover a large portion of the subject matter in a relatively short space and a short period of time. They provide high reliability per unit of testing time. They can be scored quickly, reliably and subjectively. They are adaptable to most content areas. They can be more easily constructed than other objective-type items.

They can be conveniently used to measure :
The ability to identify the correctness of the statement. The ability to distinguish fact from opinion and The ability to recognize the cause-and-effect relationship. It is carefully constructed they can measure the higher mental processes of understanding, application interpretation.

Limitations :
Pupils’ scores on T/F items can be unduly influenced by good or poor luck in guessing. They are more susceptible to ambiguity misinter pretation than any other selection type objective item and here therefore low reliability They lend themselves most easily to cheating.

They tend to be less discriminating Matching tests :
A matching test consists of two columns ‘A’ and ‘B Each item in column ‘A’ is to be paired with an alternative given in column ‘B Usually with the columns containing an unequal number of items.
Example:
Match the dates in column ‘B’ with the events in column ‘A’ by writing the number of items in ‘B’ in the space provided.

A	B
1. India got her independence	(i) 1525
2. Sepoy muting	(ii) 1857
3. Odisha become an independent province	(iii) 1936
4. First Battle of Panipat	(iv) 1947
5. Death of Mahatma Gandhi.	(v)1948
	(vi) 1950

Advantages of Matching Test:
Because they require relatively little reading time, many questions can be asked in a limited period of testing time. They afford an opportunity to have a large sampling of the content, which ultimately increases the reliability of the test. The matching test can be Constructed relatively easily and quickly. The matching test gives less opportunity for guessing than, T/F items or M.C. items. Like T/F or MC items they are amenable to machine scoring.

Limitations:
If sufficient care is not taken in their preparation, they may encourage serial memorization rather than association. It is sometimes difficult to get clusters of questions that are sufficiently alive so that a common set of responses can be used. They cannot be very successfully used for measuring understanding of the ability to discriminate because of the difference in finding a homogenous response.

Multiple Choice Items :
Multiple choice test items have stems in form of a statement or a question and more than one option is provided. The examinee has to point out the correct answer.
Example: Stem which of the following men invented the telephone Responses or options,
(a) Marcone,
(b) Edison,
(c) Bell,
(d) Morse

Advantages of MC items:
They can measure learning outcomes with respect to factual recall, ability to apply to understand, ability to interpret the data ability to reason, ability to exercise judgement, ability to justify methods etc. They can be scored objectively, quickly, and accurately by machines, clerks and even students themselves. The degree of difficulty of the test can be contained by changing the degree of homogeneity of the responses.

They provide valuable diagnostic information especially if all the responses are plausible and vary only in their degree of correctness. They are easier to respond to and are better liked by the students than T/F items. They can be conveniently used for numerous subject matter areas.

Limitations:
They are very difficult to construct. More skill and more time are required. They are not well adapted for measuring the ability to organize and present ideas. They require more space for items.

Question 8.
Discuss different kinds of Evaluation. Explain the need for objective-based test items with examples?
Answer:
In the evaluation of English language teaching, it is needed of the testing the objectives of language learning i.e. knowledge, skill attitude. Therefore mainly three kinds of examination such as
a) Oral,
b) practical,
c) written
a. Oral Examination:
In the oral test, the teacher make some questions and the children answer them orally.

Practical examination:
In the practical examination, the child is given some tasks to perform such as preparation of flashcards or cutting the letters from newspaper etc.

Written examination:
In written examination students are given written answers of 3 kinds such as
(a) Long answer type
(b) Short answer type
(c) Objective tests

Different types of questions:
There are three kinds of questions as there are three kinds of written examination

Long answer type or Essay type questions:
This type of question requires some descriptions etc.
Example: Write what you do in children’s day.

Short answer type questions:
this type of question requires short answers. The child answers each question within two or three sentences. ;
Example:
Write an answer within two or three sentences – who was Nehru

Objective test questions:
These questions are answered with one word or so. There are two types of questions in an objective test. Like oral and written English vocabulary is tested through objective tests.

Vocabulary tests :
Oral test:
In the oral test, the teacher assesses recording comprehension and expression.

Written test:
Objective type written test in English is designed to test the different linguistic abilities of the specimen of some questions are given below.

Comprehension type :
This type consists of a sentence or paragraph from which some words and phrases are omitted. The pupil is to fill in the blanks with suitable words or phrases. Correct use of prepositions and vocabulary can be tested with the type.

Fill in the blanks with the words from the box:
(Sighed, caught, heard, switched on, a packed up out, quietly)
Last night Mr Khanna ______ a noise. He _______ a torch from the table. lie _______ the light and saw the thief. The thief was taking Mr Khanna’s clothes
_______ and ________ hold of the man’s collar and _______ I’m going to call the police.

Multiple choice
This type consists of test items which are to be answered by choosing a correct answer from among several possible answers.
Example:
The following questions have four characters choose the appropriate one and rewrite the sentences.

Question 1.
They could scarcely believe their eyes when they saw the violets. Here word scarcely means
(a) reading
(b) not at all
(c) hardly
(d) quickly

Question 2.
It was the man who the killing
(a) has done
(b) is doing
(c) does
(d) did

Question 3.
Delicious food was served at the feast Here the best meaning of the word, delicious is
(a) sweet
(b) fragrant
(c) testy
(d) dainty

Question 4.
The little girl asked what to here ice-cream
(a) happen
(b) has happened
(c) it happened
(d) had happened

Composition Test :
The test consists of sentences to be completed with the use of the correct form of the verb indicated within the brackets. This can be reliably used to test the knowledge of the sequence of tense and other abilities.

• Mohan (seem) tired today.
• You (remember) the name of the boy who (walk) on the other side of the road.
• You (look) very thoughtful. What do you (think) about
• You (see) this box? It (contain) watches.
• He will met me when I ____ (write)

Substitution Table :
In this test parts of sentences are put in different columns of a box and the pupils are asked to make sentences by joining these parts

Mohan		His trousers	Tailored
Gopi	Had	His watch	Painted
We		Our house	Repaired
I		Him	Punished

The test can be reliably used to assess the pupil’s ability to use sentences correctly.

Matching Test:
Match words of the column – A with the words in the column – B with its,
appropriateness.

A	B
Bright	Soft
Black	light
Beautiful	wrong
Darkness	ugly
Hard	bad
Good	white

Joining the sentences :
Example: Join the sentences into one using the words in brackets. It was time for dinner, they went on talking up to time (will)

Question 9.
Discuss the instructional aids with their use in teaching general science?
Answer:
The aids are necessary for successful teaching. Science apparently provides sensuous experiences to the students known as visual aids. The instructional materials used for successful teaching are as follows.

Magic lantern:
It is a good device presenting sides useful for projecting pictures and cinema films.

Epidiascope:
It is more costly than a magic lantern through epidiascope, it is possible to project pictures in much brightness, and by diminishing light, it is also possible to project pictures and sides etc.

Cinema:
It is a very important aid for education. The aid is not available everywhere. We can make arrangements for the techniques through cinema projectors. Projectors are helpful in representing films which are shown in the techniques of cinema. This is again a technical teaching aid.

Graphs:
It is also helpful in the teaching of science. These graphs show the temperature, the pressure of the air, rainfall etc.

Maps:
Maps are also helpful in science teaching. Through these maps, it is possible to explain to the location of things of scientific importance.

Diagram:
Diagrams are very helpful in giving the correct ideas about scientific instruments and objects to students. These diagrams may be of scientific apparatus.

Television:
In the present day, world television has become an important mass media in education and also indoor cheap and best entertainment. Through TV talks and films, important scientific topics are seen and discussed.

Graphic:
This is an instrument through which recorded programmes are displayed before the students. It is not a possibility to get an important doctor or a scientist always to lecture with the class but his voice can be heard through experience.

Radio and Broad Cast task:
Radio is an important medium of education as well as a device of entertainment helpful in science programmes.

Question 10.
Discuss the use of Aids in teaching the mother tongue?
Answer:
In present-day primary schools to make teaching effective a number of teaching aids and illustrative materials are used. The trained and skilled teachers handle the aids and illustrative aids with great care. To make influential teaching uses the aids while imparting teaching aids, teaching materials are broadly classified into three parts. They are as follows :

• Audio Aids
• Visual Aids
• Audio-visual aids

Audio aids:
Which aids we can hear and learn, as known as audio-visual aids. Audio aids include a tape recorder, radio, and gramophone. Tape recorders and gramophone help in teaching language and literature. Through such instruments, talks lecture songs, speeches, discussion seminars etc. are recorded and used in the classrooms when required. This develops the skill aspect of the children.

Radio:
In modem times Radio is also used as an aid for teaching. Through Radio, programmes on different study items of school subjects are prepared and propagated. The role of Vidyalaya programmes stands important. The subject matter being discussed was dramatically understood by the children. The children can easily comprehend the subject matter.

Visual aids:
Those aids on teaching materials being seen the children get experience is known as visual aids. It is educative. Example of such visual aids is Blackboard, picture, drawing sheets, picture, films etc.

Blackboard:
In every classroom, there is a blackboard. The teacher uses the blackboard. Frequently with chalks, he exposes difficult words. Pronunciation of words, model sentences and solutions to mathematical problems. Without the blackboard, teaching cannot be effective.

Projector:
In small pieces of glass written and drawn things are reflected through the projector light. A good teacher presents the teaching points before the students. Through the projectors, small picture drawings are seen in big sizes and visible to all. It is expensive but still used in schools for a clear understanding of children.

Picture:
To give direct experience to the children the teacher prepares drawing, and pictures of historical characters, and things either handmade or collected from the market are shown to the children. It draws their attention towards learning,

Film strip:
In film strips just like a projector, the picture is drawn on the glass pieces exhibited before the student’s small pictures and drawings are seen in large sizes. It also affects the teaching-learning process a lot

Audio-visual aids :
The aids by which we can hear and see are known as Audio visual aids. This type of aid has become very popular among people students. Every primary school is supplied with a TV set to benefit the children to see different school programmes. Vidyalaya programmes like ideal teachings of different school subjects. Such programmes is having a definitely fixed table, as a result, the students are more benefited.

Utility of Audiovisual aids:
In teaching the pupils actively participate In helping in the development of the power of understanding. In the classroom sweet sound peaceful environment is set up. Learning experience develops permanently. It motivates children towards learning. It keeps teaching lively and interesting With the help of AV aids the teacher is able to present the new subject matter quickly.

Question 11.
Discuss the aids and instructional materials used in teaching history?
Answer:
While teaching History a teacher in History uses a number of aids and instructional aids and materials for the success of teaching. A number of aids are discussed below.

Models:
Models are the substitute for a thing such as a temple, mosques, forts, persons etc.
for example, Taj Mahal, while teaching Tajmahal a teacher uses a small mode! of Tajmahal which gives a clearcut Understanding of the Tajmahalat Agra

Pictures:
While teaching history the teacher uses the. pictures of historical characters. It may be the historical place, fort temple, kings, queens rivers, oceans, etc. the movement pictures of persons are seen to the students as they can easily memorise it. Likewise, stories and samples of different metals and dolls are, used in the classroom.

Radio:
For entertainment, radio has used the news of distant lands, talks, discussions, criticisms and cultural programmes are also high-lighted through radio. The historical facts, speeches and discussions are also learnt from radio. So radio is used as an aid in teaching history.

TV:
Television is also used as an audio-visual aid. It is. one of the aids used by the history teacher. It makes it easy to understand historical facts in school programmes.

Dramatisation:
If historical facts dramas are arranged by the students they will learn better suppose, the Haladighat war, and Kalinga war the discussion of historical characters gives lively knowledge to the students.

Excursions:
Sometimes the students go on an excursion along with the history teachers to places of historical importance when they will get a clear picture of it.

Films:
Historical films are now prepared. lt makes historical facts clear and understanding lively. Through films, the historical facts, are clearly understood by the students.

Timeline:
Timeline and history teaching is interrelated. To provide knowledge of the concept the time of incidents of historical facts timeline is used. It also gives the knowledge of BC and AD in which period the facts occurred. They can easily memorize it.

Question 12.
Discuss the use of teaching Aids in teaching English?
Answer:
In teaching English in the upper primary and secondary stages the teachers use so many aids to make the teaching effective and successful. The important aids in teaching English as follows:

Auditory aids:
These aids need the sense of learning and the aids are radio gramophones and tape recorders.

Visual aids:
In sense aids of sight are used. The items filling for them are class chalkboard, charts,-sketches, models, graphs, diagrams, bulletin board and flannel graph, motion picture, and film slides.

Audiovisual aids:
These aids need require the senses of hearing as well as sight. These are included in their films, television and video etc.

Activity Aids:
In these aids activity is the main function these are museum, excursion, nature study, garden, field trip, visits etc.

Graphic aids:
Photographs, and pictures flashcards, posters, charts, diagrams, graph maps etc.

Display boards:
Blackboard, planned board, bulletin board, magnetic etc.

Three-dimensional Aids:
Models, objects, specimens, puppets etc.

Projected Aids, Films, Film strips and slides:
In the modem times, radio and television are used as programmes for school subjects. The students can get a clear knowledge of the subjects studied. In English teaching field trips, excursions, fours and travelling develop the knowledge of concepts. Demonstration helps in speech development.

While teaching English the teacher uses pictures, models, graphs, charts etc. the develop their knowledge in language learning. Debates, seminars and discussions are necessary to develop language and pronunciation. So in English teaching, aids are essential to leam & a foreign language.

Question 13.
Give the main apparatus and tools used for teaching geography?
Answer:
To make the teaching of Geography effective, lively, interesting, and understandable instructional materials as well as aids, audio-visual aids are used by skilled teachers With the use of such aids the students take a keen interest in learning geography. It becomes memorable to them and remains in their memory. Such aids are used in teaching the different fields of geography. The aids used in teaching geography are as follows

A number of blackboards:
A number, of blackboards, are used for drawing outlines, sketcher pictures and graphs and developing blackboard summaries.

Study materials:
The study materials include to “government prescribed textbooks, coloured magazines globes etc. These study materials help in the study of geography.

Written materials:
Written aids like graphs, maps, etc. help in the teaching of geography,”stick aids are helpful in providing the knowledge of earth, the natural things of the world the global view.

Wall pictures:
Sharing the life of the people of different1 regions should be preferable kept hanging and be changed according to the heeds of the class. Sets of pictures showing. vegetation and cultivated products.

Visual aids:
Visual aids include globe, samples, model, pictures; maps, graphs, photographs, slide etc; helps in teaching geography. The teacher remains careful in handling these materials. The child has seen this and gets geographical knowledge and a concept of the earth.

Audio-aids:
In teaching, geography teacher uses audio aids such as radio, gramophone, jape recorder, discussion, speeches, lecturers, conversations etc. the geography special teaching are given by experts in geography through radio programmes.

Audio-visual aids:
The teacher “of geography while teaching in the class uses certain audiovisual aids for effective teaching; The concept becomes clear. Model teachings by experts are also provided to the students. The audio-visual aids that function in this respect are like TV, Films, documentary films etc. The child gets the chance to hear and to see and gets practical knowledge about the subject of geography.

Activity Aids:
The activity aids and materials that help in the study of geography includes study pictures, travelling, excursions, study tour, and visiting zoo & exhibitions, the collected and presented materials help the child to develop knowledge of geography. Thermometers, barometers, crashes etc. also provide knowledge of geography. These aids are very much essential for practical knowledge of Geography.

Projected aids:
The projected aids chart assists, the teacher to impart teaching to geography including magic lantern pictures* films, slides etc. these aids attract children towards study.

Display Aids:
The display aids include cloth, blackboard, newspaper, panel board etc. the newspapers pictures and paper cut news gives fresh news of the geography of the world.

Models:
the role of the model is important in teaching geography. The teaching shows the models of the snow house Eskimos, large van, Paradip port and each other interesting things like Konark temple, Jagannath temple etc. for clearcut knowledge.

Chart:
In the charts, the comparative data given is prepared through geometrical or arithmetical knowledge. For example, in the chart, a comparison of the length of different rivers, and oceans is given and there is a comparison chart, a chart of Odisha state. The children derive direct experiences of comparison.

Maps:
Different maps like physical, relief maps, are helpful to the teacher to teach the places of the world the geographical situations, the forests, hills, mountains mines, and rivers oceans etc. The physical knowledge of the world and the situation of the states. Continents, subcontinents are known from maps.

Globe:
Globe is a mini form of the earth. The students in this aid can derive ‘the knowledge of the geographical places, the population habitation. It also gives the knowledge of the North pole, Southpole, different places of the world etc. if develops a geographical outlook.

Question 14.
What are the general principles of teaching? Explain?
Answer:
There are some general principles which need to be followed by a teacher for successful teaching in the classroom. They are as follows:
Principles of motivation :
Motivation is the driving force behind all kinds of purposeful activities and most learning is the outcome of motivation. The learner has to be motivated to learn and to react to the stimulus whether it is an object or situation or information self-motivation is the best motivation. It is the duty of the teacher to arouse interest in the teacher before any teaching is done.

There are some natural angles in the child and sometimes the interest is also created or required. The teacher has to utilize natural urges as well as acquired interests for teaching different topics. Curiosity is another strong urge for motivation. If a child is curious to know how people in different parts of the world live it is natural on his part to read the relevant books and journals, listen to suitable radio programmes or view TV. Programmes, programmes dealing with the people of different lands.

Principle of Activity :
Learning by doing is the basic principle enunciated by Froebel who successfully implemented c. it in the kindergarten system. It is found that learning becomes more effective if the child is physically and mentally made active in the teaching-learning process. The head with the hand should work together for making learning easier and more interesting.

For example, for effective teaching about Odisha to different children, we can ask them to draw a map of the state, dramatic scenes from Odisha history and so on. All these activities must create interest as well as curiosity among children and enrich learning experiences about Odisha. Similarly, in science teaching the principle of learning by doing is very well applied and students are required to observe.

the garden, make experiments in the laboratories and the activity methods are followed by teachers not only at the primary stage but also at the higher stages of education. The project method, the problem-solving method, the Heuristic method and so on are all based on activities in and outside the classroom. Students’ participation and involvement in the teaching-learning process make their education.

more relevant and meaningful. The principles of learning by doing is not only adopted in teaching various curricular subjects but also applied in organizing co-curricular activities, the programmes like sports and games, debates and discussions drama and music fieldwork and excursion etc. emphasize such activities.

Principle Relating to life :
All educationists and psychologists insist that teaching should always be related to life and its problem. While teaching children of pre-primary and primary schools their environment home, village, community-related to learning experiences. Education has been accepted as a preparation for life, teaching should be related to life and students be prepared to face the challenge of life with success.

The educational institution should satisfy individual and social needs teaching is linked to life and the issues to be effective and useful. The education commission 1964-66 also emphasized that our education has to be related to the life needs and aspirations of the people.

Question 15.
Explain the maxims of methods of teaching?
Answer:
Various methods of teaching have been developed by educationists around the world b. through the ages for teaching students effectively.
But there are certain basic principles of teaching which are called the maxims of methodology and from the basis of the method of teaching. Adequate “knowledge of these maxims is essential for a teacher quality to perform his teaching activity with proficiency; They are as follows:

From the known to the unknown :
The most common way of teaching a lesson is to proceed from known to unknown. The pupils are taught end reminded about which they are already familiar and acquainted with them the facts and figures, which are not c. known but useful to them. They move from the familiar, concepts to the unknown and unfamiliar.

For example, to teach about warm deserts, we can draw a picture of the hot summer, with which they are acquainted. For teaching about freedom struggle, we can start with the Independence Day or Republic day celebration. Secondly, for teaching a lesson on profit and loss,- children may be reminded about their experiences in buying.

a certain thing and the Sale of goods in the local shops Thirdly in the teaching of new and difficult words in a language, the already known and familiar words with similar meanings can be recapitulated and made of it. Thus we proceed from known to unknown and from knowledge to experience.

From the simple to complex :
The topics to be taught are arranged according to the degree of complexity. In teaching a topic we divide various aspects or units of the topic according to the degree of simplicity so the teaching can be easier from the point of view of learning. The concepts which are simple to one may be complex to another so the experience of pupils is given importance while planning the teaching of a lesson. Topics are thus arranged according to the principle of proceeding from the simple to the complex.

From the concrete to the Abstract :
The abstract or vagueness of a topic poses a problem in understanding. Children find difficulty in understanding an abstract object or concept due to vagueness or lack of preciseness. For example, if we ask a pre-scholar to make a total of 2 and 3, he may find it different but if weask him to count 2 sticks after country 3 ones, then it may not be a problem.

Thus, manipulation with concrete things is easier than with abstract ones for children. In teaching a Geographical topic like Australia, the land and people, adequate use of maps, charts, models, and illustrations will be useful. Rather the use of radio and video programmes in Australia can make teaching more effective and interesting by going lively ideas and . experiences to the learner.

From the Indefinite to definite :
In the child’s mind, all concepts are indistinct, and unclear the interest and attitudes of children are also indefinite. But teaching aims at making all these ideas distinct and precise. In Indian schools, we emphasize blind memorization without understanding the meaning and implications which does not help in clarifying the concepts and removing the vagueness. We should give more emphasis on teaching concepts clearly and definitely. Teaching with the use of audio-visual aids should help on making the ideas distinct.

From the particular to the general :
Some students can easily comprehend particular of specific objects and ideas teaching should be started from the particular knowledge and proceed to give general knowledge which are comparatively vague and abstract in nature. The observing the specific objects, generalizations are drawn. In teaching various topics in arithmetic, sciences, geography and the like, this principle can be effectively applied in inducting method of teaching.

Induction followed by Deduction :
Induction is found more useful for teaching different subjects. In this method, teaching starts with particular examples then the conclusion is drawn. We accept a general principle or formula as valid which is then applied to individual or specific cases.1 This method is not proven sound and scientific for children’s learning. Both inductive and deductive methods have their advantage and can be used in teaching Suitable subjects.

For example, in teaching a new formula or a new theory the Inductive method can be used effectively. After teaching the formula of theory in the method it is easier to use the deductive method for teaching most of the exercises in arithmetic algebra and geometry and other subjects. So inductive teaching is always followed by deductive teaching.

Psychological vs logical :
The successful teacher teaches everything according to the psychological needs and conditions of pupils. But in the text-books topics are arranged logically. It is the duty of the teacher to arrange them Psychologically in the scheme of lessons as he is aware of the behaviours, needs, and interests of the students. Even in teaching a lesson a group’s teaching is to be done to their psychological needs and conditions. The remapping power is understood from the logical presentation. The teacher should apply the general principles and maxims in a psychological manner more effectively.

Question 16.
Discuss the relationship between teaching and learning. Discuss the factors affecting the teaching-learning process?
Answer:
Prior the 20th century, teaching is considered a rigid, formal and stereotyped process of transmitting knowledge, facts and figures. Education was taken as a Bipolar process in which teachers are giving and pupils are receiving end. Teachers are the source of knowledge and schools are knowledge shops. Methods of teaching are logical and routine without the psychological needs and conditions of learners, their interests, curiosity, freedom and flexibility emphasis was laid on rigid discipline blind memorization and hard reinforcement.

Verbalism was enforced and no audio-visual aids or materials were utilized in the field of education. The learner is considered an empty vessel to be filled up with knowledge and information, facts and figures. But in the 20th century, the child is considered a tender plant and a teacher as a gardener. The child is taught according to his abilities, attitude interests and aptitude.

He is helped to learn to teach nourish, and cultivate the growing child and guide his growth. Children are motivated to search experiments, gathering facts and information. Various media and materials are used for making learning more interesting and effective. Now, learning has assumed more importance than teaching.

There has been a change in the learning process. New theories of learning highlight the principles of contiguity and the importance of the environment etc. Multimedia systems and educational technology.  Now, stress is given in the principle of learning, than traditional teaching. There are three types of effectiveness in teaching such as pre-stage effectiveness, process effectiveness and product effectiveness.

The quality of learning depends on the quality of teaching. The end result of the teaching process determines the product’s effectiveness. The important teaching results in the outcome of learning. It is evaluated through achievement tests, and personality tests administrated to students. The input of teaching is results in the outcome of learning.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Learning Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 3 Learning Short Answer Questions

Short Type Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Encoding?
Answer:
According to Baron Encoding is a process through which information is converted to a form that can be entered into memory. Encoding means putting material into a form.

Question 2.
Ret rival Failure?
Answer:
One fails to recall information because of failure to retrieve information from storage due to inadequate memory loss. Retrieve information was for retrieval.

Question 3.
Chunking?
Answer:
When by using an artificial grouping technique one learns to retain information where grouping is not provided, it is called chunking. Decided his strategy by grouping refers to each trial.

Question 4.
Sensory Memory?
Answer:
It is a non-conscious memory developed by Atkinson and Shifrmn which is also called a sensory register. Sensory memory is an impression formed from the input of any of the senses.

Question 5.
Storage?
Answer:
Storage refers to a process by which the encoded information is retained in the memory. Storage retains the encoded information for some time.

Question 6.
Numerical Pegs?
Answer:
Otherwise called number and letter peg. Numerical pegs serve as a good memory aid.

Question 7.
Reminiscence?
Answer:
Ruch (1970) defines reminiscence as “a continuous increase in skill after practice ceases.” In the usual pattern of forgetting cases.

Question 8.
Forgetting?
Answer:
Forgetting has positive and negative values in life. Forgetting is a great blessing to mankind.

Question 9.
Recall Method?
Answer:
The recall was made by the famous Ebbchghaus. In recall, the previously learned material is brought to the present consciousness in their absence, it is called recall.

Question 10.
Long-term Memory?
Answer:
Long-term memory constitutes each person’s knowledge of the word and knowledge of himself. Long-term organizations help in storing the memory in the C.T.M. for a long period.

Question 11.
Semantic memory?
Answer:
It refers to abstract knowledge. It is organized knowledge about the world including the verbal world of words. The information associated with a particular time or place is contained in semantic memory. When we gorget an incident but the knowledge or importance of it is remembered it is called semantic memory. Semantic memory is a memory of meaningful information which can be stored in L.T.M.

Question 12.
Retrograde Amnesia?
Answer:
Critics argued that lack of recall need not necessarily mean forgetting. This has been experimentally demonstrated in the laboratory and observed in practice. Soldiers on the battlefield after some shock forget the incidents experienced just before the shock. Lack of recall may also be due to associative interference. In spite of this criticism, the recall method is very much in use for the measurement of memory.

Question 13.
Recognition Method?
Answer:
Recognition according to Guilford(1917) literally means ‘knowing again’. Recognition simply means to identify. Recognition is the easiest method of measuring retention. It is easier to recognize a name or face than to recall it. The process of recognition is influenced by one’s attitudes, prejudices, values, and other
inner motives.

Question 14.
Reminiscence?
Answer:
According to Stevens “As against the curve of Ebbinghaus, sometimes retention curves show a period. In the usual pattern of the forgetting curve initially, there is a stiff decline. the phenomenon of initial rise is leveled as reminiscence. such (1970) defines reminiscence as a continuous increase in skill after practice ceases. Ballard, an English School teacher first studies the problem of reminiscence.

Question 15.
The Method of LOCI?
Answer:
LOCI is the plural of the Latin word Locus which means ‘place’. Through the method of LOCI, šinoncidcs could find out in his mind’s eye the seating arrangement of guests at a banquet hail. The method of LOCI is by having mental images of the spatial position of the stimuli. The method of LOC1 requires the person to place each item to be remembered at some definite location. Several experimental results indicate the effectiveness of methods of lock, particularly for visual memory.

Question 16.
Gestalt factor of forgetting?
Answer:
Gestalt psychologists have approached the causes of forgetting from the side of perception. According to the memory traces of particular learning are molded by the observers. Perception of the whole dominates over the perception of the part. Slight irregularities are overlooked which means a certain extent of forgetting. According to Kofika and others from the Gestalt school.

Question 17.
Recall?
Answer:
Recall means Made famous through Ebbinghaus’s experiments on memory and he used the recall method. This is required to make the response that he has learned previously. In recalling, the previously learned materials are brought to the present consciousness in their absence. This is called recall. When the recall is made immediately after learning it is called immediate recall. When the recall is made after an interval it is called delayed recall.

Question 18.
Storage?
Answer:
Storage refers to a process by which the encoded information is retained in the memory. storage retains the encoded information for some time. Those memories which are associated with some other memory are more often used and better stored or retained than isolated memory having no link with any other memory. The storage therefore can be short-term or long-term depending upon the degree of learning. Rehearsal or repetition is one of the means through which the encoded materials are stored in the memory.

Question 19.
Procedural Memory?
Answer:
Otherwise known as implicit memory procedural memory. Procedural memory is used to acquire retain and employ perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills. so procedural memory deals with the how of work or how of a procedure. Then the how of the memory remains within and comes without our knowledge. it is easier to perform the task than describe how to do it.

Question 20.
Law of Readiness?
Answer:
This principle refers to the preparatory set on the part of the organism to learn. The law emphasizes the fact that one learns only when he is physically and mentally.

Question 21.
Reinforcement?
Answer:
The reinforcement schedule refers to the arrangement of the delivery of reinforcement during conditioning trials. For example, receive a salary every month.

Question 22.
Cognitive Learning?
Answer:
The process of acquiring knowledge about the environment which has an internal mental representation is called cognition. The two terms are put together to generate the term cognitive learning.

Question 23.
Foresight?
Answer:
When the solution to the problem comes at once in the first attempt without actually trying the situation it is called foresight. When a person solves a mathematical problem suddenly without using trial and method error it is a case of foresight.

Question 24.
Law of Exercise?
Answer:
reveals that the strength with which a response will be connected with a situation depends upon the number of times the response has occurred in the situation. The Law of exercise does not operate in isolation.

Question 25.
Instrumental Conditioning?
Answer:
Classical conditioning is otherwise known as instrumental. This conditioning was first investigated by B.F. Skinner.

Question 26.
Primary Reinforcement?
Answer:
The primary reinforcers satisfy our innate biological needs. The organism does not require any training to respond to primary reinforcement.

Question 27.
Feature of Insightful Learning?
Answer:
The experimental situation is very important in insightful learning. In this type of learning, the organism reacts to the whole situation, not to its component parts.

Question 28.
Classical Conditioning?
Answer:
The conditioning technique developed by Pavlov. The following experiment conducted by Pavlov on a dog is known as the classical conditioning experiment. To start with the experiment, when food was placed in the month of the dog a brought saliva. Classical conditioning experiment on the C.S.U.C.Y.

Question 29.
Trial and Error Learning?
Answer:
Animals go on hitting the target by impulse or learn out of blunder or ‘hit and miss. This is called trial and error learning. Trial and error is the simplest form of learning. American psychologist E.L. Thorndike (1874-1949) for his first scientific study of leaming. It is also interesting to note that Thorndike has many followers as well as haters and rivals. He conducted a large number of experiments on animal learning.

Question 30.
Characteristics of Insightful learning?
Answer:
Insightful learning the ‘ O ’ reacts to the whole situation and not to some details only. The ‘O’ find out the relationship between the various stimuli within the situation as a whole. The relationship that the ‘ O ’ perceives is mostly between a means and the end or goal. While learning by the insight the ‘O ’ modifies and restructures the perceptual field. The solution of insightful learning can be readily repeated.

Question 31.
Maturation?
Answer:
Maturation simply refers to growth both physical and mental. Munn opines that maturation. Maturation greatly depends upon heredity. A lot of research on maturation has been conducted on animals and some on human infants. Arnold Gesell conducted a study to examine the importance of maturation.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 History Solutions Unit 4 Objective & Short Answer Type Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 4 Objective & Short Answer Type Questions

Multiple Choose Questions With Answers

Question 1.
In which country industrial revolution was first started?
(a) France
(b) Belgium
(c) England
(d) Italy
Answer:
(c) England

Question2.
Who invented the flying shuttle?
(a) James Hargreaves
(b) New Comen
(c) Arkwright
(d) John Kay
Answer:
(d) John Kay

Question 3.
Which of the following machine was invented by James Hargreaves?
(a) Spinning Jenny
(b) Water Frame
(c) Spinning Mule
(d) CatttonGin
Answer:
(a) Spinning Jenny

Question 4.
Who was the inventor of the water frame?
(a) Samuel Crompton
(b) John Kay
(c) Arkwright
(d) Cartwright
Answer:
(c) Arkwright

Question 5.
Who invented the Steam Engine?
(a) Cartwright
(b) James Watt
(c) Arkwright
(d) Hargreaves
Answer:
(b) James Watt

Question 6.
Who was the inventor of the safety lamp?
(a) Henry Court
(b) Humphry Davy
(c) Abraham Derby
(d) Metcalf
Answer:
(b) Humphry Davy

Question 7.
When did Stephenson invent the ‘Rocket”?
(a) 1814 AD
(b) 1830 AD
(c) 1840 AD
(d) 1876 AD
Answer:
(a) 1814 AD

Question 8.
Who was the inventor of the telephone?
(a) Graham Belt
(b) Marconi
(c) Edison
(d) Morse
Answer:
(a) Graham Belt

Question 9.
When did the seven years’ war come to an end?
(a) 1752 AD
(b) 1758 AD
(c) 1760 AD
(d) 1763 AD
Answer:
(d) 1763 AD

Question 10.
Which of the following acts was passed by the British Parliament in 1764 AD?
(a) Stamp Act
(b) Sugar Act
(c) DeclaratingAct
(d) Tea Act
Answer:
(b) Sugar Act

Question 11.
When was the stamp act was introduced?
(a) 1763 AD
(b) 1765 AD
(c) 1767 AD
(d) 17773 AD
Answer:
(b) 1765 AD

Question 12.
Who was the king of England during the time of the American War of Independence?
(a) Gage
(b) George Washington
(c) Cornwallis
(d) William Hove
Answer:
(b) George Washington

Question 13.
Where did the first American Congress meet?
(a) Newyork
(b) Philadelphia
(c) Yorktown
(d) Versailles
Answer:
(b) Philadelphia

Question 14.
Who was the first Prime Minister of England during the America War of Independence?
(a) Grenville
(b) Rockingham
(c) Lord North
(d) Townshend
Answer:
(c) Lord North

Question 15.
Who was the first President of ISA?
(a) George Washington
(b) Thomas Jefferson
(c) Abraham Lincoln
(d) Benjamin Franklin
Answer:
(a) George Washington

Question 16.
When did the incident Boston Tea Party occur?
(a) 1767 AD
(b) 1770AD
(c) 1773 AD
(d) 1771 AD
Answer:
(c) 1773 AD

Question 17.
Who did draft the Declaration of Independence of America?
(a) Tom Paine
(b) Thomas Jefferson
(c) Benjamin Franklin
(d) George Washington
Answer:
(b) Thomas Jeflerson

Question 18.
Which king of France did say “I am the State”?
(a) Louis XIV
(b) Louis XV
(c) LouisXVI
(d) Louis XVII
Answer:
(a) Louis XIV

Question 19.
Which king of France did regret ‘After me the deluge?
(a) Louis XIV
(b) Louis XV
(c) LouisXVI
(d) Louis XVTI
Answer:
(b) Louis XV

Question 20.
Which king of France did say ‘ as if the universe is falling on my head”?
(a) Louis XIV
(b) Louis XV
(c) LouisXVI
(d) Louis XVD
Answer:
(c) LouisXVI

Question 21.
Gabellwas?
(a) A salt tax
(b) A road tax
(c) A religious tax
(d) A land tax
Answer:
(a) A salt tax

Question 22.
Which of the following books was written by Monetesquiev?
(a) Letter in English
(b) Social Contract
(c) The spirit of the land
(d) Commonsense
Answer:
(c) The spirit of the land

Question 23.
Which of the following words was not a call of Rousseau?
(a) Justice
(b) Liberty
(c) Equality
(d) Fraternity
Answer:
(a) Justice

Question 24.
Who was a pillar of cloud by day and fire by night?
(a) Rousseau
(b) Voltaire
(c) Holbach
(d) Fiberot
Answer:
(b) Voltaire

Question 25.
When was the prison of Bastille razed to the ground?
(a) 1788 July 14
(b) 1789 July 14
(c) 1790 July 14
(d) 1791 July 14
Answer:
(b) 1789 July 14

Question 26.
How many deputies constitute the Estates General?
(a) 1000
(b) 1100
(c) 1200
(d) 1300
Answer:
(c) 1200

Question 27.
Who did describe the French Revolution as ‘world historical’?
(a) Diderot
(b) Hegel
(c) Rousseau
(d) Voltaire
Answer:
(b) Hegel

True & False Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Industrial Revolution started first in France?
Answer:
False

Question 2.
Industrial Revolution started first in England?
Answer:
True

Question 3.
James Watt invented the Steam Engine?
Answer:
True

Question 4.
With the introduction of new agricultural equipment, there were revolutionary changes in agriculture?
Answer:
True

Question 5.
Samuel Crompton invented Water Frame?
Answer:
False

Question 6.
Samuel Crompton invented Spinning Mule?
Answer:
True

Question 7.
Did Cartwright invent Cotton Jin?
Answer:
False

Question 8.
Did Cartwright invent Powerloom?
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Whitney invented Cotton Jin?
Answer:
True

Question 10.
John Kay invented Spinning Jenny?
Answer:
False

Question 11.
John Kay invented Flying Shuttle?
Answer:
True

Question 12.
Hargreaves invented Spinning Jenny?
Answer:
True

Question 13.
Did Arkwright invent Water Frame?
Answer:
True

Question 14.
In 1607 the British set up a colony at Vi Virginia in North America?
Answer:
True

Question 15.
Major event Boston Tea Party took place due to Lord North’s tax on tea?
Answer:
True

Question 16.
Cornwallis became the Commander-in¬chief of the American war of Independence?
Answer:
False

Question 17.
George Washington became the Commander-in-chief of the American War of Independence?
Answer:
True

Question 18.
Ramsay Muir has aptly described the French Revolution of 1789 as a world revolution?
Answer:
True

Question 19.
The bourgeoise provided the leadership for French Revolution?
Answer:
True

Question 20.
Voltaire has written the book ‘ spirit of the law’?
Answer:
False

Question 21.
Montesquieu has written the book ‘ spirit of the law’?
Answer:
True

Short Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
In which country industrial revolution first began? When did it begin?
Answer:
Industrial Revolution began in England during the 2nd. half of 18th century.

Question 2.
Why industrial revolution began in England?
Answer:
It began in England because new countries were discovered and England’s colonization for trade in India and other countries open the w ay for the industrial revolution

Question 3.
Why industrial revolution is known as the ‘Machine Age”?
Answer:
It is rightly known as the machine age as new and heavy machines started to. dominate the industry.

Question 4.
Which machine revolutionalizes spinning and how?
Answer:
James Hargreaves invented the ‘spinning jenny’ which could spin 8 threads at a time. It was later improved to bring out 100 threads at the same time.

Question 5.
Who invented the spinning mule?
Answer:
Samuel Crompton invented the spinning mule to improve the quality of threads.

Question 6.
What is the result of the industrial revolution?
Answer:
The results of the industrial revolution are many some of them are:
Mechanized production increased production. New tools and machines benefitted agriculture. Mass production of goods and articles give encouragement to trade and commerce. Better transport system and urbanization. Growth of science and technology.

Question 7.
Does flow industrialization ruin the economic system?
Answer:
The industrial revolution many ways ruin the economic system. Clashes between capitalists and proletariats became inevitable. Workers and laborers lived in unhygienic conditions.

Question 8.
When did Britisher establish the first colony in America? What was its name who rules over England at that time?
Answer:
In 1607 the British set up a colony in Virginia in North America. Within a very short span of time thirteen British colonies sprang in North America. Queen Elizabeth rules over England at that time.

Question 9.
Discuss the seven-year war?
Answer:
In this European war, the English triumphed over their enemies including France. The English captured Canada from France. They want to break the chains of England. The ideals of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness moved them to revolt against England.

Question 10.
Who was the commander-in-chief of the American War of Independence?
Answer:
At York town in October 1781, British General Cornwallis surrendered to the Americans.

Question 11.
What is a revolution?
Answer:
A revolution is not an event but a process. It starts in the minds of men and releases a rush of elemental forces in them.

Question 12.
What is French Revolution to Ramsay Muir?
Answer:
Ramsay Muir has aptly described the French Revolution ofl789asa world of revolution and rightly so since it influenced mankind as a whole.

Question 13.
Who provided the leadership for French Revolution?
Answer:
The bourgeoisie or the middle class provided leadership for the revolution.

Question 14.
What Mo.ntesquicu criticized in his book ‘Spirit of Law’?
Answer:
He criticized the despotic rule of king Voltaire. He opposed the activities of the church and clergy. Rousseau’s Cale for Liberty, Equality and Fraternity provided a necessary boost for French Revolution.

Question 15.
What Louis XVI did to improve the economy?
Answer:
He appointed able financers like Target, Necker, and Calonne to put the economy in order. Common people were no longer in a position to bear the burden of taxation. French economy doldrum and the national debt went on rising.

Question 16.
What was the idea of Rousseau?
Answer:
Rousseau was an advocate of democracy and individualism. His idea is ‘a free citizen in a free state. His ideal state was a republic. philosophy breathed revolt in the name of nature against the artificial ‘social system. His ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity gave the food for future revolution. He was indeed known as the father of the French Revolution.

Question 17.
What were Voltaire’s contributions to the Revolution?
Answer:
Voltaire’s philosopher was one of the masterminds of Europe. People affectionately called him King Voltaire. He vehemently opposed the corruption of the church and called upon the french people as to “crush the infamous thing”. He was ‘a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night. The French took up his advice.

Question 18.
Who had written, “Spirit of the Law” and what was its impact upon French society?
Answer:
In 1748, Montesquieu published ‘the spirit of the law’ this work was a philosophical movement against old regions when it came published. It was in such high demand that there were 22 editions of this book in only eighteen months. It was a challenge to the monarchy of France.

Question 19.
What was the impact of the American War of Independence?
Answer:
Participation in the American war of Independence also enlightened the french mind. The American ideal of democracy with its characteristic features of separation of power and life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness appealed to the French mind.

Question 20.
How Marie Antoinette was responsible for the outbreak of the French Revolution?
Answer:
Marie Antoinette wife of Louis XVI was under the suicidal blessing of ignorance. She made luxury the prevailing everywhere. Her expenditures are larger than her income. Total palace expenses were 1789 alone were more than 20 million francs. She ruled over the mind of Louis XVI and didn’t control the expenditure leading to foreign loans and creating economic unrest.