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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part 1.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is memory? Discuss the stages of memory?
Answer:
Memory is otherwise known as the retention of materials with the passage of time. When some materials are learned they are retained in a particular area of the brain for some time. While STM is forgotten quickly LTM is remembered for a long time. The term ‘memory ’ is derived from the Latin word ‘memoria’ which means long retention or historical account.

Ebbinghaus to short made simple experiments to explain practically what the term memory is But currently with the advancement of information technology Ebbehghansion’s old concept of money has changed. Present psychologists emphasize the information-processing concept of memory which is based on computers.

Stages Of System Of Memory / Model Of Memory:
Encoding, storage, and retrieval take place in each of the three basic memory systems. The three systems of memory are also called some stages of remembering or models of memory. They are conceptual models of processing incoming information, retaining the same, and then recalling or retrieving it as necessary.

Human memory has been compared to a computer having different storage systems. Some psychologists have presented most of the theories of memory in the form of information-processing models. As to which of the information will be stored in a particular system of memory and which axe to be eliminated is controlled at the level of information processing. Similarly, the stored information may not always be retrieved or recalled.

Sensory Memory:
It is a non-conscious memory developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin which is also called a sensory register. Sensory memory is an impression formed from the input of any of the senses. lnpìit means the stimulus received from the environment. Sensory stimulus when reaches the receptor is stored in the sensory memory for a very brief period i.e. 0.25 seconds to 02 seconds in case of visual sensation and about 04 to 05 seconds in case of auditory sensation.

The storage of visual memory is about 11-16 items before it is lost. If attention is paid to this information, ¡t is sent to short-term memory or short-term storage. it is lost. Since the STM has a very limited capacity it cannot hold all information received from the environment and that too for a long period. The visual and auditory information is stored in the sensory memory in the form of an image.

Working Memory or Short-Term Memory:
The information which and attended is passed from the sensory memory to short-term memory. Working memory occurs between the sensory memory (which comes in a flash) and tire more permanent storage of Long Term Memory. Working memory has a very limited capacity and therefore, very little information is stored here. It has a short retention duration. What is stored here is lost after 15-20 seconds unless it is consciously processed.

Those materials which get conscious attention stay far beyond the 20 seconds limit. Both sensory and long-term memory are non-conscious memory. When materials from sensory memory are transferred to working or short-term memory they are processed here, thought about, and organized. Someone told you his mobile phone number, but there is no pen nearby to record it. So you try to recite it, rehearse it, repeat it till you get the pen to note it down.

Encoding and storage are done here Chunking and Rehearsal (discussed elsewhere under the Memory chapter) are two important methods used to increase the limited capacity of short-term storage so that more information from the short-term memory can be transferred to long-term memory (Also see Short Term Memory elsewhere in Memory chapter).

Long-Term Memory:
Long Term Memory (LTM) is the storehouse of all experiences, events, occurrences, and information transferred from sensory and short-term memory to long-term memory. Long-term memory constitutes each person’s knowledge of the word and knowledge of himself. Materials in long-term memory help one to solve new problems, manipulate abstract symbols, and reason.

This further helps in creativity like creating and coining new words and ideas and thinking about new Situations that one has experienced earlier. In a second exact information about something can be given such as “who is the father of modem experimental psychology? Or who established the first psychological laboratory and when etc.

The knowledge in long-term memory is stored in an orderly and organized manner and different cues help him to recall exactly what he wants to recall. Every item in the long-term memory is connected by its meaning.
Long-term memory is of two types:

• Procedural Memory (see under kinds of Memory)
• Declarative Memory

It is the method or technique to recall explicit information which involves some degree of consciousness. Remembering how to drive a car is procedural memory as driving a car requires a process, which is done as per the procedure. Similarly, recalling directions for driving to specific place requires declarative memory. Declarative memory is of two types:

• Episodic memory
• Semantic Memory (see under kind of memory)

Long-term organizations help in storing the memory in the L.T.M. for a long period, even till one dies. That is why we remember meaningful associative materials better because of their associative value. Chunking and elaborate rehearsal and other methods of improving memory help long-term memory as they organize materials for storage and make it more meaningful, (also see Long Term Memory elsewhere).

Question 2.
Define the process of memory?
Answer:
According to some modem psychologists memory process consists of:

• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval

Encoding:
According to Baron “Encoding is a process through which information is converted to a form that can be entered into memory”. Code means form. Encoding means putting material into a form that the memory system can accept, retain handle. Zimbardo holds that “encoding is the translation of incoming stimulus energy into a unique neural code that your brain can process”.

For example to retain SIH one man to keep trying in the form of South Indian Hotel or mentee Hotels”. Encoding is made possible through meaningful association which the memory system can easily handle and store. In a generalized manner, encoding refers to the signals or codes which can be transmitted through a communication channel.

The encoding requires to first selecting a stimulus from among so much information available in the environment. You have gone to the crockery exhibition. There you selected a crystal fruit bowl. You identified the distinct and intricate designs engraved on it and stored the visual image in your memory. Then you tried to connect this bowl to the one you saw in a shopping mall in the USA and wanted to buy it, but could not.

When one tries to associate a newly encoded stimulus with one already there in the memory because of its associative value. The encoding process is usually automatic and mechanical. It is so rapidly done that it occurs without the awareness of the person doing it. its encoding process relates the new experience with an old one, like relating the crystal fruit bowl you purchased in India with the one you saw in the USA last year, remembering becomes better. This process is called Elaboration.

Storage:
Storage refers to a process by which the encoded information is retained in the memory. Storage retains the encoded information for some time. Those memories which associated with some other memory are more often used and better stored or retained than isolated memory having no link with any other memory. When the encoded information fails to link with the already stored information or if they are not practiced at intervals they are lost and hence forgotten.

But when the stored materials are repeated periodically, the possibility of retaining them is greater. The storage, therefore, can be short-term or long-term depending upon the degree of learning, the need of the person, repetition, and association. In fact, immediate and short-term memory supply the code that the person uses to store materials for a longer period and later on to recall or retrieve them as and when necessary.

Rehearsal or repetition is one of the means through which the encoded materials are stored in the memory. Rehearsal may be Maintenance rehearsal or Elaborate rehearsal and these two types serve two different purposes. Maintenance rehearsal or mere mechanical repetition of information over and over again (rote memory).

it keeps information in short-term memory at least till it has served its purpose. For instance, retaining a phone number till one is able to make the call and after the call is made we may possibly forget it or we get by heart some points in the night before the examination and once the examination is over, these materials are forgotten.

Elaborate rehearsal on the other hand deals with the newly learned materials according to their meaning and association we understand the information and try to remember it for a longer period by associating it with some other material or situation. While maintenance rehearsal is processed at a superficial level elaborate rehearsal is processed at a deeper level.

Various experiences in memory of day-to-day life and also results of a study conducted by Fergus, Craik, and Endel Tulving (1975) indicate that words processed at a deeper level through elaborate rehearsal were better retained than words processed at a superficial level (rote memory). When tilings are learned elaborately and their meaning and application are properly understood, it becomes fit for effective retention storage.

Retrieval:
Retrieval is a process through which information stored in memory is located and recalled. The process of retrieval, use to recall periodically only those that are required at a particular occasion. Recall and recognition are two very popular methods through which retrieval takes place. Brown and Me Neill (1968) studied the phenomenon of retrieval in a group of students.

Question 3.
Define the kinds of memory?
Answer:
Some psychologists have tried to clarify memory into:

• Episodic memory
• Semantic memory
• Procedural memory

Episodic memory:
It stores autobiographical information and immediate memories of personal experiences such as the first day of marriage, the day you get your Ph.D., or your appointment in a long-cherished job.

Semantic memory:
It refers to abstract knowledge. It is organized knowledge about the world including the verbal world of words and how they are used. The information associated with a particular time or place is contained in semantic memory. Once you get an electric shock while attending a marriage ceremony. The marriage ceremony.

However, episodic and semantic memory cannot be separated by water-tight compartments as memories of personal experiences cannot totally segregated from organized knowledge apart from the world and the environment. As we are aware, personal experience occurs in the same environment where organized knowledge about the world is also experienced.

Hence both episodic and semantic memory in spite of their differences is very much related. According to Kimbel et al, unless we have innate knowledge about the world, all memories must start as episodic, nevertheless, the distinction does provide a useful way of dealing certain important phenomena in the study of memory. The successful recall of the factual information learned in General Psychology involves episodic memory as the information has been stored according to contexts, events, or personal symbolism.

The context in which an item was stored in memory as well as the item itself are important for episodic memory. Findings show that the item can be recalled only in the context in which it was coded. You were introduced to someone at a marriage party. Subsequently, if you want to recall her name or retrieve your introduction to her you have to remember the context i.e.

the marriage party In semantic memory, the basic meanings of words and concepts without reference to their time and place are stored. While semantic memory is an encyclopedia, episodic memory is autobiographical. Facts about grammar, music, composition, scientific principles, the things one knows and the lesson he learns are stored in semantic memory. Kimbel views that semantic memory can have considerable control over how one’s episodic experiences are perceived; interpreted and stored.

A study conducted by Loftus Palmer (1974) on students indicates that semantic memory has a strong influence on episodic memory. Various studies that test memory immediately as well as afterward show how information is represented there. They also show that with passage of time the representation becomes less sensory and literal and more semantic and meaningful.

This also suggests the difference between episodic memory and semantic memory. As indicated earlier, episodic memory stores, the events of personal experience and experiences of other persons while semantic memory stores knowledge. In short, remembering a list calls upon episodic memory while the organizing structure is provided by knowledge in semantic memory.

While semantic memory lasts longer in memory, episodic memory lasts for a short period. It is more susceptible to forgetting. Older people have less episodic memory but have very good semantic memory information or incident which has more episodic than semantic value would be stored in Episodic Memory but the knowledge part of it will be stored in Semantic Memory.

Procedural Memory:
Otherwise known as implicit memory procedural memory is the knowledge of how to perform work It is the way of remembering how things are done. Procedural memory is used to acquire, retain and employ perceptual, cognitive and motor skills (Anderson, 1982, Tulving 1985) like bicycle riding, typing, or wearing a dress, without thinking consciously these are done mechanically.

It is easier to perform the task than describe how to do it. In simple terms, it is a memory of the procedure, say how a task is performed or how a grant is utilized. So procedural memory deals with the how of work or how of a procedure. Sometimes, we get at the correct solution of a mathematical.

Question 4.
Define memory failure?
Answer:
Memory Failure or forgetting takes place due to encoding failure, storage failure, and retrieval failure. Failure to remember, memory failure, or failure to develop new memory leads to tremendous inconvenience. As per estimation, the average human mind can store 100 trillion bits of information. we experience many forgetting in our day-to-day life. Sometimes, we recognize an old face but cannot recall his name.

Encoding Failure:
Encoding failure is an important cause of forgetting. As discussed earlier, the process by which information is put in the store of memory or accepted by it refers to encoding. But when there is a failure in the encoding procedure one may not be able to store information hence most forget. When one gets meaningless information that does not have associative value the Nonsense Syllables or consonant combinations or one fails to associate and organize them encoding failure takes place. That is why in rote learning forgetting takes place very quickly.

Storage Failure:
It is another major cause of forgetting. After encoding, information that is attended is stored in the Short Term Store (STS) for a brief period. Others are ignored or lost and so do not go for storage. The short-term store has, however, a limited capacity, and if information’s transmitted to .it for storage purposes some of this information which is not kept but pushed out from the short-term store is forgotten.

Similarly, the information kept in short-term stores which are not rehearsed or repeated they are also lost or decayed and so does not go to the long-term store. If the information is lost due to encoding failure or storage failure, it will not reach the long-term store. This type of forgetting is said to be due to storage failure.

Retrieval Failure:
To inadequate memory. One may, however, succeed to retrieve information from long-term stoic only if appropriate retrieval cues are present and if the information is distinguished from other information. Experience shows that when there is recall failure if some cue or clue is given immediate recall becomes possible. Suppose you are not able to recall the name of a bank you visited only once some days back. When you are told about the location-or color of the building where the bank is located, you immediately remember the name.

As a year old boy was admitted to a new school in Prep Class, on the first day he was taken to his class by the attendant. On the second day, he went alone and entered another class. Then immediately he came out of the class realizing that it is not his class since he did not find there the pictures hanging on the walls of Prep Class. He then proceeded further and entered the class.

Question 5.
Define the forgetting curve and its characteristics?
Ans:
Retention Curve / Forgetting Curve:
The course of retention which is represented by a curve is called the retention curve. It is a graphic representation of the process of retention or forgetting. The measures of retention or forgetting is plotted in the vertical axis ‘O’ ‘Y’ and the amount of time (in days or hours) is shown on the horizontal axis. If the amount Of retention is plotted, the curve will be a descending one.

If the amount of forgetting is plotted, the curve will be an ascending one. Most curves of retention for nonsense syllables measured by relearning and saving methods commonly agree in showing a negatively accelerated form. Different experimental conditions also indicate that not only the form of the curve, but the percentage of saving also varies with variation in material.

In fact, the retention curve for meaningful material may run at a different height from those of nonsense syllables. But, by and large, different retention curves have more or less similar characteristics. Though time has a direct effect on retention, the rate of forgetting is not directly proportional to the time elapsed. For instance, if half the material learned is forgotten during the first 24 hours, it does necessarily mean that during another period of 24 hours the entire learned material would be forgotten.

Ebbinghaus (1885) conducted an experiment to determine the rate of forgetting with the passage of time. The S learned a list of nonsense syllables. Retention was measured after the 1 st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th day by the relearning method. The results were plotted in a curve. This curve showed that at first forgetting is rapid and as time lapses the rate of forgetting becomes slower and slower.

Within the first 24 hours, about 65 percent of the material was forgotten. Gradually the rate of forgetting became slow. As time passed, a very small amount of the material was forgotten. At the end of the 6th day, the loss was only about 75 percent. This curve by Ebbinghaus was also accepted by later psychologists. It is a typical curve of retention or forgetting. Looking at this curve we can find out the general characteristics of the curve of forgetting.

Characteristics Of the Curve Of Forgetting:
There is a stiff fall at the beginning of reproduction. At first, forgetting is rapid but as time lapses, the rate of forgetting becomes slower and slower. There is a gradual flattening of the curve, i.e. the rate of forgetting becomes slow. It is not as speedy as it was in the initial stage. There is almost no loss in the amount of material after a good deal of interval.

This quantitative study of memory presented in the curve of retention or forgetting is the most important contribution of Ebbinghaus and later psychologists could not disregard it. Retention curves, by and large, suggest that forgetting is never complete. The curve always levels up at some low value above zero. Observation of cases over a number of decades shows that forgetting anything cannot be cent percent.

The following is a curve showing retention from different types of materials over a period of months. This curve shows that forgetting is most rapid for nonsense syllables and next for prose and minimum for poetry. But the basic law that the rate of forgetting is rapid in the beginning and then slows down with the passage of time holds good for all types of materials.

Williams from the records of adults who studied 30 nonsense syllables for 5 minutes recalled them immediately and after an interval, he plotted it into a curve and found it running at a relatively high level of retention. The curve obtained from memory for substance plotted by Dietze and Jones (1931) and the study by Briggs, Red, Stroud, etc. both concludes that a negatively accelerated retention curve is most commonly used.

(Curve showing retention for different types of materials). Various studies show that the rate of forgetting is slower with meaningful materials. Perceptual motor skills appear to be retained quite well in comparison to verbal skills.

Question 6.
Define the measurement of memory?
Answer:
Measurement of Memory Recall Method
Recall was made famous through Ebbinghaus’s experiments on memory and he used the recall method for studying, remembering, and forgetting. The ‘ S ’ is required to make the response that he has learned previously. In recall, the previously learned materials are brought to the present consciousness in their absence. This is called the free recall method. For instance, when a student is answering a question in the examination hall, he is exactly using this procedure.

In laboratory experiments, a list of items, say 15 to 20 is presented to the ‘ S ’ through the memory drum, one after another. After exposure, he is asked to recall the list. The list is produced again and again until one perfect reproduction which suggests 100 percent learning. Now after an interval of 30 minutes, the S is asked to reproduce the already learned items. The amount reproduced is his amount of retention by the recall method. This is also known as the method of reproduction. The items which the ‘ S ’ fails to recall, suggest forgetting materials.

The recall is of two types:

• Immediate recall,
• Delayed Recall

When the recall is made immediately after learning, it is called immediate recall. When the recall is made after an interval, it is called delayed recall. Four objections were raised against Ebbinghaus’s recall method.

Retrograde Amnesia:
Critics argued that lack of recall need not necessarily mean forgetting. Due to emotional disturbances like fear, anxiety, and sudden shock sometimes one fails to recall the material learned. This has been experimentally demonstrated in the laboratory and observed in practical life. Soldiers on the battlefield after some shock forget the incidents experienced just before the shock. Similarly, a person reproduces everything but forgets when he faces the interview board. It is to some extent a case of forgetting due to emotional blocking.

Lack of recall may also be due to associative interference, friability to recall in many cases is due to repression which need not necessarily suggest forgetting. If there is no will to recall, recall, also may not be possible. The concept of reminiscence is also said to be a defect of the recall method. In spite of these criticisms, the recall method is very much in use for the measurement of memory. It is nevertheless a difficult method to measure retention in comparison to other methods.

Recognition Method:
Recognition according to Guilford (1917) literally means ‘knowing again. When one recognizes an object or stimulus he behaves as if he has experienced it before. Recognition simply means to identify. Recognition is the easiest method of measuring retention. It is easier recognize a name or face than to recall it. Similarly, you may not be able to recall the lines of a well-known song, but you can recognize it instantly.

According to Guilford (1917), “the essential difference between recall and recognition is that in the first case the stimulus is not there for one’s identification while it is there in the second case.” It has been found that maximum retention is possible with this method. Recognition scores are usually quantitatively more than recall scores keeping all other factors constant.

This has been substantiated by field and laboratory investigations. In a study on the recognition method, Bahrick and his associates found that people who graduated almost 50 years back/were able to recognize 75 % of the names and photographs of their classmates accurately. During the same period recall of names declined to under 20 percent.

The present author met recently one of her school-mates studying with her, in the year 1948. She could readily recognize her face but could not recall her name. Recognition is easier than recall because in recognition the object is present and mixed with some other new materials. The ‘S’ has only to select the learned materials while in the recall method the materials are absent and they have to be reproduced from memory. Thus, the sensitivity is greater in the case of the recognition method to measure memory.

Experimental studies indicate that the number of words that one can recognize in reading is much greater than the number. One could sit down and write out, even if given plenty of time. In the recognition method, the ‘S’ is presented with a list of 20 nonsense syllables or Trigrams (nonsense combinations of consonants like QSZ, even) to learn up to a perfect reproduction.

After an interval of one hour, this list is mixed randomly with a new list of another 40 nonsense syllables or trigrams. The ‘ S ’ has to identify the earlier learned materials from the new list. Say, he could identify 15 correctly and 4 wrongly, out of the 20 items. His actual retention score would not be 15 but Jess than that as would be penalized for the wrong identifications.

Clearing or Saving Method:
The relearning or the saving method was originally introduced by Ebbinghaus as a method of measuring retention. In the relearning method, the ‘S’ is given a list of materials to learn up to one perfect reproduction (cent percent learning). After 30 minutes retention interval, he is asked to recall the list. If he recalls the entire list correctly, there is no need for relearning trials and the percentage of relearning hence is zero.

On the other hand, if he is unable to recall some items, the list is again exposed to him until he recalls all the items correctly. The trials required for perfect learning at this stage are called relearning trials. The amount of savings refers to the difference between the original learning trial and relearning trials. The percentage of savings is found by the following formula:

\(\frac{\mathrm{OL}-\mathrm{RL}}{\mathrm{OL}}\)x100

When OL means original learning trials and RL means Relearning trials. For instance, when tire ‘ S ’ has taken six trials for original learning and two trials for releasing, his saving score would be \(\frac{6-2}{6}\) x 100 = 66.67%. The 66.67 percentage saving, in this case, itself the evidence that S remembers a certain percentage of the items learned even after the time gap or retention interval.

Question 7.
Define error in recognition and discuss the cause of forgetting?
Answer:
Errors in Recognition:
Only the other day while the author was attending a dinner party, one lady observed her for a few seconds and said hesitantly. “You are Jayanthi, are not you? When I said, “No I am not, “she immediately felt embarrassed and said, “Oh, sony”. “But you very much look like her.” On another occasion, one of this author’s old students failed to recognize her when they met in a film show.

When she gave her identity, the student was very embarrassed and said, “Oh, you have grown so thin that I was unable to recognize you.” Such mistaken identities are experienced daily. Usually, two kinds of errors of recognition are noticed Failing to recognize the familiar, and False recognition of the new and unfamiliar. The above two incidents represented examples of these two types of errors in recognition. We fail to recognize familiar objects or stimuli when it undergoes changes seen under changed circumstances.

When we do not expect to meet somebody at a particular party or place we may not recognize him, particularly from a distance. Secondly, we accept a new stimulus as the old stimulus when there is a lot of similarity between the two. The greater the amount of resemblance, the larger the chance for the error to be committed. Lunel conducted an experiment where he took three lists of materials.

The words of list ‘B’ are the same as list ‘A’ with one letter changed. In list ‘C’ two letters of list Aare changed and hence are debarred from appearing in the examination. other problems pose-great botheration for us. Failure to recall the learned items in the examination or in an interview leads to failure or loss of a job respectively.

The question, therefore, is what one should forget and what one should not Those skills, knowledge, and memory traces that are essential for existence, for adjustment with life, and for achieving different goals, should be remembered while the unnecessary, unpleasant, painful and miserable experiences should be forgotten. Forgetting refers to the negative aspect or opposite of remembering.

According to Underwood (1968) “retention and forgetting are thus reciprocal terms for the quantitative aspect of memory, with retention indication the amount remembered under specified conditions and forgetting the amount not remembered under same conditions.

Causes Of Forgetting:
The basic question that everybody asks is “why do we forget?” There are several factors responsible for forgetting which are discussed below: Factors operating at the time of leasing Some of the factors have been discussed in detail under conditions of efficient memorizing. Precisely, the strength of original learning, nature of the material, method of learning, speed of learning, etc. are the factors operating at the time of learning.

Strength of Original Learning:
It has been found experimentally that when the original learning is weaker, the neural traces formed in the brain are fainter and hence are properly retained. But the amount of retention cannot increase indefinitely as a function of the degree of overlearning. A point diminishing return is to be reached. However, over-learning is ways preferable to under-learning.

Nature of Material:
From various studies discussed earlier in this text, it is found that meaningful and rhythmic material, decreases rate of forgetting. Ebbinghaus found that any material with an associative value decreases forgetting. Even when one is learning meaningless material like tri grams or nonsense syllables, he may try to relate some meaning or association to these, for quick remembering.

For example, the trigram JNF may stand for John F Kenedy or Sih may stand for South Indian Hotel. If this is done remembering becomes economical. when one is studying meaningful material, like a poem passage he may try to find out the relationship between different parts of the material.

This type of learning is emphasized by the Gestalts Materials which belong to each other and are easily learned. When one is memorizing 3 passages a poem and 3 passages of different poems, the former is quickly remembered because the different passages are parts of a general whole and they belong to each other. Many laboratory findings and day-to-day life.

Question 8.
Discuss the improvement of memory?
Answer:
Improvement of Memory:
Memory can be improved by efficient learning. Only memorizing the material does not mean improvement of memory. In one study one group tried to improve their memory repeating a material over and over again, while another group tried to improve by following the principles of efficient learning. The second group showed improvement in memory compared to the first group.

Ebert and Neumann (1905) following better techniques and principles to learn and remember a material found improvement in memory. For example, farfetched associations were avoided, and groupings of the material were made on a rhythm basis. Worry, strain, and useless muscular tensions were eliminated. The conditions of the lab were made familiar for the better adoption of the subjects.

The effect of transfer was used as far as possible and its effect on the improvement of memory was also demonstrated. Reed (1917) conducted the same, experiment taking two groups but found a very small improvement in memory due to the effect of transfer. But it was difficult to get a matched control group. Sleight conducted the same experiment with certain modifications like keeping a controlled group that was perfectly matched but found very little effect of transfer.

Any effect of transfer found was due to rhythm. On the contrary, in another experiment of the same kind, taking adult subjects Sleight found significant transfer, but negative in nature. While learning different kinds of materials, different techniques are better memorization Of course, some techniques may be used in general because of the effect of transfer. Woodrow (1927) did an experiment taking 3 groups of subjects to demonstrate this fact.

Controlled Group:
Did only the forests and after tests.

Unistructcd Practice Group:
For a total of 3 hours without any intervening practice did specific memorization of poems and nonsense syllables, and no specific technique was instructed for the use of nonsense syllables.

Instructed Group:
This group used proper techniques of memorization being specifically instructed. So in the first group, there is no intervening practice which is found in the second and third tests.

Result:
In the after-test, the practice was nearly equal to the control group, but the instructed group (the third group) did definitely better compared to the first two groups. Thus, Woodrow concluded, “In short, the experiment shows that in a case where one kind of training, undirected drill produces an amount of transference which are sometimes positive and sometimes negative; but always small,-another kind of training with the same drill material may result in a transference the effect of which are uniformly large and positive.

The following specific methods of memorizing were given to the third group:

• Learning by wholes.
• Use of active self-testing.
• Use of grouping and rhythm.
• Attention to meaning and use of images.
• Mental alertness and concentration.
• Confidence in one’s ability to memorize.
• In certain cases as in learning nonsense syllables, the use of a second association was made.

The following are some of the techniques of efficient learning which are improvement in memory. The intention or motivation to learn sometimes our memory is poor because we have no intention or desire to learn and remember the topic. Intentional or incidental learning improves memory. Giving close attention to the material to be learned improves memory of that material.

Understanding leads to little forgetting and more storage, more long-term memory. Images should be used as much as possible visual and auditory images to more remembering. a theoretical background along with visual, and auditory images improve remembering. Visual educations, cinemas and excursions, and study tours are therefore more helpful than mere lecturing only.

To improve memory one should always make attempts to associate things with another so that when one thinks of one the other easily comes to your memory. Just for this reason, meaningful words are better remembered these meaningless words. In addition to the above methods of improving memory, some further methods have been developed by psychologists engaged in tire research of memory improvement.

Organization of materials is extremely important to improve memory. The term “Mnemonics” is derived from the Greek word which means to “Remember”. Mnemonics are short, verbal devices that encode long series of facts by associating them with familiar and previously encoded information recent past. If materials lack natural organization, artificial organizations are necessary to be used by the learner for better memory. The old organization already present in the memory system is utilized for organizing unfamiliar and new sets of materials. The following Mnemonic devices are also used to improve memory.

Question 9.
Discuss in detail Mnemonic devices used to improve memory?
Answer:
Methods of LOCI:
At a banquet hall, the seating arrangements provided a spatial structure wherein he could remember the guests sitting around the long banquet table. The spatial position or place of a situation can be used to remember the name of the guests and other items. In the instant case, Simonides could be able to perfectly recall all the guests present at the banquet by remembering the seating position of the guests.

By putting images of items to be remembered at various places can be an effective method of improving memory and remembering things. By the method of LOCI by having mental images of the spatial position of the stimuli one can remember information perfectly. In our day-to-day life if we try to remember things, objects, and stimuli linking them to their spatial positions or locations.

our memory for this information can be easily strengthened. Thus, according to Kimbel. “The method of LOCI requires (the person to place each item to be remembered at some definite location on one’s mental tour and to form a vivid, image of the item in its spot.” Bower (1972) has recommended developing bizarre or unusual associations like keeping some eggs on the bed instead of the kitchen or keeping an attached in the kitchen instead of the box or bedroom.

Several experimental results indicate the effectiveness Of the method of LOCI particularly for visual memory. In .a study by Ross and Lawrence (1968), a group of students was presented with a list of 40 items to be associated with 40 locations present on their campus like a letter box, a Banyan tree, a bank near the NCC office, and each subject was given 13 seconds to form each association.

An immediate recall test showed that the average person remembered 38 to 40 items. However, after a day the recall score came down to 34 on average. This suggests that for many subjects recall was 100 percent. Kimbel holds that such excellent recall depends on the previously mastered or familiar organizations, (b) taking fairly a long time to deal with each item, and making effective use of imagery. By choosing a familiar organization the SS are free from the burden of making a new organizational structure which takes a lot of time and energy.

Numerical Pegs:
Otherwise called Number and Letter Peg. Numerical pegs serve as a good memory aid. By teaching children to remember numbers through pictures that resemble the shapes of the numbers (like a stick for one), memory is improved. In numerical pegs, each number of a series is presented with its pictures in order to make it easy for the association. The following example will explain the concept of numbers and letter pegs.

If through such associations one tries to remember information, it becomes easy to retain. Like the method of LOCI here also as each item is presented to remember, the closer forms an image that is in association with the corresponding stimulus in the service. It has been observed that when learning is imparted with the method of numerical pegs or number and letter pegs human beings normally remember one item with one presentation only.

Those who find difficulty in retaining information can use the method as a memory aid. I taught my two-and-a-half-year-old grandson to leam the names of seven days in a week in a serial order like Sunday, Monday, etc. He failed to retain serially. But when I bought seven toothbrushes for him in seven colors and gave him one colored brush on a particular day, as I gave him a Red one on Sunday, a Blue one on Monday, a Yellow one on Tuesday, and so on, he could retain very quickly the names of seven days in a serial order associating the days with respective colors of the brushes.

Chunking:
When by using artificial grouping technique one learns to retain information where grouping is not provided, it’s called chunking. Particularly to remember long materials or long digits use of chunking is essential. The span of immediate memory is normally seven items, etc. between 5-9 items. But as experience shows we also remember longer items than the above in our life without much difficulty.

This is possible because of groupings. A five-year child remembers the mobile numbers of his mama, pappa, aunt and grandfather, and uncle, etc. along with their area code. This is an extraordinary case since the age of the child is only 5 years. But adults normally can remember mobile numbers along with their area code. This is possible by the chunking method.

The numbers are divided into small groups and remembered for example 0671-2615 308 can be remembered easily if it is divided into 3 groups – 0671 – 2615 – 308. Where grouping is not provided, one has to make the grouping himself to remember the long materials easily. Kimbel et al. have reported the case of a person who by means of some additional techniques could improve his memory span by up to 17 numbers in just 05 trials.

When initially tested his memory span was 09 digits. He was then asked to increase his memory span. He increased it up to 17 digits by the following techniques devised by him Strict attention was paid to the number of digits to be expected in each trial. Grouped the digits in sets of 3 and five depending on their number. Decided on his strategy by grouping before each trial.

Made verbal association to each group of numbers, weights, dates, or anything that came to Iris’s mind. Even made associations between groupings when he could. A group of college students increased their span of immediate memory from (9 to 12) digits in 11 trials of practice by following the above strategies.

Narrative Stories:
It is another Mnemonic method of improving memory of information received from the environment. If the items that are to be retained are presented to the person in story form it is retained for a longer period. Natural observation in day-to-day life and experimental findings prove this point. We generally teach children various values, ideologies, morals even different educational materials through stories.

Children, it is found, retain these materials for a long time when taught through the narration of stories. In an experiment two groups of subjects were taken, one control group and the second experimental group. While the SS of the experimental group was given to leam and remember 12 different lists of simple words in a story.

the SS of the control group were asked to study each word for the same amount of time that the SS of the experimental group took to make up stories. Immediate recall tests of both groups indicated that there was no difference between the two groups in the recall of each list.

Question 10.
What is Reminiscence? Discuss the factors influencing reminiscence?
Answer:
According to Stevens, “As against the curve of Ebbinghaus, sometimes retention curves show a period of increased retention immediately after the practice is stopped. This phenomenon of initial rise is leveled as Reminiscence’ Ruch (1940) defines reminiscence as “ a continuous increase in skill after practice ceases.” In the usual pattern of the forgetting curve initially, there is a stiff decline. There should thus be a progressive decrement in the curve of forgetting.

In the third recalled words would have been less than 7 according to the usual characteristics of the forgetting curve.

Factor influence Reminiscence:
The degree of reminiscence depends upon so many factors. Some of the important factors are discussed below.

Rehearsal:
In the retention interval which is the interval between test-retest situations, if there is scope for rehearsal of the original learning, there may be reminiscence.

Meaningfulness of the Material:
Martin (1940) has found greater reminiscence within meaningful material than with nonsense material. Nonsense syllables, trigrams,s, and erection are difficult to remember and hence show less reminiscence.

Degree of Learning:
Particularly mean of motor learning reminiscence is observed when practicing increases of course up to a certain point.

Positive Transfer:
English, well-born and et al have found that the students of psychology curve given materials of psychology to learn.

Reproductive Interference:
According to Leavitt and Schlosberg (1977) absence of interference during the interval between test-retest situations.

Set:
the difference in instruction and practice may affect recall tests.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 History Solutions Unit 1 Sources of Indian History Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class History Unit 1 Sources of Indian History Short Answer Questions

Short Type Questions with Answers

Question 1.
From which Greek world History has come and what is its meaning?
Answer:
From the Greek word Historia the history word has. come. The meaning of it is investigation, discovery, and experiment.

Question 2.
Who is regarded as the father of history and he had tried to write which type of history?
Answer:
Herodotus is regarded as the father of history. He had tried his best to write history on truth matters yet sometimes be based on the facts of legend.

Question 3.
In ancient India how many important religions were promulgated and what are they?
Answer:
In ancient India, three important religions of the world were promulgated. They are Brahmanical Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism.

Question 4.
The eminent ancient personalities of ancient gave the name of the land as what and their inhabitants were called as what?
Answer:
The eminent ancient personalities gave the name of the land “Bharat Varsha” and the inhabitants were called “Bharat sanitation”.

Question 5.
The ancient Persians according to the name of which river gave the name India hind and in further times in which name it was popular?
Answer:
The ancient Persians gave the name of this Hind according to the Sindhu river. In further times this country became popular as India.

Question 6.
Historian Thusidydes belongs to which country and he prefers to write which type?
Answer:
Thucydides belongs to the country of Greece. He prefers to write scientific history.

Question 7.
What is regarded as an archaeological source and which compound secured place within it?
Answer:
Archaeology is the science to know about the past. Inscriptions and ancient writing on various things are the main sources of it.

Question 8.
Outside India from which source it is known regarding this country and what are the discovered sources?
Answer:
Outside India, we came to know some inscriptions which give information about this country. They are discovered the source of the Beghaj Kay inscription and the inscription discovered in Behistan of Persia.

Question 9.
Which monarch had told in his own language that he had engraved his administrative principles on stones and what was the reason for it?
Answer:
Monarch Ashok had told in his own language that he had engraved his administrative principles on stones. The reason of it that it will last for many years to come.

Question 10.
The ancient script of India was discovered from which civilizations’ archaeological remains and it was engraved on which materials?
Answer:
The ancient script of India was discovered from the archaeological remains of the Harappan civilization. It was engraved on seals.

Question 11.
Another ancient script of India was engraved in which century and was whose script?
Ans:
Another ancient script of India was engraved in the 3rd century B.C. These engraved scripts were of King Asoka.

Question 12.
What is Archaeology and at the time which Governor-General in India department created it?
Answer:
The science of digging up and its excavation of various materials is considered Archaeology. The Archaeological department was created by the then Governor General of India Lord Curzon.

Question 13.
Which coin is regarded as the source of history and this investigation is called what?
Answer:
Varieties of coins from different ages in the depth of the earth and their discoveries are considered as an important source of history. This investigation study is known as numismatics.

Question 14.
Ambassador Al- Beruni has given information about how many Puranas prevail in India and among them the names of the chief Puranas are?
Answer:
Ambassador Al-Beruni has given information about is Puranas prevailing in India among them the chief Puranas are “Vayu Purana”, “Bishnu Purana”, “Matsya Purana”, “Brahmanda Purana”, “Agni Purana” etc.

Question 15.
Name of the religious text of Buddhism and what are those?
Answer:
The name of the religious text of Buddhism is “Tripitaka”. Those are “Sutrapitak”, “Binaya Pitaka” and “Abhidharma Pitaka”.

Question 16.
The “Arthasastra” of Kautilya is divided into how many parts and it reflects the social and religious life of the people of which age?
Answer:
The “Arthasastra of Kautilya is divided into fifteen parts. It reflects the social and religious life of the people of the Mauryan Age.

Question 17.
Who was the writer of the “Astadhyayi” text and when it was written? The text stressed the importance of what?
Answer:
The writer of “Astadhyayi” was Panini and it was written in the 4th century. This text stressed the importance of state administration.

Question 18.
“Mahabhaya” text was written by whom and this text was written in which B.C.?
Answer:
The “Mahabhasya” text was written by Patanjali. This text was written in the 2nd century B.C.

Question 19.
“Mudra Rakshasa” was written by whom and this text narrates which subjects?
Answer:
“Mudra Rakshasa” was written by Visakhadutta. In this text, the social condition and cultural aspects of the time of Chandra Gupta Maurya have been described.

Question 20.
“Harsha Charita” was written by whom and in this text which article was reflected?
Answer:
“Harsha Charita” was written by Banabhatta. It was the life history of Harsavardhana and in it, the social religious and economic life conditions of the people of the 7th century had been described.

Question 21.
“Bikramarka Charita” was written by whom and in it the working condition of which king had been described?
Answer:
“Bikramarka Charita” was written by Bilharzia. In this book, the working condition of Chalukya king Vikramaditya had been described.

Question 22.
“Ram Charita” was written by whom and in it, the heroic episodes of whom had been described?
Answer:
“Ram Charita” was written by Sandhyakar Nandi. In this book, the Character of Bengal king Rampal had given importance.

Question 23.
“Prithviraj Charita” was written by whom and in it, the heroic episodes of whom had been described?
Answer:
“Prithviraj Charita” was written by Chand Kabi. In it, the heroic episodes of king Prithviraj are described.

Question 24.
When Kalhan’s “Rajatarangini” was written and in this text whom an elaborate description had given?
Answer:
Kalhanas “Rajatarangini” was written on 1149-50 A.D. In this text, the dynasty, state administration, and punishment system of the state have been given elaborate importance.

Question 25.
“Raja Vamsabali” was the text of which state and what for it was famous?
Answer:
“Raja Vamsabali” was the ancient text of Udara Desa or Odisha. The book gave enough information for writing an ancient history of Odisha.

Question 26.
“Malabikagni Mitram” was written by whom and this book is based on some aspects of which kings administration?
Answer:
“Malavikagnimitram” was written by eminent poet and dramatist Kalidasa.- This text described some aspects of king pushy amitraz sunga’s administration.

Question 27.
Drama “Sakuntala” was written by whom and in it what kind of facts were given?
Answer:
The drama “Sakuntala” was the eternal creation of the famous dramatist Kalidasa. In this drama, the social condition of people had given almost importance.

Question 28.
The drama “Swapna Vasabadutta” was written by whom and in it which picture had given importance? ,
Answer:
Drama “Swapravasabadutta” was written by Vasa. In it, the picture of then-political India had given importance.

Question 29.
“Goudabaha” was written by whom and what is it described?
Answer:
“Goudabaha” was written by Vakapati. This book described the adventurous works of Yasovarman.

Question 30.
“Dasakumara Charitam” text was written by whom and it reflects which condition of the then India?
Answer:
“Daskumara Charitam” was written by Dandi. In this text, the political and social condition of then India had been reflected.

Question 31.
Monal teaching text “Pancha Tantram” was written by whom and it reflects which principle of the then India?
Answer:
The moral teaching text “Pancha Tantram” was written by Vishnu Sharma. This text reflects the social principle of then India.

Question 32.
Sangam literature was written in which part of India and it had importance upon which language?
Answer:
Sangam literature was written for South Indian kings and their dynasties. It gave importance to the Tamil language.

Question 33.
“Chachanama” text belongs to which country and in it what had been reflected?
Answer:
“Chachanama” text belongs to Arab countries. In it, the Arab invasion of Sindh had been reflected.

Question 34.
“Tabata-I-Nasir” was written by whom and it was divided into how many parts and in it what had been described?
Answer:
“Tabata-I-Nasir” was written by Minhas-us-Siraj and it was divided into ten parts. In it, an elaborate description had given regarding Islam and India.

Question 35.
“Histories” text was written by whom and this text gave information regarding what?
Answer:
The “Histories” text was written by Herodotus, the father of History. This book gave information regarding the Persian Greek war and so also relation in between India and Persia.

Question 36.
Who gave details information about the Indian invasion of Alexander and on it what had been described?
Answer:
Arrian gave details information about the Indian invasion of Alexander from Greek. description it was known how Seleucus was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya. (Sandrokotus)

Question 37.
Name of the eminent ancient geographist and in his geography text what he had narrated?
Answer:
The name of the eminent ancient geographist was Talmy. In his Greek language, he described Indian ports.

Question 38.
Who was Megasthenes? The written information by him was named?
Answer:
Meghasthenes was a Greek Ambassador. The written information by him was named “Indika”.

Question 39.
Who Was Megasthenes? He was sent by which Greek King to the Mauryan court and settled at Pataliputra?
Answer:
Megasthenes was a Greek Ambassador. He was sent by the Greek king Seleucus to the Mauryan court and settled at Pataliputra.

Question 40.
Did fashion come to India at the time of the reign of which king? The book written by him was?
Answer:
Fabien came to India at the time of the reign of Chandragupta II. The book written by him was named “Fo-Kuo-ki”.

Question 41.
China ambassador Hiuen-Tsang came to India at the time of which emperor? The book written by him was?
Answer:
China Ambassador Hiuen-Tsang came to India during the reign of emperor Harshavardhan. The name of the book written.

Question 42.
Who was Hiuen-Tsang ? Which title was given to him?
Answer:
Hiuen-Tsang was Chinese Ambassador. The title “Prince of Pilgrims” was given to him.

Question 43.
Is-Tsing when came to India? What he had described regarding Buddhism?
Answer:
Is-Tsing came to India in the 7th century. At his time of coming to India Buddhism was in a deteriorating condition.

Question 44.
Who was Al-Beruni? The name of his text was?
Answer:
Al-Beruni was a famous Al-Abian writer. The name of his text was “Tahiq-i-Hind”.

Question 45.
Who was James Princep? In which year he was capable to study Asokan inscription?
Answer:
James prince was a western learned man. In 1837 A.D. he was capable to study the Asokan inscription.

Question 46.
In which year by archaeological excavation was the city Harappa & Mahenjodaro came established and who was it discovered?
Answer:
In 1922 A.D. by archaeological excavation the city Harappa & Mahenjodaro came to establish. The discoverer of it was Dayaram Sahani and Rakhal Das Banerjee.

Question 47.
Give information regarding the location of Harappa and Mahenjodaro?
Answer:
Harappa city was established in the Montogomery district of Punjab near the bank of the Rabi river. Another city Mahenjodaro or “Dead city” was situated in the Larkana district of Sindh near the shore of the Sindhu river.

Question 48.
Who was Charles Mason? What he had described Harappa?
Answer:
Charles Mason was an English archaeologist. In 1829 A.D. he described Harappa as a “Puinous Brick Castle”.

Question 49.
Where Lothal was situated for what it was famous for?
Ans:
Lothal was situated in Gujarat state. It was famous for its ancient port.

Question 50.
Who was Mortimer Wheeler? He had fixed which time as the time of Sindh civilization?
Answer:
Mortimer Wheeler was a famous personality in Archaeology. He had a fixed time of Sindh civilization from 2500 B.C. to 1500 B.C.

Question 51.
What was the chief livelihood of Harappans? For their economic development, we came to know from which?
Answer:
The Chief livelihood of Harappans was cultivation. For their economic development, we came to know from the excavation of granary found from it.

Question 52.
What was the eminent project of Harappa? What were its length and breadth?
Answer:
The eminent project of Harappa was the “Great Bath”. The entire home preserved the. bath had a length of 180ft. and breadth of 108ft.

Question 53.
Whether the people of ancient Sindh know the process of writing? Their writing was discovered from where?
Answer:
The ancient Sindh people knew one process of the writing system. Their writing is known from the discovered seals.

Question 54.
Whether the Sindhu people knew about the domestication of animals? They had not domesticated which animal?
Answer:
Yes, the ancient people knew about the domestication of animals. They had not to domesticated and could not know the use of horses and dogs.

Question 55.
Regarding the golden ornaments of the Harappan civilization analyze the version of John Marshall?
Answer:
John Marshall opined regarding the gold ornaments of Harappa that the ornaments of discovered Harappa were so beautiful, fine, and attractive that it was not 5000 years gold ornaments and as if it is available at the different gold shops of London’s bond road.

Question 56.
The weapons of the Harappan civilization were made in which metal? For which purpose they used it?
Answer:
The weapons of the Harappan civilization were made of copper and bronze. For the purpose of war and haunting, they used it.

Question 57.
In the developed time of the Harappan civilization which type of rainfall was continuing? At that time which food particles produced more?
Answer:
In the developed time of the Harappan civilization maximum rainfall was continuing. At that time wheat and barley produced more.

Question 58.
For cultivation purposes which type of utensils was used by the Sindh people? Now that place is called?
Answer:
For cultivation purposes the Sindh people used plow, sickle axe, etc, Now that place is called the “Garden of Sindh” (Nakhalistan)

Question 59.
In which industry the Sindh people were experts and for this which material has discovered from excavation?
Answer:
In the weaving industry, the Sindh people were experts. This we came to know from the discovery of knitting machines and engraved seals.

Question 60.
For the clay pot of Harappan civilization what was the opinion of Mortimer Wheeler?
Answer:
Regarding the clay pots of the Harappan people, Mortimer Wheeler opined that those were very attractive in comparison to Iran and Mesopotamia.

Question 61.
The Sindh people were accustomed to which metal and whether they knew the use of iron?
Answer:
The Sindh people were accustomed to copper, bronze, gold, silver, tin, etc. Whether they knew about the use of iron still no information is found regarding it.

Question 62.
Estimate the opinion of Hunter regarding the metal architecture of Sindh people?
Answer:
According to famous historian Hunter, the Sindh people were experts in metal architecture. From it, they were capable to make different types of ornaments also.

Question 63.
Whether the Sindh people were experts in the trade business? They were engaged for internal business from which place to which place?
Answer:
There availed enough evidence that the Sindh people were experts in the trade business. They were engaged in internal business from Kashmir Valley to Southern valley.

Question 64.
On which route the Sindh people had foreign trade relations and with which country they were engaged in trading?
Answer:
On the land route and sea routes, the Sindh people had foreign trade relations. They were engaged in trade with countries like Sumeria, Egypt, and Greece.

Question 65.
Give proof regarding the trade relationship between Mesopotamia civilization and Sindh civilization?
Answer:
They excavated Mahenjodaro seals in Mesopotamia and excavated cuneiform writing from the Mahenjodaro civilization tracing the trade relationship between them. So also Sindh people had trade relations with Akkad and other countries of Persia.

Question 66.
Whether the Sindh people were experts in the analytical and mechanical wing? Whether their weight and measurement, the system in comparison with England’s ounce and Greek Unica system?
Answer:
From the excavated archaeological things and their examination, we came to know that they were experts in the analytical and mechanical wing. Their weight and measurement system was inaccurate with the ounce system in England and unrar system in Greek.

Question 67.
In 2001 the archaeological excavation from Mehergarh in Pakistan describes the medical treatment of Sindh people?
Answer:
In 2001 the archaeological excavation from Mehergarh in Pakistan. We came to anticipate that the Sindh people acquired knowledge about teeth treatment.

Question 68.
The Sindh people worshipped to which force? The woman’s picture engraved on the seal gave which information?
Answer:
It came to be known that the Sindh people worshipped to “Mother Goddess”. The woman’s picture engraved in the excavated seal indicates that the picture may be the picture of the Dharitri Goddess.

Question 69.
The excavated Yogi posture was surrounded by which four figures? Analyze the statement of John Marshall regarding this figure?
Answer:
The excavated seal with Yogi posture was surrounded by four animals and they were elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, and buffalo. From this study, Sir John Marshal imagined that perhaps Saivism was the earliest religion of India.

Question 70.
Evaluate the statement of Mortimer Wheeler regarding the decline of the Indus civilization? When this Civilization came to an end?
Answer:
According to Mortimer Wheeler, Harappa and Mahenjodoro were destroyed by the Aryan invaders. In the Vedas, the early Aryans described their God Indra as the destroyer of the cities of the Asuras. According to wheeler the fall of this civilization occurred about 1500 years before the birth of Christ.

Question 71.
Analyze the statement of other scholars about the fall of the Indus valley civilization?
Answer:
To other scholars, the climatic changes led to the decline of the cities. It may be that the rivers Indus and Ravi changed their courses for which the cities were badly affected frequent floods of those rivers made it difficult for people to live. Being deserted the cities perhaps got buried under the earth in course of many many years.

Question 72.
Give an estimate of the legacies of the Indus civilization?
Answer:
The influence of the Indus civilization on the future can not be denied. The civilization had two faces. Spiritual and material. But the spiritual faiths of the Indus people survived forever.

Question 73.
Which Eastern eminent scholar when given the opinion that the Sanskrit language of India and other western languages had derived from one common language?
Answer:
Eminent Eastern scholar Sir William Johns gave an opinion in 1786 that the Sanskrit language of India, the language of Persia language of Greece, and Rome, and the German language had deep relations and those languages had derived from one original language.

Question 74.
Regarding the unity of various tribes which western scholar has given which opinion?
Answer:
Regarding the unity of various tribes eminent western scholar Maxmuller opined strongly in 1861 that “The forefathers of Indian, Persian, Greek, Romans skills, Kelat, and Germans not only lived in the same place rather they lived under one home.

Question 75.
The Aryans first settled in which place in India and how many rivers flowed there?
Answer:
The Aryans first settled in Punjab India. At that time in Punjab, seven rivers were flowing.

Question 76.
The Aryan gave which name Punjab and define the name of the seven rivers?
Answer:
The Aryan given name to Punjab was Saptasindhu. The name of those rivers is Sindhu, Vitasta, Chandrabhaga, Iravati, Bipasa, Satadru, and Saraswati.

Question 77.
What was the first literature of the Aryans and when it was written?
Answer:
Veda happens to be the earliest literature of the Aryan race coming to India they began to write it.

Question 78.
What are the meaning of Veda and other names for it?
Answer:
The word Veda means supreme knowledge. The Aryans believed that the Vedas were the words of God. The other name of Veda is called Shruti.

Question 79.
Veda is divided into how many parts and what is the earliest Veda?
Answer:
Veda is divided into four parts such as Rigveda, Samveda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda. The name of the earliest Veda is Rigveda.

Question 80.
Give an opinion against “Aranyaka”?
Answer:
Aranyaka is a part of Veda. There is a philosophical theme in it. There is six Aranyakas. In future times it was enlarged and came to be known as Upanishad.

Question 81.
Who was the head of the Aryan family and estimate his relation with family members?
Answer:
Father was the head of the Aryan family. The relationship between father, mother, brothers, and sisters rested on a sense of duty, devotion, affection, and cordiality. The younger members obeyed the senior members.

Question 82.
The Aryans believed in which system of life and what are they?
Answer:
The Aryans believed in the system of Chaturashrama or the fourfold division of life. They are Brahmacharya, Garhasthya, Vanaprastha, and Sanyasa.

Question 83.
Give an account of the tradition of the education system of the Aryans?
Answer:
In Vedic society, there was Gurukul where the students earned their education. With obtaining knowledge they also imported education for work efficiency, building good character, truth, honesty, etc.

Question 84.
What was the position of women in Vedic Aryan society and they secured which position?
Answer:
Women held a high position in Vedic Aryan society. They secured an equal position with men and also exercised much influence in domestic affairs.

Question 85.
What is the meaning of the Aryan word “Dough”? Are the Aryan girls fond of looking at the cow?
Answer:
The Aryan word “Dough” means milking the cow. Perhaps the Aryan girls were fond of looking after the cow as their domestic duty.

Question 86.
Was there child marriage in the Rig-vedic society? Was there seclusion of women?
Answer:
There was no child marriage in the Rig-vedic society. Girls live in the house of their parents till they attained marriageable age. There was no seclusion of women in Vedic society.

Question 87.
Were the Vedic women taking part in the highest socio-religious duties? Give the name of some important women in Vedic society?
Answer:
The Vedic Women took part in the highest socio-religious duties. They also studied Vedas, some important women personalities in Vedic times were Lopamudra, Ghosha, Viswavara, and Apala.

Question 88.
What were the dress materials of early Vedic people and what are they?
Answer:
The Aryans generally used cotton and woolen garments, sometimes deer skins were also used for the dress. The men were generally one lower and one upper garment called vasa and Adhivasa. The women in addition to the above two used an undergarment called “Nivs”

Question 89.
What was the daily food of the Aryan people?
Answer:
The daily food of the Rigvedic people consisted of barley, rice, beans, vegetables, milk, milk products, and cakes. They also ate non-vegetarian foods like fish, birds, goats, bulls, horses, etc. Ox, goat meat, and mutton were eaten. Bull cow meat was not touched.

Question 90.
What were the game and amusement in the Aryan society?
Answer:
The virile people in the Aryan society passed their time in boxing, hunting, and chariot race. The Aryans used many musical instruments like drums, flutes, harps, and cymbals.

Question 91.
What was the principal occupation of the Vedic Aryans for plowing the land? How many bullocks did they use?
Answer:
Agriculture was the principal occupation of the Vedic Aryans. For plowing land they used as many as 8,10 and 12 bullocks.

Question 92.
What type of industry was prevalent in Aryan times?
Answer:
The weaving of cotton and wool was the principal industry. Carpentry was a lucrative profession. The blacksmiths made weapons household implements and gold smith mode ornaments.

Question 93.
Give a short note about the internal trade of the Aryan people?
Answer:
The Rigvedic people carried trade among the members of the same tribe and also with other tribes sometimes traders made journeys to distant lands for larger profits on the trade.

Question 94.
What was the medium of exchange of Aryan trade? Name of the gold coin used by the Aryans?
Answer:
The medium of exchange in the Aryan trade was the barter system. The gold coin used by the Aryans was named “Nishka”.

Question 95.
Whether the Aryans had overseas trade?
Answer:
We do not know definitely whether the Aryans had overseas trade with west Asian countries. The Harappans had extensive trade with West Asia. Whether the Aryans were able to continue is not certain.

Question 96.
Which was the lowest unit in the Rigvedic society and what is a clan?
Answer:
The lowest unit of the Rigvedic society was the family. A number of families bound by ties of blood and other relations formed a clan.

Question 97.
Which unit formed in Rigvedic society as a union of several gramas and which was the higher unit?
Answer:
The union of several gramas formed a vis. The Jana was the higher unit.

Question 98.
Name of the leaders of grama, vis, and Jana?
Answer:
The leader of the grama was called Brahmani and that of a vis was called visit. The lord of the Jana was called Copa.

Question 99.
What was the prevailing form of Government and by which term the king was denoted?
Answer:
Kingship was the prevailing form of government. The king was denoted by the term “Rajan”.

Question 100.
Which form of government was by the Vedic tribes and what was the title of their leader?
Answer:
The Vedic tribes did not have a monarchical constitution. They were ruled by tribal chiefs, who formed an oligarchy. The title of their leader was known as Ganapati.

Question 101.
What was the prime and supreme duty of the king and the administered justice with the help of whom?
Answer:
The king had the prime and supreme duty to protect the life and property of his people from external and internal enemies. He administered justice with the help of (Priest).

Question 102.
The Rigvedic king had to consult popular bodies in grave political matters and act according to their decision?
Answer:
The Rigvedic king had to consult with popular bodies like “Sabha” and “Samiti” in grave political matters and act according to their decision.

Question 103.
The king attended to which meeting and what Rigveda suggested regarding the decision of this popular body?
Answer:
The king attended the meeting of the Samiti and took part in the debates. The Rigveda urged people to be unanimous. One-minded in taking decisions of the Samiti.

Question 104.
The Aryans expanded to which valley in the later Vedic period which places are mentioned in later Vedic literature?
Answer:
The Aryans expanded to the Ganga Yamuna valley in the later Vedic period. The places like Kosala and Videha are mentioned in the later Vedic literature.

Question 105.
Which high-sounding title of Raj came into vogue and which sacrifices were performed to signify the imperial of the monarchs?
Answer:
High-sounding titles like Ekrat now came into vogue. The sacrifices like Rajasuya, Vajapeya, and Asvamedha were performed to signify the imperial of the monarchs.

Question 106.
Apart from the officials in the Rigvedic period in the later Vedic age which new officials were appointed?
Answer:
Apart from the officials in the Rigvedic period in the later Vedic age new officials like treasurer, Ceuta or royal announcer, superintendent of gambling, etc.

Question 107.
In the later Vedic period far-reaching changes took place in the sphere of the four caste systems. Which two castes now enjoyed the highest privileges in society?
Answer:
In the later Vedic period far-reaching changes took place in the sphere of the four caste systems. Brahmanand Kshatriya now enjoyed the highest privileges in society.

Question 108.
What was the condition of women in the later Vedic age?
Answer:
The high position of women in the early Vedic age deteriorated. They lost their right to perform religious duties and lost their position in political affairs.

Question 109.
Were the four Ashramas became more regularised in the later Rigvedic age and the students got an education in which subject?
Answer:
The idea of four Ashramas became more regularised in the later Vedic age. The students got an education in philosophy, Vedas, scriptures ethics, etc.

Question 110.
What became the staple food of the later Vedic Aryans and what were the other items of food?
Answer:
Rice became the staple food of the later Vedic Aryans. The other items of foods were vegetables, meat, fish, etc. killing of cows was looked disfavor. Drinking wine on sure was still favored.

Question 111.
What were the chief crops of the later Vedic people and how many bullocks were used for deep plowing?
Answer:
The chief crops of the later Vedic people were rice, wheat, and barley. There were 24 nos of bullocks were used for plowing purposes.

Question 112.
What was the opinion of reference of Atharva Veda regarding the navigation in the seas by the later Vedic people?
Answer:
The later Vedic people became familiar with the navigation of the seas. According to the reference of the Atharva Veda, the people were aware of the eastern and western seas perhaps trading contact with Mesopotamia was established.

Question 113.
In later Vedic times who were hereditarily engaged in trade and by which name the rich merchants were called?
Answer:
In later Vedic times, the vaishyas were hereditarily engaged in trade. The rich merchants in this period.

Question 114.
Were there coins used in the later Vedic period and who used these coins as a unit of exchange?
Answer:
There was a coin named “Mishka” which was not ordinarily used. The merchants used this coin as a medium of exchange.

Question 115.
Who was the most powerful and popular God in the later Vedic age and in which name he was described in Rigveda?
Answer:
India was the most powerful and popular God in the later Vedic age. In Rigvedic he is described as the “Purandara” because he has destroyed the puas of the non-Aryans and ensured the security of his devotees the Aryans.

Question 116.
In the Vedic period language became the vehicle of expression of thought and towards the later Vedic age. This language became the language of which class?
Answer:
In the Vedic period, Sanskrit became the vehicle of expression of thought. Towards the later Vedic age, this language became the language of the upper class.

Question 117.
Atharva Veda contains which information?
Answer:
The Atharva Veda contains information on political, and social sciences, medicines, and also magic.

Question 118.
Regarding slavery in ancient Indian society what Meghasthenes has described?
Answer:
Meghasthenes came to India in the 4th century B.C. He found that slavery was unknown to Indian society.

Question 119.
Which kingdom was popular as Varanasi and in the remote past who was the ruler of Varanasi and what was his name?
Answer:
The Kasi kingdom was popular as the Varanasi kingdom. The name Varanasi is derived from the name of two rivers i.e.” Varuna” and “Asi”. The ancient king or ruler of Varanasi was Asvasena.

Question 120.
By consisting which modern area Kosala kingdom was constitute and what was the capital of Kosala?
Answer:
By consisting Ayodhya area of Uttarpradesh the ancient Kosala kingdom was constituted. Sribasti was the capital of Kosala.

Question 121.
Which two states were the democratic states in sixteen Mahajanapadas and here it was developed?
Answer:
Among the sixteen Mahajanpadas, Vrije and Malla were two democratic states. These two states were developed in the North-Western areas of India i.e., on the foothills of the Himalayas.

Question 122.
Anga was the neighbor of which kingdom and from which Veda we came to know about its name?
Answer:
Anga was a neighbor of Magadha. From Atharva Veda we came to know about Anga.

Question 123.
In the 6th century B.C. who was the ruler of Vatsa and he was initiated in which religion?
Answer:
In the 6th century B.C. Udayana was the ruler of Vatsa. He was initiated into Buddhism.

Question 124.
In the modern which area the Panchali kingdom was developed and in which century the democratic system established there?
Ans:
In the modem Rohilakhand area the Panchali kingdom was developed and in this century the democratic system was established there.

Question 125.
In Buddhist J a taka what had described regarding the port of Bhrugukachcha and now it is compared with which port?
Answer:
In Buddhist Jataka, it had described that Bhrugukachcha was an eminent port in ancient
Indian sea. Now it is compared with the port of Broch.

Question 126.
Define the word History?
Answer:
The word History comes from the ancient Greek word ‘histo’ meaning ‘known this’. History is the Study of the past. If we look closely at the word, we will find the word ‘story’ in it. In fact, history is the story of how people lived in earlier times.

Question 127.
What is the sources of History?
Answer:
With the help of historical clues, a historian writes the history of the past without which he can not reconstruct the past so these clues are called the sources of history. This source material can be divided into two categories, that is, archaeological and literary.

Question 128.
Archaeological Sources?
Answer:
For collecting information about the pre-historic, past historians have to depend solely on the remains or rains of the past. Archaeologists dig up sites where people might have lived and bring out various objects which have been buried under the earth for many years. These objects may include tools, jewelry, fossils, and arts and crafts. At times, houses where people live, temples where people went to worship, and even the layout of an entire city have been excavated by archaeologists. These provide valuable clues to historians for reconstructing the history of that period.

Question 129.
Epigraphy?
Answer:
The study of inscriptions is known as Epigraphy. In the absence of paper, people used sharp instruments to write on hard surfaces. These are referred to as inscriptions. Inscriptions may be found on seals, copper plates, stone pillars, rocks or temple walls. They provide valuable information. Though the Harappans were the first to inscribe their script on seals, these have not yet been deciphered so fax are those issued by Ashoka in the third century B.C.

Question 130.
Numismatics?
Answer:
The study of coins is known as numismatics coins struck at different times by different rules provide valuable dues regarding dates, names of rulers, regions where these have been struck as well as the metal sued. Ancient coins were made of copper-gold, silver, or lead. Coin molds made of burnt clay have been found in large numbers. Coins made of metal first appeared in the Buddhist period.

Question 131.
Write briefly about the position of Big Vedic women?
Answer:
Women enjoyed freedom. Some of the outstanding women of the age were like Gargi, Maitree, Apala Visvabara, Ghosha Sikata Lapamudra. They did not remain confined within the four walls of the house.

Question 132.
Write about the Sabha of the Rig Vedia age?
Answer:
The Sabha was a popular assembly to advise the King on administrative matters. The Sabha was the council of elderly people representing the wealthy and leading persons of the society. It was used to assist the king in the discharge of his functions.

Question 133.
Write about the Samiti of the Rigvedic Age?
Answer:
The Samiti was a popular assembly to advise the kings on administrative matters. It was a larger body consisting of representatives from each village or group. The Samiti was concerned with taking decisions on the matters of war and peace, maintenance of law and order selection of the King.

Question 134.
Write about the Chaturashram of the water Vedic age?
Answer:
Chaturashram or the four stages of life was a feature found in the society of dying later Vedic age. One’s life span was divided into four stages, namely, Brahmacharya. Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Samnyasa. To make life healthy and regulated, the divided into four stages.

Question 135.
How was the marriage system in the later Vedic Society?
Answer:
Polygamy and polyandry were practiced during this time by the kings and nobles. Marriage among near relations was not the practice. More rituals were observed in the marriage ceremony.

Question 136.
Write about the religion of the Harappan civilization?
Answer:
The Harappan worshipped the mother goddess, Lord Shiva as Pashupati, Pipai tree. Snake etc. The Harappans believed in life after death. They adopted the disposal of dead bodies.

Question 137.
Write about the dress of the Aryans?
Answer:
The dress of the Aryan was plain and simple. The Rigvedic Aryans wore three pieces of clothing. The upper piece was called Vasa paridhana. The undergarment was called Aivi or Antalya. Besides these two, they also wore an over garment called Adhi.

Question 138.
Write about the food of the Rigvedic Aryan?
Answer:
The food habit of the Rig Vedic Aryans was very simple. By and large, they were vegetarians. Barley, wheat, honey, fruits, milk, and products like curd, and Glu; end butter constituted their staple food.

Question 139.
Write about the political organization of the Vedic Aryans?
Answer:
A number of families constructed one Grama or Village, a group of villages constituted one vis and a group of vis constituted. A Kingdom or Janapada. The head of the village was called Grammar. The head of the vis was called visit and the head of the janapadas was called Rajan. The family was the foundation of the political organization of the Vedic Aryans. The head of the family was called Grihapati.

Question 140.
Chief features of town planning of Harappan civilization?
Answer:
The rains of the cities of the Indus valley civilization display the remarkable skill of the people in town planning and sanitation. The main features are cities with their wide and straight streets, efficient and covered drainage, structurally comfortable houses with bathrooms, and built of burnt bricks of various shapes. The most striking feature of Mahenjodaro is the Great Bath. It is a rectangular structure resembling a swimming pool. At Harappa, a number of granaries have been found.

Question 141.
Family system In early Vedic society?
Answer:
The evolution of the family system in the early Vedic period provided a bedrock for a healthy, happy, and prosperous society. Society was organized on the basis of the family as a unit. Each family was considered a cradle of values. A training ground for learning the duties and obligations towards individuals, the family, society, and humanity at large.

Question 142.
The rigidity of the caste system in the Later Vedic Age?
Answer:
The later Vedic period saw the rise of the rigid caste system Brahmanas, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra. It destroyed the values of human equality of the earlier days and created a distinction between man and man. Those who performed religious duties formed the priestly caste known as the Brahmana. Those who fought battles formed the warrior class called the Kshatriya. Those who looked to agriculture, trade or other productive works came to be known as the vaisya, and finally, those who performed social and human services to the society formed the lowest caste and were called the Sudra.

Question 143.
Gurukul system of education?
Answer:
The education system was formalized, the ‘Gurukul’ system emerged and the students began to live as family members with their teacher. This system became the forerunner of the modem boarding system. Besides Vedas, the Puranas, the Upanishads, Astronomy, Mathematics, and Military education also formed part of the curriculum. After the completion of education, ‘Dakshina’ or gifts and presents were offered to the teachers.

Question 144.
Position of women in the later Vedic period?
Answer:
During the later Vedic age, women lost their earlier status. Polygamy (marrying several wives of the man) was in vogue. Polyandry (possessing several husbands was also in vogue. The practice of swayamvar (choosing one’s husband) was prevalent in several sections of society. No doubt women had access to education but the status of women had been lowered during this period as compared with the Rigvedic Period.

Question 145.
Complicated Religious rituals in the later Vedic age?
Answer:
Elaborate rituals and sacrifices became the order of the day. Numerous rituals and animal sacrifices to appease these gods began to be performed. The kings performed sacrifices. Individuals also performed sacrifices in their homes. The chanting of mantras accompanied all the rituals. In course of time, rituals became so important that every important event was followed by an elaborate ritual. The priests performed these rituals and sacrifices and were given cows horses, gold, and cloth as gifts. The priests were looked upon as messengers of God. As a result, they enjoyed tremendous power and prestige.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 4 Process, Stratification and Change Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 4 Process, Stratification and Change Long Answer Questions

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What do you understand by the term Social Stratification? What are its different forms? What is its social functional utility? Or, Write a short note on Social Stratification?
Answer:
In every society, there is caste and class difference. In some cases, these are more rigid as compared with others. But the ‘class’ and ‘caste’ systems are everywhere deep-rooted. It is usually difficult to get rid of this system whether these are individually or collectively liked or disliked.

What is Stratification:
Gilbert has given a very simple definition of the term social stratification when he says that social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups or categories liked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordination. Thus it is based on the superiority and subordination relationship i.e. on the concept of inequality. Thus as long as social inequality continues to exist, there will be social stratification.

Moreover, even among the castes, and classes there are differences. Some people in the same caste and class consider themselves more prestigious than others. Since a classless and casteless society is merely a dream the castes and classes are bound to remain divided on the basis of prestige, social stratification is bound to continue.

Origin of Social Stratification :
How and when social stratification began or originated is a very important problem. Some think that stratification started when people began to amass wealth. Economically better people became a class among themselves and the poor formed a separate class. Some others believe that stratification started when the nation of victor and defeated came into being. The former formed a separate and later another separate class.

Some even say that stratification came with the coming of occupations. Those who were engaged in good and rewarding professions formed a separate class compared with those who were engaged in dirty and unrewarding vocations. But so far nothing can be said about the exact origin of social stratification. All that can be said is that all these factors at different stages and with the passage of time brought stratification in the society, till the present stage came.

Forms of Stratification:
In societies, stratification can be economic, political, religious and social. Economically stratified groups can be the owners and the workers i.e, the rich and the poor. Then political stratification can be on the basis of the rulers and the ruled or those who are governors on the one hand and governed on the other. In feudal society, stratification was on the basis of property. On the one hand. were feudal lords whereas the others were the slaves who served them.

The stratification was on the basis of estates as well. Those who owned estate formed a separate class from those who did not own it. Caste also became a form of stratification. The people belonging to a higher caste considered themselves a separate class as compared with those who did not belong to that caste. Religion was also responsible for the bringing of social stratification. The orthodox formed a separate class against the unorthodox. Thus stratification is of different forms and kinds.

The necessity of Social Stratification :
Social stratification has its own advantages some such beings :
Stratification provides a sense of competition and thus all try to go up and find a higher place in society. It makes people responsible for the nature of the work that they are doing. It is also essential] for locating the status of a person in society.

Without stratification, it will be difficult to locate people with the degree of their wisdom, initiative and knowledge. It needed to give recognition to those who are able and capable so that the ability is not clubbed together with the inefficient. It helps in deciding the roles and functions of each category of person lowing in society.

Social Stratification in India:
In India, there is social, economic and political stratification. In the social field, India is both class and caste-ridden. The country’s caste system is known all over the world over various classes. Similarly, in India, there is economic stratification. Society is divided between the rich and the poor and the distinction as well as the gap between the two is very wide.

It is also increasing and day by day the rich are growing richer and the poor poorer. In the political field also there is wide stratification. Since independence practically only one family is ruling over India. A class of people is politically more conscious than the rest of the nation. Only those who can afford election expenses can contest the elections whereas the others are destined to be ruled.

Social Stratification and Social Differentiation:
Social stratification is however different from social differentiation. In social stratification, there is a hierarchy in which one class is above the other. On the other hand, in social differentiation, there is no hierarchy e.g. male and female. In stratification organised group division is needed whereas in differentiation there is no such division of society.

Question 2.
Briefly discuss some of the important characteristics of Social Stratification. Or, Explain the basic principle of Social Stratification. Can industrialisation replace the caste system with a class system in India?
Answer:
There is no society without social stratification, only the degree varies. Some of the important characteristics of social stratification are:
It is not Uniform:
Social stratification is not uniform in all societies. It varies from one society to the other. In fact, it cannot be uniform because social problems and institutions are not the same all over. As long as social problems will continue to vary stratification will not be uniform.

It helps in the valuation, of social structure :
Each society has some social structure. Whether such a structure is good or bad can be evaluated by knowing the number of classes and sub-classes in the society, occupation prestige and income of each class, gap in the thinking mixing and income of each class etc.

It is influenced by Technology :
In every society rigidity or flexibility of the system is influenced by organisation and industrialisation. Social stratification in India considerably been influenced by both those factors which are gradually but steadily sweeping India.

It is influenced by Governmental policies:
It is usually believed that the government should not interfere in the social structure of a society and as such social stratification should not be influenced by governmental actions. But in actual practice, social stratification is deeply influenced by the government’s economic, political and social policies and programmes. The present policies of the government of India e.g. in respect of backwards classes, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are bound to influence social stratification in India.

The struggle is its inherent characteristic :
Social stratification means that society is divided into various classes and as the such struggle is its inherent characteristic. It implies that the people belonging to lower classes try to come up whereas those belonging to higher classes do not allow the lower classes to join the upper classes. Similarly, people belonging to low classes try to improve their economic social and political conditions.

Implies division of labour :
Social stratification also implies the division of labour each class is expected to perform a particular type of work and accomplish that to the entire stratification of the society. Thus the division of labour is another important characteristic of society. How far the people are in a position to leave their occupation i.e. what is the extent of occupational mobility indicates the rigidity of the system.

Replacement case by class :
Now a very important question which arises is whether the caste system can be replaced by the class system due to industrialisation. In Indian society, industrialisation has no doubt given a great setback to the caste system. In the factories, industrial areas and townships, it is impossible to maintain caste rigidity. The people of different castes mix freely with each other. Not only this; but they also eat drink and play together children of different castes play in the same parks and study in the same school.

Upper caste people work under the so-called low caste people and feel proud in inviting them to their marriage and other ceremonies. In fact, there is hardly an occasion when caste is a distinction that can be maintained. But in India caste system is very much deep-rooted. It is an age-old institution. The people particularly the orthodox and those living in the rural areas. Can hardly think of Indian society without a caste system. In fact, in some cases, the caste system is becoming more deep-rooted.

It is a well-known fact that in India at the time of elections caste plays a very big, if not decisive role. Therefore, it is really difficult to think that in India class is likely to replace caste in spite of the fact that the country is being industrialised. It is only wishful thinking that in the distant future when the country gets industrialised class system will replace the caste system. But so far there is no such hope.

Question 3.
What is the social process? Explain the associative in details?
Answer:
Man lives in a society which is based on dynamic relationships. This relationship is constantly changing. Man tries to establish contacts and makes adjustments and co-operates with other members of society. All these things result in social interaction. Two forces always working in society and these forces bring about organization and disorganization of society.

All these factors are responsible for various types of processes, known as social processes or social interactions. According to Dawson and Getty, “Social interaction is a process whereby men inter-penetrate the mind of each other”.

Associative Processes :
The associative processes of social interaction are a positive type of interaction. They are also called as ‘integrative interactions’ and always work for the integration and benefit of society. This type of interaction brings progress and stability to society. These include cooperation, accommodation and assimilation. Therefore, cooperation, accommodation and assimilation are principally known as the associative processes of social interaction.

which are elaborately discussed below:
Co-operation:
Co-operation is the first fundamental and associative posses of social interaction. The word co-operation has been derived from the two Latin words ‘Co’ means ‘together’ and operate meaning ‘to work’. Hence cooperation means working together for the achievement of a common goal to goals.

Definition of Co-operation:
According to Fairchild, “Co-operation is the process by which individuals or groups combine their efforts, in a more or less organised way, for the attainment of common objectives”. A. W. Green says “Co-operation is the continuous and common endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task of reach a goal that is commonly cherished”.

Characteristics of Co-operation:

• Co-operation is one type of social interaction which takes place between two or more individuals.
• Cooperation is a conscious process.
• Cooperation is an associative process.
• Co-operation is a personal process.
• Cooperation is a continuous process.
• Cooperation is a universal process.

Role and Importance of Co-operation :
Cooperation is indispensable for both society and individuals. It creates a direct relationship between individual and individual, group and group and individual. It contracts the behaviour of individuals, it maintains balance in society through the checking of the disassociative process. Co-operation is essential for the socialization process of individuals it fulfils all the fundamental needs of human beings it brings social, cultural, political and economic development in society.

Assimilation :
Assimilation is the third associative process of social interaction. It occurs at the end of the accommodation process. An assimilation is a form of social adjustment. The process by which individuals or groups to came to share the same sentiment and goals is known as assimilation.

Definition of Assimilation:
According to Biesanz and Biesanz, “Assimilation is the social process whereby individuals and groups come to share the same sentiments, feelings and goals”. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff say “Assimilation is the process whereby individuals or groups once dis-similar become, similar and identified in their interest and outlook”.

Characteristics of Assimilation:

• Assimilation is an associative process of social interaction.
• Assimilation is closely related to accommodation.
• Assimilation is a universal process.
• Assimilation is a slow and gradual process.
• Assimilation is a conscious process.
• Assimilation- is a cultural and physiological process.

Role and Importance of Assimilation:
Assimilation creates friendly and cordial relationships between individuals and groups. It maintains unity and integrity in society. It plays a very important role in the development of human personality. Assimilation brings fundamental changes in the ancient culture, customs and traditions. It helps individuals and groups to adjust to new situations.

Accommodation:
Accommodation is another associative process of social interaction. Sometimes new conditions and circumstances arise in society. These conflicts are called accommodation, in other words, accommodation is a social adjustment. Definitions of Accommodation According to Maclver and Page “The term accommodation refers particularly to the process.

which man attains a sense of harmony with his environment”. Gillin and Gillin have defined accommodation as given below. “Accommodation is the process by which competing and conflicting individuals and groups adjust their relationship to each other in order to overcome the difficulties generally, arise in competition, contravention or conflict”.

Characteristics of Accommodation:

• Accommodation is an associative process of social interaction.
• It is a conscious activity.
• Accommodation is a universal process.
• Accommodation is a continuous process.
• Accommodation is a mixture of love and hatred.

Role and Importance of Accommodation:
Accommodation maintains peace and security the society. Accommodation checks conflicts, competition and contradiction. Accommodation helps people to adjust to the new condition of society. Accommodation prepares the way for assimilation. Accommodation resolves conflicts. Accommodation brings unity and integrity to society.

Question 4.
Discuss the dissociative social processes with suitable examples. Or, Describe the dissociative processes of social interaction?
Answer:
The dissociative processes of social interaction are a negative type of interaction. It is also known as a disintegrative interaction and always works for the disintegration of society. This type of interaction hinders the whole progress and development of society. Competition and conflict come under this category. Hence, competition and conflict are basically known as the two dissociative processes of social interaction.

Competition:
Competition is the most fundamental form of social struggle.

Definition of Competition:
According to Sutherland, Woodward and Maxwell, “Competition is an impersonal, unconscious, continuous struggle between individuals or groups for satisfaction which because of their limited supply all may not have Maclver has defined it by saying that “Competition is the simultaneous offer of like or of alternative economic sources to the same potential purchaser”. Competition is a contest to obtain something which does not exist in a quantity sufficient to meet the demand.

Characteristics of Competition:
Competition is an impersonal activity. It is not directed against any individual or group in particular. Competition is an unconscious struggle. In competition, the competitors do not know each other. Competition continuous process. It never comes to an end. Competition most universal process. It is found in every place and at all times. Competition is a means so filling one desire and aspirations. Competition is different from rivalry.

Forms of Competition:
The competition takes four main forms – economic, cultural, social and racial and political competition

Economic Competition:
It is found in production exchange and distribution as well as consumption in the field of economic activities.

Cultural Competition :
Taking the history, of any country, it can be seen that there was a great difference in the cultures of the natives and the invaders.

Social Competition:
To get high status in society everybody seems to engage in competitive activity.

Racily Competition :
In South Africa, there is intense competition between the black and the white races.

Political Competition:
In all countries, competition is obvious between the various political parties and even between the different members of the same political party to obtain political power. In the international circle, there is always diplomatic competition between different nations.

Importance of Competitions:
Competition plays an important role in the life of people, society and groups. It increases efficiency. In all cases competition for status and rise in the ladder of social importance, there is amazing progress and development of individuals and social competition between individuals and groups aims largely towards the objective of preserving or improving their respective status rather than survival.

However advantageous the competition may be it should not be left uncontrolled because then its disadvantages will overcome advantages and the result will be harmful to society Bogards is correct in saying that competition logically develops into conflict.

Conflict:
Competition gradually changes into rivalry which in turn, changes into conflict. Definition of Conflict:
Kingsley Davis observes “It is thus a modified form of struggle. According to Gillin and Gillin, ‘ ‘Conflict is the social process which individuals or groups seek their ends. by directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat or violence”.

Characteristics of Conflict:

• Conflict is a conscious action, it is deliberate Intex to oppose.
• Conflict is a personal activity.
• Conflict lack continuity.
• Conflict is universal.
• Conflict is an emotional process.

Important of Conflict:

• Conflict often brings about social unity and oneness among the people.
• Conflict defines issues.
• Conflict institutions social change.
• Conflict destroys the lives and properties of individuals.
• Conflict increases bitterness.
• Conflict leads to destruction and bloodshed.
• Conflict may lead to group tension.
• Conflict disturbs the normal channels of cooperation accommodation and assimilation.

Question 5.
What is social interaction? Discuss Cooperation and conflict as two different forms of social interaction. Or, Show that cooperation and conflict go together?
Answer:
Society is both necessary and natural for man. Man can not live in isolation. People always like to live in groups. As members of these groups, they act and behave in certain manners. The behaviour of an individual is affected by the behaviour of others. This mutual interaction or activity is the essence of social life.

Definition of social interaction:
“Social interaction consists of those mutual influences that individuals and groups have on one another in their attempts to solve problems and in their striving towards goals”. “Social interaction is a process by which men inter-penetrate the minds of each other”. Cooperation and conflict are universal elements in social life. They occur among animals as well as among human beings and they after come together.

As in the physical world where there are forces of attraction and repulsion simultaneously, operative and determinant of the position of bodies in space. So in the social world, there is a combination of cooperation and conflict revealed in the operations of men and groups. They resemble in this respect the equivalent of linked emotions of love and note. Psychologists have shown how these emotions may exist in the same individual.

A child may have his mother for the satisfaction and pleasures she provides, yet dislike her too because of the discipline, she imposes. In the same way cooperation and conflict often go together. According to Cooley, conflict and cooperation are not separable things but phases of one process which always involve something of both. Even in the most friendly relations and in the most intimate associations, there is some point where interests diverge or where attitudes are not in accord.

They can not cooperate beyond that point and conflict is inevitable. The closest cooperation”, for example, within the family does not prevent the occurrence of quarrels. Cooley writes “It seems that there. must always be an element of conflict in our relations with others as well as one of mutual aid, the whole plan of life calls for it; our very physiognomy reflects it and love and strife sit side by side upon the brow of man”. “Conflict of some sort is the life of society and progress emerges from a struggle.

In which each individual, class or institution seeks to realize its own ideal of good. The intensity of this struggle varies with the vigour of the people and its caseation if conceivable would be death”. Cooperation is a condition of conflict. Internal harmony and external conflicts are opposite sides of the same shield. It is difficult to eliminate conflict altogether from society.

Question 6.
Define social change and discuss its nature?
Answer:
According to S. Koening, “Social change refers to the modifications which occur in the life patterns of the people”. According to Lundberg “Social change refers to any modifications in established patterns of inter-human relationship and standard of conduct”. According to M.D. Johnson, “Social change may be defined as modification in ways of doing and thinking of people”.

Nature of Social Change:
Social change occurs in all societies. No society remains completely static. Society exists in a universe of dynamic influences. The population changes, technologies expand, material equipment changes ideologies and values change. The speed and extent of these changes may differ from society to society. Some change rapidly others change slowly. It is difficult to make any prediction about the exact forms of social change.

There is no inherent law of social change according to which it would assume definite forms. We may say that on account of the social reform movement untouchability will be abolished but we can not predict the exact form that social relationships will assume in future. A society’s pattern of living is a dynamic ‘ system of many related parts.

Therefore, change in one of these parts usually reacts on others and those on additional ones until they bring a change in the whole mode of life of many people. For example, industrialisation has destroyed the domestic system of production. The destruction of the domestic system of production brought women from their homes to the factory and offices.

The employment of women meant their independence from the bondage of men. It brought a change in their attitude and ideas. It meant a new social life for women. It consequently affected every part of family life. It is thought that a factor like changes in technology economic development or climatic conditions causes social change. This is called monistic theory which seeks to interpret social change in terms of one single factor.

But the monistic theory does not provide an adequate explanation of the complex phenomena of social change. As a matter of fact, social change may trigger a change but it is always associated with other factors that make the triggering possible. Social changes may be broadly categorised as modifications or replacements. It may be a modification of physical goods or social relationships. For instance, the form of our breakfast food has changed.

Though we eat the same basic materials which we ate earlier wheat and eggs, com but their form is changed. Ready to eat come Places bread, the omelette is substituted for the form in which these same materials we consumed in yesteryear. There may also be modifications of social relationships. The old authoritarian family has become a small equalitarian family. The one-room school has become a centralised school.

Our ideas about women’s rights & joint family, religion, government and co-education stand modified today. Social change does not refer to the change in the life of an individual or the life patterns of several individuals. It is a change which occurs in the life of the entire community. Its influence can be felt in a community form.

Social change is social and not individual. While social change occurs in all societies its speed is not uniform in every society. In societies, it occurs so slowly that it is not often noticed by those who live in them. Social changes in urban areas are faster than in rural areas. The speed of social changes is not uniform in each age or period in the same society.

In modem times the speed of social change is faster today than before 1947. Change is the law of nature. Social change is also natural. It may occur either in the natural course or as a result of planned efforts. Our needs keep on changing. For changing needs social change becomes a necessity.

Question 7.
Examines the role of cultural factors in social change?
Answer:
It is not an accepted fact that cultural factors do play a vital role in social change. This can very well be studied under the following heads.

The impact of social values, norms, faiths, etc. on the social structure and social change :
Social norms, values, beliefs etc. are parts of the culture. ‘They do not only determine an influence on the behaviour of the members of the society, but they also change them according to the new developments. These cultural factors give birth to technological factors and also determine their directions.

Social factors provide direction to the technological factors:
The cultural factors study the tone of thinking in the society whatsoever the material progress is made in the society is carried out in the direction in which the thinking of the people goes.

Cultural factors create new situations and new situations result in social change:
Because of cultural factors, new situations are created. In this respect, Max Weber’s interpretation of religion or his sociology of religion presents a categorical explanation of this point. According to him, Protestantism grew out of the primary stage of capitalism and its new values and norms created a new situation and also brought about new changes.

According to Max Weber, the social structure and cultural norms or values or religious norms are very much interlinked. These religious norms are very important. In fact, they form the basic form of cultural patterns. Through this principle and interpretation of region, Max Weber has very categorically proved that cultural factors which include religious factors also play a very wide role in social change.

Question 8.
What is social change? Examine the role of technology in social change?
Answer:
By social change, we mean change in the social structure of the society or in order words social change means a significant change in social relationships & Social changes include those changes in society which are sufficiently durable and which influence a majority of people.

According to Jones, “Social change is a term used to describe variations, in or modification of any aspects of social process, social patterns, interrelations or social organisations”. In According to Maclver and Page, “Our directed concern as sociologists is with social relationships. It is the change in this relationship which alone we shall regard as social change”.

The role of Technology in social change :
Technological growth and industrialisation:
The introduction of machines in the industry has resulted in some fundamental changes in the social structure of society. The invention of machines has led to the creation of huge factories which employ thousands of people and where most of the work performed automatically. Industrialisation and the birth of gigantic factories led to urbanisation and this city came into existence. Again the processes of urbanisation and industrialisation transformed the structure of society.

The social organisation divided itself into classes such as capitalists and labourers between which a fierce conflict raged. To promote class interests lockouts strikes processions become the stocks in trade. Industrialisation destroyed the domestic system of production bringing women from the home to the factory and the office differentiating their tasks distinguishing their earnings. The burden of work in the family which falls on the women has been decreased, by the increasing use of mechanical appliances.

Development of new agricultural techniques and social change :
An important factor in technology is the development of new techniques in agriculture. Due to the development of new techniques in agriculture muscle power has been replaced by machine power. Agricultural production is increased due to the use of new chemical manures. The quality is also improved by the use of superior seeds. Hence the increase in agricultural production also improved the standard of living of the people.

Advancement of means of communication transport and social change:
The introduction of machinery in the industry led to the development of large-scale production which necessitated communication between traders situated far apart. In this connection, many benefits were reaped through postal service, telegraph, telephone etc. Newspaper, television, radio etc. helped to bring news from the comer of the world right into the household. The development of the cycle, motor, rail, ship and aeroplane made transportation of communities much easier.

Technology and new values:
The new values have come up as growth of technological development as such. A new philosophy of life came into being. Technological factors change men’s values thoughts habits and finally bring change in culture as a whole success is measured in monetary terms. Quantity is preferred to quality. The desire for immediate results is intense men have come more pragmatic in their out locks. In this way, technological factor brings many changes in society.

Question 9.
Describe the major factors of social change with examples. Or, What is social change and discuss its factors?
Answer:
Social change is the change in society. Society is a web of social relationships. Hence social change is a change in social relationships. Maclver and Page, writing in this context, have observed correctly, “It is the change in these which alone we shall regard as social change is a change in social relationships. Social relationships include social processes, social patterns and social interactions.

These include the mutual activities and relations of the various parts of society. In the words of Johnes, “social change is a term used to describe variations or modifications of any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interactions, or social organisations”. Thus social change is a change in the social organisation. It is in this sense that Davis has written that “By social change is mean only such alterations as secure in social organisations.

the structure and functions of society”. Social change can be observed in every society. The fact of social change can be verified by glancing at the history of society. Man is a dynamic being. Hence society can not remain static. It undergoes constant social change. Sometimes, the change is slow and at the other time, it may be very rapid.

Factors of Social Change:
Some thinkers regard diffusion to be the main factor of social change while some other writers consider invention in a similar capacity. Actually, both diffusion and invention have a hand in the change which sets social relationships. Roughly, the main causes of social change are the following:

Cultural Factors:
The main cause of social change, in the opinion of Max Weber, is the cultural factor. According to him, changes in culture are accompanied by social changes. Max Weber has proved his theory through a comparative study of religious and economic institutions. Actually, no one can deny that changes and variations in culture inevitably influence social relationships.

Technological Factors :
Technological factors have a tremendous influence on social change. Technology changes society by changing over environments which we in turn adopt. This change is usually in a material environment and the adjustment we make to the changes often modifies customs and social institutions. Society is undergoing change as a result of the development and invention of electric, steam and petrol-driven machines for production.

the means of transport and communication and various mechanical appliances in everyday life. Even institutions like family and marriage have not remained immune to the effect of these developments. The apparent effects of technological advances are labour organisations and the division of labour. Socialization, high speed of life, increase in production, etc. In the modem age, technological factors are among the predominant causes of social change.

Biological Factors:
Biological factors have some indirect influence on social change. Among the biological factors are Population, and heredity. The qualitative aspect of the population is based upon powerful and great men and their birth is dependent to a large extent upon heredity and mutation. Hence, biological factors play a part in social change to that extent. In addition to this, the biological principles of natural selection and the struggle for survival are constantly producing alternation in society.

Population Factors :
Change in the quality and size of the population has an effect on social organisations as well as customs and traditions, institutions, associations etc. Increase and decrease in population, a change in the ratio of men and women, young and old, have an effective relationship. A decrease or increase in the population has an immediate effect on economic institutions and associations. The ratio of men to women in a society affects marriage, family and the condition of women in society. In the same way, the birth and death rates etc. also influence social change.

Environmental Factors :
Geographers have emphasized the impact of the geographical environment on human society. Huntington has given so far as to assert that an alternation in the climate is the sole cause of the evolution and devolution of civilizations and cultures. Even if these claims of the geographers are to be discarded, it cannot be denied that floods, earthquakes, excessive rain, drought, change of season etc. have significant effects on social relationships and these are modified by such natural occurrences.

Psychological Factors :
Most sociologists regard psychological factors as important elements in social change. The cause of social changes is the psychology of man himself. Man is, by nature, a lover of change. He is always trying to discover new things in every sphere of his life and is always anxious for noble experiences. As a result of this tendency, the modes, traditions, customs, etc. of every human society are perpetually undergoing changes.

Question 10.
Discuss the Demographic factors of social change?
Answer:
Population and its impact on social change:
Population plays vital in social change if the population of a country is far ahead of the available resources, the country suppers economic difficulties and poverty. The division of labour which is an important factor of social change is also governed by the population. Normally a society which has less population has more uniformity and increases in population bring about diversity.

In fact, population-like geographical factors play a vital part in social change. Thinkers and economists like Malthus, Sanders etc. have propounded their theories which law down that population plays a vital role in social change. Malthusian theory of population and its impact on social change Malthus has propounded a theory of population which mainly deals with the increase of population, ways to check it, and methods for feeding it.

But along with this theory, this theory also puts forward the effects that population has on social change, Malthus has said that as a result of an increase in population which grows in a natural manner, within 25 years the population which if of a country, due to rise. geometrical proportion shall become double it. On the other hand, the resources and means of livelihood do not rise in geometrical proportion, they rise in mathematical proportion so the rise in population leaves the growth of resources far behind.

This disbalance creates a lot of problems for society. Unless there is a balance between the resources and the population, the society shall have to face a lot of problems. That is why Malthus has pleaded for use of checks for the rise in population. He has said that the population is not checks nature by it Creates certain situation that reduces the population. Due to dis-balance the resources and the population, several problems like hunger, poverty and unemployment etc.

grow they bring about several changes. Malthusian theory suffers from various weaknesses. It fails to recognize the contribution of scientific and technological factors to the growth in resources. Apart from it, the problems of want, hunger unemployment etc. are not the natural colliery to rise in population in many countries where there is proper balancing between the population and the resources but the country suffers from these problems.

Apart from it, this theory fails to recognize the importance of economic factors in checking the population. As a result of the rise in the standard of living, people reduce the number of issues and so the growth of the population is automatically checked. In spite of the weakness of the Malthusian theory, income rates above, the fact can not be denied that population has an impact on social change. Solder and his theory of rise in population and its impact on social change.

This is the theory which is quite different from Malthusian theory. According to this theory, with every new generation, the power of fecundates of the population goes down. By this theory, he tries to prove that with the rise in the social standard, the power of people to produce children and to increase in population goes down. In this manner they try to drive that there is a close relationship between social change and the rise and fall of the density of the population.

Malthus says that with every generation the power of producing children goes down. This theory is not accepted by the modem thinkers but the basic underline idea of the theory that the population is linked with social change is established. Demographic or population factors of social change Having studied these two theories which are even today looked on with respect in regard to a study of population, we can now safely rate the factors that bring about social change.

These factors are as follows.
Effect of excess population on society and the developments in society :
As a result of an excess population, several changes and development take place in society. It creates problems of food, employment education, provision for good need necessities development the responsibility lies on the excess population. Because of this excess population, the benefits of development and the new resources are not fairly utilised and used.

Effect of birth rate and death rate on Social change and social developments :
If due to the rise of the birth rate, the population of a country goes up, society is faced with several problems, similarly if due to a rise in the death rate the number of working hands goes down in a society when society is not able to make ful use of its resources. People are able to take full advantage of the resources of scientific and technological development only when there is balanced birth and death rate.

Composition of population and social change:
By composition of the population, it is meant the composition of various groups, sex etc. in a society if in a society the number of old people is more than the young, the society shall not be able to make progress, On the other hand, in a society, there are very few old persons, that society shall not be able to take full advantage of the women and children, the problems of feeding them brings about various social complications developments and the changes. In other words, it means the composition of the population has an impact on social change.

Population, immigration and emigration:
if the population of a country goes up. At rapid speed and people are faced with various economic problems they migrate form one country to another this creates problems for the society from which migrate and in countries like Australia people of other countries are welcomed while in countries like India it is not possible to welcome addition to the population.

People of countries like Australia want manpower to utilise their resources while countries like India want their populations so balanced that there is close coordination between the population and the resources. All these points go to prove that population and social changes are very much interrelated rise or decline in population has an impact on society and brings about several developments and changes.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 4 Process, Stratification and Change Objective Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 4 Process, Stratification and Change Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Who defines “Social process refers to the repetitive terms of behavior which are commonly sound in social life”?
(a) M. Ginsberg
(b) Horton and Hunt
(c) A. W. Green
(d) Maclver
Answer:
(b) Horton and Hunt

Question 2.
Does the associative social process work for the _____?
(a) Disintegration of society,
(b) Organisation of society,
(c) Integration of society.
Answer:
(c) Integration of society.

Question 3.
Does the dissociative social process work for the ______?
(a) Integration of society.
(b) Disintegration of society.
Answer:
(b) Disintegration of society.

Question 4.
The term co-operation is derived from _______?
(a) French word.
(b) Greek word.
(c) Latin word.
Answer:
(c) Latin word

Question 5.
Who said that “Co-operation is the continuous and common endeavor of two or more persons to perform a task or to reach a goal that is commonly cherished?
(a) A. W. Green
(b) Wilson
(c) Fairchild
(d) Maclver
Answer:
(a) A. W. Green

Question 6.
Tilling the fields together is an example of ______?
(a) Indirect co-operation
(b) Direct co-operation
(c) Secondary co-operation
Answer:
(b) Direct cooperation.

Question 7.
When people do different tasks towards a similar goal we call it _______?
(a) Direct co-operation
(b) Indirect co-operation
(c) Primary co-operation
Answer:
(b) Indirect co-operation

Question 8.
Which of the following is a characteristic of cooperation?
(a) Impersonal process
(b) Personal process
(c) Indirect co-operation
Answer:
(b) Personal process.

Question 9.
Co-operation found among the members of a political party is an example of a?
(a) Primary co-operation
(b) Secondary co-operation
(c) Direct co-operation
Answer:
(b) Secondary co-operation

Question 10.
When two political parties of different ideologies cooperate among themselves to defeat the third party it is an example of?
(a) Primary co-operation
(b) Secondary co-operation
(c) Tertiary co-operation
(d) Direct co-operation
Answer:
(c) Tertiary co-operation

Question 11.
Who opines “Competition is an interaction without social contact”?
(a) Horton and Hunt
(b) Maxwell
(c) Biesonz
(d) Park and Burgess
Answer:
(c) Biesonz

Question 12.
Which one of the following is the characteristic of competition?
(a) Conscious activity
(b) Intermittent process
(c) Governed by norms
Answer:
(c) Governed by norms

Question 13.
When people compete to achieve higher status, we call it?
(a) Economic competition
(b) Social competition
(c) Educational competition
Answer:
(b) Social competition

Question 14.
The competition found in the process of production distribution and consumption is?
(a) Political competition
(b) Cultural competition
(c) Economic competition,
Answer:
(c) Economic competition

Question 15.
When two political parties compete for the power it is called?
(a) Political competition
(b) Economic competition
(c) Social competition
Answer:
(a) Political competition

Question 16.
Competition between Aryans and Dravidians is an example of a?
(a) Social competition
(b) Cultural competition
(c) Economic competition
(d) Political competition
Answer:
(b) Cultural competition

Question 17.
Competition between white and black is an example of a?
(a) Racial competition
(b) Cultural competition
(c) Social competition
(d) Political competition
Answer:
(a) Racial competition

Question 18.
Who opines “Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or others”?
(a) Maclver
(b) A.W. Green
(c) Herton and Hunt
(d) GillinandGillin
Answer:
(b) A. W. Green

Question 19.
Who defines “Conflict as the total social process in which individuals or groups seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonists by violence or threat of violence”?
(a) A. W. Green
(b) Horton and Hunt
(c) GillinandGillin
(d) Ogburn
Answer:
(c) Gillin and Gillin

Question 20.
Which of the following is a characteristic of conflict?
(a) Conflict is impersonal
(b) Intermittent process
(c) Unconscious activity
Answer:
(b) Intermittent process

Question 21.
Who mentioned about four forms of conflict such as war, feud, litigation, and conflict of impersonal ideals?
(a) Maclver
(b) George Simmel
(c) K. Davis
(d) Ogbum
Answer:
(b) George Simmel

Question 22.
When one participant in conflict attempts to destroy another it is called a?
(a) Episodic conflict
(b) Terminal conflict
(c) Continuous conflict
Answer:
(b) Terminal conflict

Question 23.
The conflict regulated by rules is known as a?
(a) Terminal conflict
(b) continuous conflict
(c) Episodic conflict
Answer:
(c) Episodic conflict

Question 24.
The conflict which takes place among the members of some group is called?
(a) War
(b) Feud
(c) Litigation
(d) Racial conflict
Answer:
(b) Feud

Question 25.
When individuals fight not for themselves but for an ideal we call it is?
(a) Conflict of impersonal ideals
(b) Litigation
(c) Episodic conflict
(d) Work
Answer:
(a) Conflict of personal ideal

Question 26.
Conflict graded on physical differences is called a?
(a) Social conflict
(b) Racial conflict
(c) War
(d) Feud
Answer:
(b) Racial conflict

Question 27.
The conflict that arises among different nations is known as?
(a) National Conflict
(b) International conflict
(c) State conflict
(d) War
Answer:
(b) International conflict

Question 28.
When an individual or group does not express their feeling of conflict it is?
(a) Patient conflict
(b) Manifest conflict
(c) Personal conflict
(d) War
Answer:
(a) Patient conflict

Question 29.
Conflict among classes with different interests is ______?
(a) Economic Conflict
(b) Class conflict
(c) War
Answer:
(b) Class conflict

Question 30.
The end of conflict opens the way for ________?
(a) Competition
(b) Co-operation
(c) Accommodation
Answer:
(c) Accommodation

Question 31.
Which one is the end result of conflict?
(a) Co-operation
(b) Assimilation
(c) Accommodation
Answer:
(c) Accommodation

Question 32.
Which is not an associative process?
(a) Accommodation
(b) Assimilation
(c) Competition
(d) Co-operation
Answer:
(d) Co-operation

Question 33.
Which one is not a dissociative process?
(a) Co-operation
(b) Competition
(c) Conflict
Answer:
(c) Conflict

Question 34.
What type of process is cooperation?
(a) Universal
(b) Impersonal
(c) Unconscious
Answer:
(a) Universal

Question 35.
Which of the following is not associated with the competition?
(a) Conscious
(b) Impersonal
(c) Continuous
Answer:
(b) Impersonal

Question 36.
What type of process is conflict?
(a) Unconscious
(b) Intermittent
(c) Impersonal
Answer:
(c) Impersonal

Question 37.
What is the meaning of social stratification?
(a) Social hierarchy
(b) Universal system
(c) Ranking in society
(d) Simple society
Answer:
(d) Simple society

Question 38.
“The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less in during hierarchy of states is known as stratification”. Who defines this?
(a) Gisbert
(b) Ogbum and Nimkoff
(c) Lundberg
(d) Melvin M.Tunin
Answer:
(b) Ogbum and Nimkoff

Question 39.
“Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordination”. Who defines?
(a) Gisbert
(b) M. Tunin
(c) Lundberg
(d) Ogbum
Answer:
(a) Gisbert

Question 40.
“A stratified society is one marked by inequality by differences among people that are evaluated by them as being lower and higher”?
(a) Lundberg
(b) W. Murry
(c) Ogbum
(d) Tumin
Answer:
(a) Lundberg

Question 41.
“Sociafstratification is a horizontal division of society into high and lower society units”?
(a) Ogbum
(b) Raymond W. Muny
(c) Gisbert
(d) Tumin
Answer:
(b) Raymond W. Murry

Question 42.
Social stratification is _______?
(a) Obiquitious
(b) Privileges
(c) Differentiation
(d) Societies
Answer:
(a) Obiquitious

Question 43.
Stratification is simply a process?
(a) Interaction
(b) Hierarchy
(c) Interaction of differentiation
(d) Differentiation.
Answer:
(c) Interaction of differentiation

Question 44.
Does stratification tend to perpetuate these differences in ________?
(a) Status
(b) Stage
(c) Process
(d) Role
Answer:
(a) Status

Question 45.
Stratification in society, sorted and classified into groups?
(a) Class and Gender
(b) Caste, Class, and Gender
(c) Caste, Class
(d) All of the above
Answer:
(b) Caste, Class, and Gender

Question 46.
In the caste system occupation is _______?
(a) Fixed
(b) Charging
(c) Discontinue
Answer:
(a) Fixed

Question 47.
The word caste owes in origin to which word?
(a) French
(b) Greek
(c) Spanish
Answer:
(c) Spanish

Question 48.
Status in the caste system is _______?
(a) Ascribed
(b) Achieved
(c) none of the above
Answer:
(a) Ascribed

Question 49.
Marriage in the caste system is _______?
(a) Enogamous
(b) Endogamous
(c) None of the above
Answer:
(b) Endogamous

Question 50.
“When a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it a caste”?
(a) Risely,
(b) A. W, Green
(c) C.H.Cooly
(d) Maclver and Page
Answer:
(b) A. W. Green

Question 51.
Warmer and Lunt had not given me the following classification of classes?
(a) Lower-lower class
(b) Capitalist class
(c) Upper-middle class
Answer:
(b) Capitalist class

Question 52.
“Unstratified society with a real equality of its members is a myth which has never been realized in the history of mankind”?
(a) Maclver
(b) Tumia
(c) Sorpkim
Answer:
(c) Sordkim

Question 53.
The process which aims to destroy the opponent is called?
(a) competition
(b) Conflict
(c) Co-operation
Answer:
(b) Conflict

Question 54.
Which among the following is based on direct cooperation?
(a) Parliament
(b) Family
(c) General Assemble
(d) Government
Answer:
(b) Family

Question 55.
Which one of the following does not involve secondary cooperation?
(a) Teacher-student relations
(b) Industry
(c) Religious organization
(d) Trade union
Answer:
(a) Teacher-student relations.

Question 56.
Which of the following is a disjunctive social process?
(a) Assimilation
(b) Competition
(c) Integration
(d) Co-operation
Answer:
(b) Competition

Question 57.
The essential element of cooperation is that _______?
(a) People should belong to some nation.
(b) People should work under some roof.
(c) People should work together to gain a common end.
(d) People should progress some religious faith.
Answer:
(c) People should work together to gain a common end.

Question 58.
Which of the following statement is not true?
(a) Competition is the result of to struggle for existence.
(b) Competition is an impersonal struggle.
(c) Competition is an unconscious activity.
(d) Competition does not care for social norms.
Answer:
(d) Competition does not care for social norms.

Question 59.
The organizational trend today is towards?
(a) More co-operation
(b) More competition
Answer:
(b) More competition

Question 60.
Which of the following statement is not true?
(a) Competition is conducive to progress.
(b) Competition is a source of motivation.
(c) Competition is a prerequisite to social progress.
(d) Competition believes in achieved _ status.
Answer:
(c) Competition is a prerequisite to social progress.

Question 61.
Which of the following is not a characteristic of conflict ______?
(a) Conflict is universal
(b) Conflict lacks continuity
(c) Conflict is a conscious action
(d) Conflict is an impersonal activity.
Answer:
(d) Conflict is an impersonal activity.

Question 62.
Which one of the following is not a form of conflict?
(a) War
(b) Feud
(c) Litigation
(d) Examination
Answer:
(d) Examination

Question 63.
The conflict between capitalists and workers is an example of _______?
(a) Personal conflict
(b) Class conflict
(c) Racial conflict
(d) Political conflict
Answer:
(b) Class conflict

Question 64.
Hindu and Muslim riots are an example of _______?
(a) Personal conflict
(b) Corporate Conflict
Answer:
(b) Corporate conflict.

Question 65.
Co-operation is crossed by conflict is the famous statement of ________?
(a) Maclver
(b) Cooley
(c) Comte
(d) GillinandGillin
Answer:
(a) Maclever

Question 66.
Does social change refer to change in _______?
(a) Obsess
(b) Value system
(c) Habitation pattern.
(d) Food habits
Answer:
(b) Value system

Question 67.
Who among the following has analyzed the process of social change in terms of fluctuation between the cultural mentalities such as identical, idealistic, and sensate?
(a) O. Spengler
(b) L.Wirth
(c) P. Sorokin
(d) A.Toyntee
Answer:
(c) P. Sorokin

Question 68.
Who defines social change in the following way “By social change is meant only such alternation as occur in social organization that is in the structure and functions of society”?
(a) Jones
(b) K. Davis
(c) Maclver
(d) Ogburn
Answer:
(b) K. Davis

Question 69.
Who defines “Social change as variations from the accepted modes of like”?
(a) GillinandGillin
(b) Comte
(c) Marx
(d) Weber
Answer:
(a) Gillin and Gillin

Question 70.
Who defines “Social change as a term used to describe variations in or modifications of any aspects of social processes social patterns, social interaction of social organization”?
(a) K. Davis
(b) P. Sorokin
(c) Jones
(d) M. N. Srinivas
Answer:
(a) K. Davis

Question 71.
Who of the following sociologists views social change and culture change as one?
(a) GillinandGillin
(b) Maclever and Page
(c) K. Davis
Answer:
(a) Gillin and Gillin

Question 72.
Which of the following view that social change is different from cultural change?
(a) P. Sorokin
(b) GillinandGillin
(c) K. Davis
(d) Maciver and Page
Answer:
(d) Maclver and Page

Question 73.
Which of the following says that cultural change is broader than social change?
(a) Ogbum
(b) Max Weber
(c) Jones
(d) K. Davis
Answer:
(d) K. Davis

Question 74.
Which of the following introduced the concept of cultural log?
(a) W. F. Ogbum
(b) O. Spengler
(c) Maclver
(d) K. Davis
Answer:
(a) W. F Ogburn

Question 75.
Which of the following is the characteristic of social change?
(a) Social change is related to time.
(b) Social change takes a particular form.
(c) Social change is intermittent.
(d) Social change is caused by a single factor.
Answer:
(a) Social change is related to time.

Question 76.
Who divided the culture into material and non-material types?
(a) M. N. Srinivas
(b) W.F. Ogburn
(c) T.R. Mathus
(d) E.S. Bogardus
Answer:
(b) W.F. Ogburn

Question 77.
What is cultural change?
(a) Change in social organization,
(b) Change in social relationships.
(c) Change in housing
(d) Change in art, science, literature, and values.
Answer:
(d) Change in art, science, literature, and values.

Question 78.
Which of the following speaks about social selection?
(a) OgbumandNinkoff
(b) Maclver and Page
(c) C. Dawin
Answer:
(a) Ogburn and Ninkoff

Question 79.
What is technology?
(a) Use of ox in tilling the land.
(b) Use of inanimate power in production
(c) Use of animate power in production
Answer:
(b) Use of inanimate power in production

Question 80.
Does exogenous social change refer to______?
(a) Change due to external factors
(b) Change due to internal factors
Answer:
(a) Change due to external factors

True & False Type Questions With Answer

Question 1.
Competition is an example of an associative social process.
Answer:
False

Question 2.
Competition is an example of a dissociative social process.
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Does the associative social process work towards the integration of society?
Answer:
False

Question 4.
Does the associative social process work towards the integration of society?
Answer:
True

Question 5.
Competition is a personal struggle.
Answer:
False

Question 6.
Competition is an impersonal struggle?
Answer:
True

Question 7.
Competition is an interaction with social contact.
Answer:
False

Question 8.
Competition is interaction without social contact.
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Conflict is the unconscious attempt to oppose, resist or. coerce the will of another?
Answer:
False

Question 10.
Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another.
Answer:
True

Question 11.
When cooperating individuals do like things we call it indirect cooperation.
Answer:
False

Question 12.
When cooperating individuals do like things we call direct cooperation?
Answer:
True

Question 13.
The term co-operation is derived from the Greek word ‘Co’ and ‘operator’.
Answer:
False

Question 14.
The term co-operation is derived from the Latin word ‘co’ and ‘operator’?
Answer:
True

Question 15.
When cooperating individuals do dissimilar things it is called direct cooperation.
Answer:
False

Question 16.
When cooperating individuals do dissimilar things it is called indirect cooperation.
Answer:
True

Question 17.
Co-operation found among the members of the family is called ‘ Secondary co-operation?
Answer:
False

Question 18.
Cooperation found among the members of the family is called primary cooperation.
Answer:
True

Question 19.
When people cooperate among themselves to meet a particular situation it is called secondary cooperation.
Answer:
False

Question 20.
When people cooperate among themselves to meet a particular situation it is called tertiary cooperation.
Answer:
True

Question 21.
Competition is an intermittent process.
Answer:
False

Question 22.
Competition is a continuous process.
Answer:
True

Question 23.
Competition is interaction without social contact is the definition given by Biesanz?
Answer:
False

Question 24.
Competition is interaction without social contact is the definition given by Park and Burgess?
Answer:
True

Question 25.
The competition that occurs between cultural groups is called social competition.
Answer:
False

Question 26.
The competition that occurs between cultural groups is called cultural competition.
Answer:
True

Question 27.
Conflict is an unconscious and impersonal process.
Answer:
False

Question 28.
Conflict is an unconscious and personal process.
Answer:
True

Question 29.
A conflict is an extreme form of the associative social process.
Answer:
False

Question 30.
Conflict is an extreme form of the dissociative social process.
Answer:
True

Question 31.
The conflict which is regulated by rules is known as terminal conflict.
Answer:
False

Question 32.
The conflict which is regulated by rules is called episodic conflict.
Answer:
True

Question 33.
Conflicts in which one participant attempts to destroy another is known as episodic conflict.
Answer:
False

Question 34.
Conflicts in which one participant attempts to destroy another is known as terminal conflict.
Answer:
True

Question 35.
A judicial form of conflict is known as a feud.
Answer:
False

Question 36.
A judicial form of conflict is known as litigation.
Answer:
True

Question 37.
Four terms of conflict such as war, feud, litigation, and conflict of impersonal ideals are mentioned by Ogburn.
Answer:
False

Question 38.
Four terms of conflict such as war, feud, litigation, and conflict of impersonal ideals are mentioned by George Simmel.
Answer:
True

Question 39.
When conflict ends accommodation ends.
Answer:
False

Question 40.
When conflict ends accommodation begins.
Answer:
True

Question 41.
Does accommodation refer to a process of biological adjustment?
Answer:
False

Question 42.
Does accommodation refer to a process of social adjustment?
Answer:
True

Question 43.
Co-operation is an impersonal process?
Answer:
False

Question 44.
Co-operation is a personal process?
Answer:
True

Question 45.
The lasting strife that takes place among the members of the same group is called war.
Answer:
False

Question 46.
The lasting strife that takes place among the members of the same group is called feud.
Answer:
True

Question 47.
Tertiary cooperation is found in the second group only.
Answer:
False

Question 48.
Tertiary cooperation is found in the primary and secondary groups only.
Answer:
True

Question 49.
Competition is always a personal process.
Answer:
False

Question 50.
Competition is always an impersonal process.
Answer:
True

Question 51.
Social stratification is simply a process of interaction of difference.
Answer:
False

Question 52.
Social stratification is simply a process of interaction of differentiation.
Answer:
True

Question 53.
Social stratification is intercourse?
Answer:
False

Question 54.
Social stratification is ubiquitous.
Answer:
True

Question 55.
The term social stratification refers to the division of a population into strata one on the top of other.
Answer:
False

Question 56.
The term social stratification refers to the division of a population into strata one on top of another.
Answer:
True

Question 57.
Class is a major characteristic of stratification.
Answer:
False

Question 58.
Class is a major type of stratification.
Answer:
True

Question 59.
The caste system is a major characteristic of social stratification?
Answer:
False

Question 60.
The caste system is a major type of social stratification?
Answer:
True

Question 61.
Social change is caused by a single factor.
Answer:
False

Question 62.
Social change is caused by multiple factors.
Answer:
True

Question 63.
Social change is not related to time.?
Answer:
False

Question 64.
Social change is related to time.
Answer:
True

Question 65.
Maclver used the concept of cultural lag.
Answer:
False

Question 66.
W.F. Ogburn used the concept of cultural lag.
Answer:
True

Question 67.
Social change is predictable?
Answer:
False

Question 68.
Social change is unpredictable.
Answer:
True

Question 69.
M.N. Srinivas divided culture into material and non-material types.
Answer:
False

Question 70.
W.F. Ogburn divided culture into material and non-material types.
Answer:
True

Question 71.
Social change is a part of cultural change.
Answer:
False

Question 72.
Cultural change is a part of social change?
Answer:
True

Question 73.
Change due to natural calamities like flow is planned change?
Answer:
False

Question 74.
Change due to natural calamities like flow is unplanned change?
Answer:
True

Question 75.
Change in social relationships is called cultural change.
Answer:
False

Question 76.
Change in art, literature, values, and culture is called cultural change.
Answer:
True

Question 77.
Communication is aji example of exogenous social change.
Answer:
False

Question 78.
Communication is an example of endogenous social change.
Answer:
True

Question 79.
Does Charles Darwin speak about social selection?
Answer:
False

Question 80.
Ogburn and Ninkoffspeaks about social selection.
Answer:
True

Question 81.
The change brought out by wars is known as endogenous social change.
Answer:
False

Question 82.
The change brought out by wars is known as exogenous social change.
Answer:
True

Question 83.
The use of animate power in production is known as technology.
Answer:
False

Question 84.
The use of inanimate power in production is known as technology.
Answer:
True

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 History Solutions Unit 1 Sources of Indian History Objective Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class History Unit 1 Sources of Indian History Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Questions with Answers

Question 1.
The word “History” derived from which word?
(a) Histology
(b) Histogram
(c) History
(d) Historia
Answer:
(d) Historia

Question 2.
Who is? the father of History?
(a) Thusidydes
(b) Humer
(c) Herodotus
(d) Aristotle
Answer:
(c) Herodotus

Question 3.
“History is an exemplary philosophy who told this?
(a) Dinosaurs
(b) Aristotle
(c) Polybius
(d) Thusidydes
Answer:
(a) Dinosaurs

Question 4.
What is the meaning of History?
(a) Old episodes
(b) Current episodes
(c) Which is going to be
(d) An autobiography
Answer:
(a) Old episodes

Question 5.
Which is first-class history?
(a) Heroic History
(b) Natural history
(c) Time and incidental history
(d) Democratic history
Answer:
(c) Time and incidental history

Question 6.
Who said ‘’History is the summary of unchanged past”?
(a) Herodotus
(b) Thusidydes
(c) Aristotle
(d) Rousseau
Answer:
(a) Aristotle

Question7.
Who said, “History is a story which makes man intelligent”?
(a) Francis Beacon
(b) Historian Karlyle
(c) Philosopher Rousseau
(d) Polybius
Answer:
(a) Francis Beacon

Question 8.
Who said, “History is an art and it gets an even from many odds”?
(a) John Anderson
(b) Jawaharlal Nehru
(c) Henry Johnson
(d) Rousseau
Answer:
(d) Rousseau

Question 9.
History is an exclamatory summary of what we are and why we? Whose statement is this?
(a) Karlton Kun
(b) Hegel
(c) Rousseau
(d) Karl Marx
Answer:
a) Karlton Kun

Question 10.
Who told, “Total History is eternal”?
(a) Polybius
(b) Henry Johnson
(c) Hegel
(d) R.G Kingwood
Answer:
(d) R. G. Collingwood

Question 11.
“History is a bridge between past and present” who told this?
(a) Elliot
(b) Thomas Karlyle
(c) Lord Acton
(d) Thusidydes
Answer:
(a) Elliot

Question 12.
History is a _________?
(a) Physics
(b) Chemistry
(c) Zoology
(d) Social Science
Answer:
(d) Social Science

Question 13.
Who is the author of the book “What is History”?
(a) E. H. Kann
(b) Thomas Kanlyle
(c) Metland
(d) J. B. Bari
Answer:
(a) E. H. Kann

Question 14.
Who is the author of the book “Discovery of India”?
(a) Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan
(b) Karlyle
(c) E. H. Kann
(d) Jawaharlal Nehru
Answer:
(d) Jawaharlal Nehru

Question 15.
According to which river name the ancient Persians gave name to India “Hind”?
(a) Satadru
(b) Sindhu
(c) Yamuna
(d) Ganga
Answer:
(b) Sindhu

Question 16.
The ancient scripts of India derived from which civilization’s archaeology?
(a) Aryan civilization
(b) Later Vedic civilization
(c) Harappan civilization
(d) Mauryan civilization
Answer:
(c) Harappan civilization

Question 17.
Which coin is regarded as the ancient coinage of India?
(a) Printing notes of Mauryan Period
(b) Kushan coinage
(c) Jew-Greek coin
(d) Gupta coinage
Answer:
(a) Printing notes of the Mauryan Period

Question 18.
How many purahS are seen in India?
(a) 18
(b) 15
(c) 20
(d) 10
Answer:
(a) 18

Question 19.
Which religion’s literature is “Sutrapitaka”?
(a) Buddhism
(b) Jainism
(c) Hinduism
(d) Islam
Answer:
(a) Buddhism

Question 20.
Which Pitaka shows different aspects of the life of a monk?
(a) Sutra Pitaka
(b) Binaya Pitaka
(c) Abhidharma Pitaka
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(b) Binaya Pitaka

Question 21.
Who is the author of “Arthashastra”?
(a) Measthenes
(b) Panini
(c) Patanjali
(d) Kautilya
Answer:
(d) Kautilya

Question 22.
Who wrote “Kumarasambhabam”?
(a) Kalidasa
(b) Sudraka
(c) Bishnu Sharma
(d) Visakhadutta
Answer:
(a) Kalidasa

Question 23.
Who is the author of “Mudrarakshasa”?
(a) Kalidasa
(b) Kautilya
(c) Harisena
(d) Visakhadutta
Answer:
(d) Visakhadutta

Question 24.
Who wrote ‘Harshacharita’?
(a) Harshavardhana
(b) Banabhatta
(c) Panini
(d) Vishnu
Answer:
(b) Banabhatta

Question 25.
“Bikramanka Charita” is written by whom?
(a) Bilhana
(b) Patanjali
(c) Kautilya
(d) Kalhana
Answer:
(a) Bilhana

Question 26.
“Rama Charita” is written by whom?
(a) Banabhatta
(b) Sandhyakar Nandi
(c) Vishakhadutta
(d) Kalhana
Answer:
(b) Sandhyakar Nandi

Question 27.
“Prithwiraj Charita” is written by whom?
(a) Bilhana
(b) Sandhyakar Nandi
(c) Panini
(d) Chandakabi
Answer:
(d) Chandakabi

Question 28.
Who is the author of “Rajatarangini’?
(a) Patanjali
(b) Kalhana
(c) Kautilya
(d) Megasthenes
Answer:
(b) Kalhana

Question 29.
For the ancient historical writings engraved literature legends and coins are regarded as which source?
(a) Religious literature
(b) Secular literature
(c) Archaeological monuments
(d) Account of foreigners
Answer:
(c) Archaeological monuments

Question 30.
Kalidas’s “Malabikagnimitra” relates some incidental aspects of which king?
(a) Harshavardhana
(b) Pushyamitra Sunga
(c) Chandragupta Maurya
(d) Samudragupta
Answer:
(b) Pushyamitra Sunga

Question 31.
Who is the author of‘Swapnabasaba-Dutta”?
(a) Kalidasa
(b) Vishakhacjiltta
(c) Kautilya
(d) Bhasa
Answer:
(d) Bhasa

Question 32.
Moral teachings literature “Pancha-tantrum” is written by whom?
(a) Bishnu Sharma
(b) Patanjali
(c) Sudraka
(d) Harisena
Answer:
(a) Bishnu Sharma

Question 33.
“Chhachanama” is which country’s literature?
(a) Egypt
(b) Arab
(c) China
(d) India
Answer:
(b) Arab

Question 34.
Which foreign geographist has described in his geographical text regarding the ports of India?
(a) Pliny
(b) Megasthenes
(c) I tsing
(d) Jalemy
Answer:
(d) Jeremy

Question 35.
Which Greek king sent ambassador Megasthenes to the Mauryan court?
(a) Alexander
(b) Peimachas
(c) Dionisius
(d) Seleucus
Answer:
(d) Seleucus

Question 36.
Kautilya’s ‘Arthasashtra’ is what type of literature?
(a) Religious literature
(b) Life science
(c) Touring episode
(d) Political literature
Answer:
(d) Political literature

Question 37.
In which king’s reign did Chinese ambassador Fa-Hien came to India?
(a) Samudragupta
(b) Ashoka
(c) Chandragupta II
(d) Harshavardhan
Answer:
(c) Chandragupta II

Question 38.
Which script is written by Fa-Hien?
(a) Fo-Kuo-Ki
(b) Si-Yu Ki
(c) Historia Pipilika
(d) Jahik-i-hind
Answer:
(a) Fo-Kuo-Ki

Question 39.
In which king’s reign Hiuen-Tsang came to India?
(a) Kharavela
(b) Chandragupta Maurya
(c) Chandragupta II
(d) Harshavardhan
Answer:
(d) Harshavardhan

Question 40.
Who is the author of the script Si-Yu-Ki?
(a) Fa-hien
(b) Lao-Tse
(c) Hiuen-Tsang
(d) I-Tsing
Answer:
(c) Hiuen-Tsang

Question 41.
“Mahabhasya” is written by whom?
(a) Patanjali
(b) Kalhana
(c) Aryabhatta
(d) Barahamihira
Answer:
(a) Patanjali

Question 42.
Who wrote the book ‘Tarique-e-hind”?
(a) Al-Beruni.
(b) Hasan Nizami
(c) Gulbadan Baig
(d) Abdullah
Answer:
(a) Al-Beruni

Question 43.
“Tabaquat-i-nisin” is written by whom?
(a) Ziauddin Barani
(b) Amir Khusru
(c) Minhaz-i-siraj
(d) Mohammad Kadir
Answer:
(c) Minhaz-i-siraj

Question 44.
“Tarique-i-froze” is written by whom?
(a) Ziauddin Barani
(b) Amir Khusru
(c) Mohammad Amin
(d) Mohammad Kadir
Answer:
(a) Ziauddin Barani

Question 45.
The book ‘Humayun-Nama is written by whom?
(a) Gulbadan Baig
(b) Abash Khan Sarwag
(c) Mohammad Amin
(d) Abdullah Khan
Answer:
(a) Gulbadan Baig

Question 46.
Who wrote the script ‘Akbarnama’?
(a) Akbar
(b) Amir Khusru
(c) Fayaji
(d) Abul Fazal
Answer:
(d) Abul Fazal

Question 47.
Indian legendary sign ‘Asiatic society of Bengal’ was established by whom in 1774 A.D.?
(a) Rakhaldas Banerjee
(b) Dayaram Sahani
(c) William Johnes
(d) James Princep
Answer:
(c) William Johnes

Question 48.
Which archaeologist has discovered the ‘Brahmi’ script?
(a) General Kaningha
(b) Johnes Princep
(c) Rakhaldas Baneijee
(d) Dayaram Sahani
Answer:
(b) Johnes Princep

Question 49.
Which king built the ‘Hatigumpha Inscription’?
(a) King Ashoka
(b) King Samudragupta
(c) King Harshavardhana
(d) King Kharavela
Answer:
(d) King Kharavela

Question 50.
“Aihole Inscription” gives information regarding which king?
(a) Gupta king Samudragupta
(b) King of Kalinga Kharavela
(c) Chalukya king Pulakesi-II
(d) Saka king Rudradaman
Answer:
(c) Chalukya king Pulakesi-II

Question 51.
Which system gives information about coinage?
(a) Epigraphy
(b) Numismatics
(c) Account of Foreigners
(d) Archival sources
Answer:
(b) Numismatics

Question 52.
The Saranath, Dhauli, and Jaugarh information of king Ashoka what type of source?
(a) Informative source
(b) Religious source
(c) Legendary source
(d) Praiseworthy source
Answer:
(b) Religious source

Question 53.
The defeat of Harshavardhan by Chalukya king Pulakesi is known from which Pillar Inscription?
(a) Gwalior pillar inscription
(b) Allahabad pillar inscription
(c) Mehrulli iron pillar inscription
(d) Aihole pillar inscription
Answer:
(d) Aihole pillar inscription

Question 54.
Many things regarding the reign of Samudragupta are unknown which pillar inscription was unwritten?
(a) Mehrulli pillar inscription
(b) Aihol pillar inscription
(c) Girinar pillar inscription
(d) Allahabad pillar inscription
Answer:
(d) Allahabad pillar inscription

Question 55.
What type of culture was Harappa?
(a) Village culture
(b) City culture
(c) Mixture of village and city culture
(d) Extraordinary culture
Answer:
(b) City culture

Question 56.
Who considered Harappa in 1829 A.D. as ‘Breakage Brick’s Fort’?
(a) Charles Mason
(b) Sir Bums
(c) Sir John Marshall
(d) Rakhal Das Benaijee
Answer:
(a) Charles Mason

Question 57.
By whose endeavor in 1921-22 were two eminent towns’ archaeological discoveries found?
(a) Mason & Bums
(b) R.S. Tripathy & Bhandarkar
(c) Harprasad Shastri & R.C. Majumdar
(d) R.D. Benaijee & Dayaram Sahani
Answer:
(d) R.D. Benaijee & Dayaram Sahani

Question 58.
Where Mahenjodaro is located?
(a) Gujurat state
(b) Rajasthan state
(c) District of Montgomery in West-Punjab
(d) Lankan district in Sindh
Answer:
(d) Lankan district in Sindh

Question 59.
Where is Harappan situated?
(a) District of Montgomery in West-Punjab
(b) Lankan district in Sindh
(c) State of Jammu & Kashmir
(d) State of Gujarat
Answer:
(a) District of Montgomery in West-Punjab

Question 60.
What is the meaning of Mahenjodaro?
(a) Elaborate city
(b) Proposed city
(c) Dead City
(d) Village city
Answer:
(c) Dead City

Question 61.
Where ‘Great Bath’ was discovered?
(a) Harappa
(b) Sindh civilization
(c) Later Vedic Age
(d) Mahenjodaro
Answer:
(d) Mahenjodaro

Question 62.
Veda is divided into how many parts?
(a) 10
(b) 6
(c) 8
(d) 4
Answer:
(d) 4

Question 63.
The village headman was known in Vedic?
(a) Gramani
(b) Gramika
(c) Gramapati
(d) Vispati
Answer:
(a) Gramani

Question 64.
Which social phenomena were important in
(a) Family
(b) Kula (clan)
(c) Grama (village)
(d) City
Answer:
(a) Family

Question 65.
Which two important democratic institution was important to assist the king in his administration?
(a) Family & clan
(b) Sabha & Samiti
(c) City & Multi-city
(d) National & International
Answer:
(b) Sabha & Samiti

Question 66.
Who was known as ‘Pani’ in Rigvedic civilization?
(a) Officials
(b) Businessmen
(c) Military men
(d) Poets
Answer:
(b) Businessmen

Question 67.
What was called to be JSna head in the Rigvedic Age?
(a) Gop
(b) Gramani
(c) Kulam
(d) Rajan
Answer:
(a) Gop

Question 68.
What was the designation of tax collectors in the early Vedic age?
(a) Sangrahitri
(b) Bhagadugha
(c) Stapati
(d) Ugra
Answer:
(b) Bhagadugha

Question 69.
What was the designation of treasurer in the early Vedic age?
(a) Abakshapa
(b) Gobikruta
(c) Bhagadugha
(d) Sangrahitri
Answer:

Question 70.
What is the name of the earliest Veda?
(a) Rig
(b) Sham
(c) Yajur
(d) Atharva
Answer:

Question 71.
In the Rigvedic Age who is the God of Truth & Morality?
(a) Indra
(b) Varuna
(c) Agri (Fire)
(d) Surya (Sun)
Answer:
(d) Surya (Sun)

Question 72.
Where Lothal is situated?
(a) Rajasthan
(b) Sindh
(c) Gujurat
(d) Punjab
Answer:
(c) Gujurat

Question 73.
What was the designation of the family head in the Rigvedic Age ? –
(a) Rajan
(b) Gop
(c) Kulapa
(d) Purohit
Answer:
(c) Kulapa

Question 74.
From which Age the social four-fold division system was introduced?
(a) Early Vedic Age
(b) Harappa Age
(c) Sixth century B.C.
(d) Later Vedic Age
Answer:
(d) Later Vedic Age

Question 75.
At which age did the Indian women’s earlier position deteriorate?
(a) Early Vedic Age
(b) Later Vedic Age
(c) Jaina’s Age
(d) Buddhist Age
Answer:
(b) Later Vedic Age

Question 76.
A harbor is discovered from which area of Harappan civilization?
(a) Lothal
(b) Kalibangan
(c) Rangpur
(d) Manda
Answer:
(a) Lothal

Question 77.
The use of which metal was unknown to Harappan people?
(a) Copper
(b) Bronze
(c) Iron
(d) Tinv
Answer:
(c) Iron

Question 78.
Which script describes the creation of Mahajanapada?
(a) Shyam Veda
(b) Jaina Text
(c) Sutra Pitaka
(d) Angultara Nikaya
Answer:
(d) Anguttana Nikaya

Question 79.
What was the number of Mahajanapada?
(a) 4
(b) 12
(c) 16
(d) 20
Answer:
(c) 16

Question 80.
In the sixth century B.C. the eminent traders of Janapada and Mahajanapadas were told as?
(a) Pani
(b) Sresthi
(c) Bhagadugha
(d) Sangnahitri
Answer:
(b) Shrestha

Fill in the Blanks

Question 1.
____said, “History Is a correcting river between present and past”.
Answer:
T.S.Eliot.

Question 2.
History is _____ Veda.
Answer:
Fifth

Question 3.
History Is derived from ____ Greek word.
Answer:
Historia

Question 4.
__________ is the father of history.
Answer:
Herodotus

Question 5.
The Persians named India Hind according to _________ rivers name.
Answer:
Sindhu

Question 6.
__________ historian is regarded as the scientific historian.
Answer:
Thucydides

Question 7.
archaeological inscriptions from outside India gave information regarding India.
Answer:
Bigha-kaya

Question 8.
the administrator told In his own word that “the engraved stone inscriptions of his administrative principles will last for long years.
Answer:
Ashoka

Question 9.
The other name of Veda is ________.
Answer:
Sruti

Question 10.
The last part of Veda is known as __________.
Answer:
Vedanga

Question 11.
In _________ Veda, a description is found about life after death.
Answer:
Atharva Veda

Question 12.
In __________ Veda’s description of various rituals is found.
Answer:
Ayurveda

Question 13.
The ancient script of India derived from __________ archaeological excavation.
Answer:
Harappa

Question 14.
The ancient particles derived from the digging of the earth are regarded as _________ aid.
Answer:
Archaeology

Question 15.
The study of coin ¡s regarded as __________.
Answer:
Numismatic

Question 16.
In total _________ number of Purans available in India.
Answer:
18

Question 17.
Violin-engraved coins prevailed in age ___________.
Answer:
Gupta Age

Question 18.
inscription eulogizes regarding Pulakesin-II __________.
Answer:
Able

Question 19.
__________ is the earliest coin of India.
Answer:
Punch-marked corn of the Mauryan age.

Question 20.
Reminder inscription describes emperor _________.
Answer:
Asoka

Question 21.
____________ Governor General had established the Archaeological Survey of India.
Answer:
Lord Curzon

Question 22.
Sutrapitaka is the literature script of religion ___________.
Answer:
Buddhism

Question 23.
_________ is the author of Arthasastra.
Answer:
Kautilya

Question 24.
Kumarsambhava was written by _________.
Answer:
Kalidasa

Question 25.
The author of Mudrarakshasa was _________.
Answer:
Visakhadutta

Question 26.
Allahabad pillar inscription serves as the source of information for king ________.
Answer:
Samudragupta

Question 27.
Milinda Parba is a religious textbook __________.
Answer:
Buddhist.

Question 28.
Harsha Chanta was written by _________.
Answer:
Banabhatta

Question 29.
Arthasastra describes regarding __________.
Answer:
State Administration

Question 30.
Thughlagnama was written by _______.
Answer:
Amir Khustru

Question 31.
Travian stresses upon dynasty __________.
Answer:
Mughal

Question 32.
Kumarpala Chanta was written by _________.
Answer:
Hernachandra.

Question 33.
To know regarding English administration _______ source is required.
Answer:
Archival source

Question 34.
The art in kama rupa eulogizes regarding religious history _________.
Answer:
Shakta

Question 35.
Bikramarka Chanta was written by ____________.
Answer:
I3ilhana

Question 36.
The author of Rama Chanta is __________.
Answer:
Sandhyakara Nandi

Question 37.
Prithviraj Chanta was written by __________.
Answer:
Chandakabi

Question 38.
Raja Tarangini was written by ___________.
Answer:
Kaihana

Question 39.
Malabikagnimitram of Kalidasa based regarding some aspect of _________ kinds administration.
Answer:
Pusyamitrasunga.

Question 40.
The drama Swapna Vasabadutta was written by _________.
Answer:
Bhasa

Question 41.
Principle-oriented script Panchatantra was written by __________.
Answer:
Bishnu Sharma

Question 42.
Chacha Nama script belongs to country __________.
Answer:
Arab

Question 43.
An eminent geographist has described in his book about the ports of India _________.
Answer:
Talmy

Question 44.
Greek king has sent ambassador Megasthenes to Mauryan court _________.
Answer:
Seluskas

Question 45.
Chinees ambassador Fahien comes to India at the time of kings administration ________.
Answer:
Chandragupta Il.

Question 46.
The written script of Fashion Is known as _________.
Answer:
Fu-FuoKi

Question 47.
Hiuen Tsang came to India under the administration of king _________.
Answer:
Haravardhara

Question 48.
Si-yu-ki was written by __________.
Answer:
Hwen Tsang

Question 49.
Aftér Hiuen Tsang in seventh-century traveler came to India _______.
Answer:
It-Singh

Question 50.
Hyun Tsang belongs to religion ________.
Answer:
Addison

Question 51.
Mahabharata was written by ________.
Answer:
Ganji

Question 52.
From Kirtikumudini the culture of country _________ is known.
Answer:
Ncf.2

Question 53.
The life story of Babur is known as ________.
Answer:
Brian

Question 54.
The thick-E-Hind script was written by _________.
Answer:
Alberuni

Question 55.
Tabaqat-I-Nasir script was written by _________.
Answer:
Miraz-Sn

Question 56.
wrote Tarikh-E-Firozsahi book _________.
Answer:
Ziauddin Barani

Question 57.
Author of Humayunnama ________.
Answer:
Gulbadan Begun

Question 58.
Book Akbarnama was written by ___________.
Answer:
Abul Fazal

Question 59.
In Devi Chandraputra regarding emperor we know _________.
Answer:
Chandragupta 11

Question 60.
From the course, we came to know about Indi-Greek history _________.
Answer:
Numismatic

Question 61.
Sisupalgarh Is situated at the foot of __________ hill of Bhubaneswar.
Answer:
Dhauli

Question 62.
Gomateswara Bahubali sculpture belongs to state ________.
Answer:
Karnataka,

Question 63.
In ________ place of Rajasthan, Jainism emblems are seen.
Answer:
Diawara

Question 64.
_________ temple of mama put gives information about the sculptural architect of Pallavas.
Answer:
Prastarakata

Question 65.
In the coin of the king, the picture of Shivas standing near a bull is seen _________.
Answer:
Bimkadfises

Question 66.
The sculpture of beans is testimony regarding the culture of Chola ________.
Answer:
Tanjore

Question 67.
In ________ history, the period from SOOB.C. to 600B.C. is known as age.
Answer:
Darkage

Question 68.
Asiatic Society of Bengal was established in 1774 A.D. by ________.
Answer:
William johns.

Question 69.
an archaeologist was able to discover Brahmi script ___________.
Answer:
Johns princes

Question 70.
_________ Hatigumpha inscription is built by the king.
Answer:
King Kharavela

Question 71.
Saranath, Dhauli and Jaugarh pillar inscriptions of Asoka are _______ type of source.
Answer:
Religious source.

Question 72.
The description regarding the defeat of Harshavardhana by Pulakesin is known from Pillar inscription _________.
Answer:
Aibole Pillar inscription.

Question 73.
Many things regarding the _______ eminent king Samudragupts were unknown if the inscription was undeciphered.
Answer:
Allahabad Pillar inscription

Question 74.
The Harappan culture was a _______ culture.
Answer:
City

Question 75.
In 1829 ________ described Harappa as Brakage Bricks castle.
Answer:
Charles Mason.

Question 76.
By the endeavor of________ and _______ in 192 1-22, two eminent cities were discovered.
Answer:
Rakhaldas Banaijee, Dayaram Sahani.

Question 77.
In place, Mahenjadaro is situated ________.
Answer:
Larkana district of Sind

Question 78.
In place, Harappa Is situated _______.
Answer:
Martogomeny district of soiflh Punjab.

Question 79.
Meaning of the term Mahenjadaro _________.
Answer:
Dead City

Question 80.
In place Great Bath discovers ________.
Answer:
Mahenjadaro

Question 81.
In Harappan culture was a trade center ________.
Answer:
Local

Question 82.
In ________ place of Harappa, many ovens were discovered.
Answer:
Kálibangan

Question 83.
_______ system was a renewed system in Harappan civilization.
Answer:
Drainage.

Question 84.
_______ first discovered the study system in Harappan culture.
Answer:
S.R.Räo

Question 85.
The people of Harappa were unknown regarding animals __________.
Answer:
Horse and Dog.

Question 86.
The people of Harappa were unknown of ________ metal.
Answer:
Icon.

Question 87.
The discovered Yogiemblem from the Harappan seal is compared with image _______.
Answer:
Pasupati shiva.

Question 88.
A swastika symbol in some Harappan seals anticipated worShip ¡n that civilization ________.
Answer:
Sùn.

Question 89.
Lothal belongs to ________ state.
Answer:
Gujarat

Question 90.
The decrease of Harappan culture began from ________ B.C.
Answer:
1800

Question 91.
The Length and breadth of the Great Bath were ________ and.
Answer:
55 meters and 35 meters.

Question 92.
_________ From a place in Mesopotamia, five Harappan seals were discovered.
Answer:
Elan

Question 93.
The roads in Harappan culture cut ëachothen in ________ angle.
Answer:
Rightafigle

Question 94.
worshipped animal in Harappan civilization was famous _________.
Answer:
Humpbu11

Question 95.
Harappa city now belongs to country _______.
Answer:
Pakistan

Question 96.
_______ was the religious sacred scripture of Aryans.
Answer:
Veda

Question 97.
The other name of Veda is __________.
Answer:
Sruti

Question 98.
Life after death is described In ________ Veda.
Answer:
Atharva

Question 99.
___________ Veda is the oldest.
Answer:
Rig

Question 100.
The ceremonies and described in ___________ Veda.
Answer:
Yajur

Question 101.
In _______ Vedic age was the chief in the Judiciary system.
Answer:
KiDg

Question 102.
In Rig _________ Vedic society was the chief of the village.
Answer:
Gramiini

Question 103.
The dwelling place of Aryans is called ___________.
Answer:
Aryavarta

Question 104.
In Aryan society was the base of society _________.
Answer:
Family

Question 105.
In Rig-Vedic culture, the family system prevailed ________.
Answer:
Joint

Question 106.
________ Constructed by uniting some families.
Answer:
Village

Question 107.
Some village’s unity came to be known as a vis and the head of it was known as _________.
Answer:
Vispati

Question 108.
_________ To help the King in administration and organization came into existence In Aryan society.
Answer:
Sabha and Samiti

Question 109.
________ were known as Pani In the Vedic age.
Answer:
Businessmen

Question 110.
In the early Vedic age the revenue collection workers were known as _________.
Answer:
Bhagadugha

Question 111.
The treasure In the early Vedic age was known as _________.
Answer:
Sangrahitri

Question 112.
The name of early Vedas Is _______.
Answer:
Rigveda

Question 113.
In the Rigvedic age, the head of the family was known as __________.
Answer:
Kulapa

Question 114.
The social fourfold division of life began at age _________.
Answer:
Later Vedic age.

Question 115.
In ________ later Vedic Age the coronation of the king was done in Yajna.
Answer:
Rajasuya

Question 116.
The literature written in the latter part of Vedicate is known as _________.
Answer:
Vedanta

Question 117.
The disciples acquired education in ________ ashrama.
Answer:
Gurukul

Question 118.
From ________ Buddhist script, sixteen Mahajanapadas came to be known.
Answer:
Anguttaranikaya

Question 119.
Among the sixteen Mahajanapadas, the democratic states were developed in the coastal belt of ________ river.
Answer:
Ganga

Question 120.
________ From the Jajna text, many things are known regarding Mahajanapadas.
Answer:
Hagabati Sutra

Question 121.
From ________ text of Panini, we got information about Mahajanapadas.
Answer:
Vyakarana

Question 122.
After the death of Buddha in city _________ of Magaha The first Buddist conference was celebrated.
Answer:
Rajagriha

Question 123.
Udayana was the king of state __________.
Answer:
Valsa

Question 124.
The oldest king of Kasi was ________.
Answer:
Savasana

Question 125.
Anga Kingdom ________ accepted the allegiance of the kingdom.
Answer:
Magadha

Question 126.
Magadha king Bimbisara marnedto _________ Pnnecess of Vaisali.
Answer:
Chhelana.

Question 127
The literary meaning of Mahajanpada ________.
Answer:
Great state

Question 128.
________ was the capital of Kosala.
Answer:
Sravasti

Question 129.
_________ The mother of Mahavira belongs to the country.
Answer:
Lichhabi

Question 130.
The number of Mahajanapada was _________.
Answer:
16

Question 131.
In the sixth century B.C., the chief traders of Janapadas and Mahajanpadas were told as _________.
Answer:
Shrestha

Question 132.
In the sixth century B.C. the democratic states in Indian Mahajanpadas were called _______.
Answer:
Gana.

Question 133.
In the sixth century B.C. the officials engaged and helped the judiciary were called __________.
Answer:
Vyavaharika

Question 134.
In the Sixth century B.C. the ancient Brugukachha port is known in modern times as _________.
Answer:
Broch

Question 135.
Women enjoyed high status during age ________.
Answer:
Earlý Vedic

Question 136.
The practice of ways bara was prevalent during age __________.
Answer:
Later Vedic

Question 137.
The name of the Gold coin prevalent during the Vedic age was called ________.
Answer:
Nishka

Question 138.
Autobiography belongs to ________ source of History.
Answer:
Literary

Question 139.
_______ is the science and method of exploring and understanding ancient ruins and remains.
Answer:
Archaeology

Question 140.
The study of inscription ¡s called _______.
Answer:
Epigraphy

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 History Solutions Unit 2 Ancient Greece Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 2 Ancient Greece Long Answer Questions

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
How Greater Greece / Magna Greece was formed?
Answer:
Greek was not their original name. They called themselves ‘Hellens’, but the Romans called themselves ‘Greeks’ and the world has adopted that name from the Romans. The Greek tribes were a branch of the Aryan stem. About 2000 to 1500 B.C. these tribes entered the mainland of Greece from the north and soon these different groups took possession of the coast of Asia Minor, the Aegean sea, and a portion of Europe in the southeast.

However, prior to that, the Greek island of Crete was already the home of a great civilization that reached its zenith after 1600 B.C. It was the Minoan civilization named after legendary king Minos of Crete, sometimes referred to as Mycenaean civilization, after a city called Mycenae, which the Cretans had built. This civilization was quite prosperous.

The people of this Aegean civilization used the Cuneiform and pictorial writings of the Sumerians and Egyptians and had also an alphabet of their own. Sea trade, not agriculture, was their main occupation. Aryan tribes defeated the Cretan’s arid development of the latter civilization. These Aryan tribes were the Achaeans, Phocians, Thessalians, and Boeotians. The Achaeans had three main branches.

They were the Dorians who settled in the Peloponnesian regions, the Aeolians in Asia Minor, and the Ionians in Attica and the Aegean region. It was during this period that the Greeks destroyed the gold- and-bronze city of Troy in Asia Minor, to avenge the insult of the Trojan prince Paris, of having abducted the mythical beauty queen Helen. This is the theme of the famous epic of Homer, the ‘Iliad.’

To the Greeks, the Trojan war that lasted over ten years was the first important event in their history. The Aryans later called themselves Hellens and their country Hellas, after legendary tradition associated with king Hellen of Thessaly. The Achaeans had no fear of any military attack on them. They were thus free to establish a series of establishments in the region.

They lived in simple but lavishly decorated houses. The women had their separate rooms in the house. Homer, the blind poet, wrote about many feminine characters of striking beauty. Perhaps that is why the Achaeans were famous for the delicacy of their manners they were extremely courteous to strangers, elders, and women. Like most other Aryan tribes, these Greeks loved singing.

That appears to be justification enough for the Age of Homer. Homer pioneered the birth of European literature. His most famous works were the ‘Iliad’ and the ‘Odyssey’ composed in the seventh century B.C. The ‘Iliad deals with the Spartan victory over Troy after a decade-long war, as well as the exploits of their legendary hero, Achilles. The ‘Odyssey’ describes the adventurous return journey of Odysseus from Troy.

These epics give us an insight into their society before 700 B.C. Another great author of those times was Hesiod who exposed the mistakes of “bribe-swallowing lords”. This period goes down in history as the Homeric Age. Geography gave the Greeks no other option but to have city-state types of political organization. Gradually they abandoned their tendencies, adopted agriculture, and devoted their leisure to sharing the problems and privileges of their city-state governments.

Each city-state for each of their groups was governed by a king with the aid and advice of a council of elders from each clan. worshipped a number of deities like Zeus, Appolo, Athena, and Mount Olympus – the abode of Gods. Their religion was a sort of contact between a man and God. So they came to believe in divine revelations or Oracles. The most important of these was the Delphic Oracle. They would not set out on a march of conquest, nor would they take important decisions without consulting the Oracles.

Naval competition with ancient Phoenicians turned them out to be good mariners later. Gradually they conquered and colonized the whole of the Mediterranean region. This region came to be known as ‘Magna Grecia’ or Greater Greece. The increase in population at home along with limited agricultural prospects and oppression of the feudal lords made them settle down in these colonies

Question 2.
Describe the community of Greece?
Answer:
The Greeks had settled in scattered villages ever since their migrations into Greece. The absence of communication intensified their isolation from one another. But gradually the people of each valley or plain grouped themselves together to form a single political community for worshipping the gods, for buying and selling, as well as for common government and common interests in defense.

The center of the community was usually at the highest point in the valley so that it could become a fortress as well as capital. community, which developed around the city or capital in its own way, was called in Greek a ‘poll’s’ or city-state. The central fortress or capital was the ‘acropolis’. The most famous acropolis is, obviously Athens. The king lived in the fortress.

Each city was protected by a wall, each city-state had a fixed place for popular assemblies. There the king and the council of elders would take important decisions after discussions. There was this council of elders along with an Assembly to carry out the administration. The council consisted of the nobles or the Eupatrids, whereas the Assembly was constituted of the poor citizens.

Each city-state was autonomous. It collected taxes from its people, declared war, and negotiated peace with other city-states. A city-state naturally tended to be a Republic. The Greeks were thus conducting the biggest experiment in human history, the experiment of self-government. Each developed in its own way. Social and, even, religious life differed from one city-state to another.

There was no unity among them. The citizen was fanatically loyal to his own city-state. Constant infighting among the city-states also added to the absence of any sense of Greek nationalism as a whole. Of course, they still had many things in common. Firstly, they used the common Greek language in preference to the local dialects they had developed. Secondly, they were bound by a common religious faith.

Religious councils or Amphictyonies organized common religious festivals attended by all city-states. Thirdly, the Olympic games, held every fourth year at Olympia, were run and participated in by all the Greeks. Fourthly, the literature and legends of heroes were held m common by all city-states. Homeric literature was the common property of all city-states. Lastly, a sense of superiority was in their minds in relation to the non-Greeks.

This sentiment was also common to all city-states. Yet it is an irony of history that, in spite of there unifying factors, the Greeks could not establish nation-states Temporary alliances and confederations among city-states were a far cry from the ideal of a homogeneous nation-state. Among the many city-states, the most prominent were those of Athens and Sparta. Both were hostile to each other.

Both differed widely in spirit and character. The Spartans were all for physical prowess. Might be right for them. The Athenians were for mental growth in the realm of ideas. For them, the pen was mightier than the sword: If Sparta can be said to be the military capital of all Greece, Athens was its cultural capital.

Question 3.
What is the contribution of Athens to Greece?
Answer:
Athens was the pioneer city-state that contributed much to the culture of ancient Greece. It was founded in the province of Attica Acropolis was four miles off fee sea- coast. The soil was arid, free rainfall was scanty and so few inhabitants were hardened by toil and sweat for earning a living. The Athenians were a mixed race wife majority of Ionians and these were all united by king Theseus before 700 B.C.

Athens contributed immensely to Greek civilization whole. They improved on fee Greek literature, philosophy, religion, politics, architecture, etc. Another important contribution was the growth of ‘polity’ or democracy, as we know it today. After the death of their peerless ‘Archon’ (ruler) Cordus, they chose in 282 B.C. nine Archons annually the presiding Archon.

a military Archon or Polemarch and six other judges under fee Chief Priest or King Archon. All of them would govern for a year consultation wife a fee body of nobles, feat appointed them fee Areopagus. The nobles became more powerful wives fall from the monarchy. Gradually they became selfish and oppressive. Common people exploited wives through high taxation.

Overburdened with debts, they were made slaves by the nobles. Whim, not law, became the basis of administration. The time was now ripe for reformers to come up as saviors of the common people.

Draco:
There was no code of laws; The aristocrats were the judges who always interpreted the laws to their own advantage. People did not get justice. The peasants were the first to demand a written law. Ultimately the task of preparing the code was entrusted in 621 B.C. to Draco, an Athenian noble. These laws were extremely harsh and failed to serve the purpose of the common man.

The severity of these laws led the common man of the time to quip that these were written down with blood, not ink. Since then the world “Draconian” has come to symbolize any harsh law. Yet, the code of Draco was the first step towards the future prospect of rule of law.

Solon :
Solon was the proud descendant of the family of Codrus. He was born in 638 B.C. He became a great statesman of Athens. He was elected as Archon in 594 B.C. Though a noble by birth, he was a commoner by disposition and felt sorry for the misery of the poor under the code of Draco. He enjoyed full authority to remedy this. He introduced many reforms to relieve the burden on the poor. It was a custom then that any peasant who defaulted in repaying his loan would be a slave of the money-lender by virtue of the debt- agreement.

Solon freed the slaves by declaring all such laws null and void. The state paid the amount for bringing back such slaves sold outside. He also put a ceiling on land beyond which no noble can own land. The voting right was extended to all sections including the lowest class, the Thetes. All free men were equal before the law. The reforms of Solon were, indeed, salutary.

Pisistratus:
The disparity between the rich and the poor still continued in spite of Solon’s reforms. The improvement came through Pisistratus, a nephew of Solon, who became the master of Athens in 546 B.C. Aman of high ideas and ambitions, he smiled benevolently for 30 years. The period was enriched by great progress in Athenian art, architecture, literature, and even in agriculture and industry. He drove the nobles out Athens and confiscated their property to the State for the purpose of redistributing this land among the landless.

He helped the poor with loans from the State funds on moderate terms. The constitution of his illustrious uncle was left untouched. He championed an agrarian revolution, patronized state feasts, religious rites like the Panathenaea festival in honor of the principal goddess Athena. His death in 527 B.C. again brought anarchy.

Cleisthenes :
Cleisthenes had rightly been called the “Father of Greek Democracy”. A practical reformer, he took steps to prevent tyranny and protect democracy. He divided the four classes of Athenian society into ten ‘demes or tribes. Each tribe was to elect 50 members every year to constitute the Council of the ‘Five Hundred’. Every free man had the right to vote.

The Council was the supreme authority in administration The Assembly or Ecclesia discussed the Council proposals. Ten generals, popularly elected were placed in command of the army. They were responsible to the Ecclesia. Through these reforms, Athens almost became a kind of direct democracy. To protect this democracy, he also used a novel system ‘Ostracism’. The method authorized the people to vote for any influential man as dangerous to the State.

Individual voting to be conducted once a year on a piece of ostracon against any such person would be valid only beyond 6,000 votes, in which case, the man would be driven out of the country for ten years. This system of Ostracism authorized the people to ‘ostracise’ unwanted elements. It also involved the authority of the people over the administration, in consequences.

Question 4.
What are the reasons which lead to Persian inventions?
Answer:
Various reasons were there for the Persians to invade the city-states of Greece at the outset of the fifth century B.C. There was the rise of Persian power under the kingship of Cyrus and Darius. Conquest, not trade, was their motto. Persian expansion towards Europe was a threat to the Greeks especially when the latter was still in search of new colonies to house their ever-increasing population. Both the Persians and the Greeks were expanding imperialists. A clash was the logical outcome.

The Persians under Cyrus conquered many Greek city-states and appealed to Athens and Sparta for help. The Athenian and Eritrean ships destroyed the Persian city of Sardis. The then Persian Emperor despatched a strong navy under his son-in-law Mardonius in 492 B.C. to take revenge on Athens. This expedition was destroyed by a storm. The second expedition was sent in 490 B.C. The great battle was fought at Marathon. The Athenians made an urgent appeal to Sparta.

The message was sent by the hand of the Philippines which covered 150 miles of hilly track in two days of amazing running. The Spartans pledged help but took six days to mobilize. Philippides ran back equally fast to convey the news, but the Athenians won the war themselves. Philippides fought in the war. He ran to Sparta to convey the news of Athenian victory after the war. He died after conveying the news to Sparta. The ‘Marathon race in modem sports is a tribute to his memory.

Cleisthenes :
In 480 B.C. Xerxes the son of Darius, invaded Greece. The Athenians were joined by the Spartans under king Leonidas and checked the advance of the Persians in the battle of Thermopylae. Finally, in the battle of Salamis and Plataea, the Persians were defeated. Athenian fame spread and Athenian leadership were recognized. She formed a Delos or Delian league of city-states.

Her civilization flourished and reached its climax under Pericles. Athens was at last an Empire. Victory over Persia was regarded as ordained by gods and the Athenians composed hymns and constructed shrines in honor of gods. The Persian defeat also boosted the trade, commerce, and imperialism of the Greeks.

Question 5.
Why Age of Pericles is known as a golden age in Greek history?
Answer:
The age of Pericles is regarded as the ‘Golden Age in Greek history. In substance and volume of achievement, it was as remarkable as the Augustan Rome, Elizabethan Age in England, Gupta Age in India, and Meiji Age in Japan. All round prosperity and achievements in art, literature, philosophy, politics, etc, marked this age. The age is a land mark in human history as a whole. Pericles, a descendant of Cleisthenes, was born into a noble family in 490 B.C. His father Xanthepas had participated with credit in the war with the Persians.

He got good and integral education which included gymnastics and philosophy, singing and Logic, literature and military training, oratory and statecraft. He was adept in all these. Liberal at heart, he was a champion of liberty, welfare, and the general prosperity of the common man. As a politician, he was as capable as Gladstone or Lincoln. His was the thought of Plato and the voice of Socrates.

This popular noble was elected as Strategus of Athens in 465 B.C. and got elected to that post in each of the following thirty years. Austere, honest, and gentle, he was a paragon of virtue. Contemporary historian. Thucydides wrote, “He kept Athens safe from all dangers, and under his guidance, Athens reached the height of her greatness.” He died of plague in 429 B.C.

Athenian Democracy:
A significant contribution of Pericles was the system of direct, not delegated, democracy. The whole of Athens met in the General Assembly or Ecclesia to make Laws. The 1,00,000 slaves and 20,000 foreigners out of a total population of2,80,000, were not to take any part in public fife. About 50,000 citizens thus were attending the Ecclesia. Women had no political rights and so were not eligible for such bodies.

The citizens took a direct part in the administration of the state. The Ecclesia met at least ten times a year. Along with the council, constituted the Athenian Legislature. This supreme body of the Government decided questions of war and peace as well as treaties. The executive authority lay with a council of ten Strategus elected by the Ecclesia. They regulated foreign policy and defense.

Justices, Juries, and Judicial Committees were appointed for the distribution of Justice. Pericles ordered that each of the 200 Jurors should be paid for their services. Merit and equality of all before the law came as evidence of the wisdom and far-sightedness- of Periclean liberalism. The only defect, by modem standards, appears to be the denial of political rights to women and slaves.

Art:
Pericles was a patron of the scientific pursuit of knowledge. He was a close friend of the philosopher, Anaxagoras. He made Athens, in his own words, “the School of Greece”. Beauty, grace, and natural perfection came to be reflected in Periclean art and architecture. use of marble and pillars were two characteristics of Periclean architecture. Acropolis was repaired after the Persian destruction of it. The temple of the Parthenon was built by Lectinus and dedicated to the goddess Athena.

The statue of Athena was wooden, overladen with ivory and gold. Athena was worshipped till 430 A.D. The Parthenon is a unique specimen of Periclean architecture along with the ‘Temple of victory”, the Olympia statue of Zeus, and the Dionysus theatre pantheon with a capacity for 15,000 audiences. Painted potteries and painted pictures of the achievements of gods and heroes were also exquisite pieces of art.

Music and Drama:
Music was the heart-throb of Athens. The state bore the expenses for all the sixty festivals of a year that saw musical, choral singing, sports, and dramatic competitions.

Literature :
Few ages are as favored as the Periclean age in the field of literature, history, and philosophy. Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus were the three tragic poets of the period. Their writings were inimitable and for all ages. were staged out of their historical plays. Aristophanes was a famous comedy writer. ‘The Clouds’ and ‘The Frogs’ were two of his great works. Pinder was a great poet.

Herodotus, the father of history, and Thucydides, the first scientific historian gave good company to Sappho, the first woman poet in history, in the Periclean Age, Xenophon was another illustrious historian. The philosophical heritage of the age is incomparable and unique: The wisest man, Socrates (469-399 B.C.) was ‘the incomparable peer of philosophical learning. Arguments and logic were his swan song.

Plato and Xenophon were his pupils. It was left to Plato to write the discourses of Socrates. Socrates was made to drink poison on charges of corrupting the minds of the youth with ideas, against polytheism and in you’re of monotheism. It happened after the death of Pericles. Plato (427-347 B.C.) carried the mantle of Socrates,- established a school (Akademy), and wrote many treaties, the most outstanding of which was the Republic’. It dealt with the ideal state.

Aristotle was a pupil of Plato who, too, contributed immensely to various branches of learning. The age was also characterized by the Sophists. They were a group of teachers in the Socratic mold of logic, moving from place to place, teaching arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy, and asking the people not to accept anything that fails the acid test of reason. The Periclean Age in its substantial import is thus not simply Athenian but for the whole of mankind.

Question 6.
Explain the Peloponnesian war of Athens?
Answer:
The glory of Athens, the Periclean Age, and the Athens Empire of the confederation of Delos ignited the spark of jealousy in Sparta. the Peloponnesian league with Corinth, it declared war on Corcyra. Corcyra sought Athenian help. The second Peloponnesian war was thus waged, in 431 B.C. In this thirty years war, the navy-oriented Athenians could not sustain the army-oriented assaults of Sparta. A plague in Athens killed Pericles along with a third of the Athenian population.

Defeat for them was inevitable. This inaugurated the hegemony of Sparta for a time. Internal quarrels continued among the city-states. Gradually they became weak and powerless. This provided the opportunity for the rise of strong men One such was King Philip of Macedon who brought all city-states under his control in 338 B.C. It was no surprise that he did it, for, after all, he was the father of Alexander, the Great.

Question 7.
Discuss Sparta, the city-state of Greece, and its system of Govt?
Answer:
Sparta was another city-state of Greece in the province of Laconia. A group of Dorans migrated from the, north and, by 1100 B.C. came to settle down in the Peloponnesus of the southern peninsula of Greece. Known as the Lacedaemonians, they established the city-state Sparta, oppressed the local people, and consequently suppressed their rebellion and set up a frame of rules for themselves. The city-state of Sparta was the largest in the whole of Greece.

The Spartan laws, commonly regarded as those formulated by Lycurgus, emphasized physical prowess and turned the Spartans into good professional soldiers. The city-state was virtually an armed camp. The Spartans made newborn babies to be first examined by experts. If found weak or with deformities, the child was put atop a to die by exposure. Women were asked to bear healthy children and in order to keep fit, had to undergo regular physical exercises. From the age of 7 to 19.

boys had to undergo vigorous and rigorous military training in the camps. Simplicity and a strong sense of discipline were the two main attributes of camp life. The trainee underwent torture to make him painstaking and tolerant. No tears were shed for those trainees who died. Away from any amusement, without any inclination for education, the Spartans were expected to gain excellence only iii physical strength and martial arts. All would serve in the army till the age of sixty.

Stem discipline and a crude military zeal thus shaped the Spartan attitude to life. They practically had no family life, for, the entire city-state was a military camp, commerce was neglected, cultural development was limited only to military arts, and agriculture was left to slaves to carry out. Constant fighting was their philosophy of life. They preferred death to surrender. As soldiers, they were second to none but as Greeks, they, unlike other Greeks, had nothing to offer in the shape of philosophy, sciences, and arts.

System of Government:
The Spartan system of government was much inferior to those of Athens and Corinth. constitution did not contain even an iota of democracy of the Athenian model. Their administration was carried out by the Kings, Ephors, and a popular assembly. A system of mutual check-and-balance however was seen in their mode of administration. They had two kings simultaneously ruling over them. Each of them tried to- curb the other’s tendency for becoming a dictator.

Their power was further limited by the appointment of Ephors by the Assembly. The Ephors were appointed for a year’s term. They were administrators who could even arrest, try, fine, or punish the kings. They enforced the laws and regulated the manners and morals of the people. The Popular Assembly had men within the age group of 30 and 60. They were called the ‘Apella’. This body of free citizens met at the time of each full moon. It had the power to declare war and negotiate peace.

But all these powers were limited. This body of Spartan nobility in general became aristocratic. However, the most significant of the Spartan system of government was the Council of Elders. It was the legislative body, consisting of thirty members, one from each of the thirty districts. All had to be retired soldiers i.e. above the age of sixty. All laws originated in this council.

The fag-end of the sixth century B.C. saw Sparta taking the lead in. the formation of the Peloponnesian Confederation in southern Greece. Sparta conquered many neighboring city-states and hosted the meeting of the Peloponnesian League. It consistently kept up its tradition through times of prestige and adversity until Philip of Macedon over-ran it. The Dorians and their Helot Slaves (the Helots were the original inhabitants of Sparta till overrun by the Dorians) did not live in harmony.

The degree of the Helot revolts was equally matched by that of Dorian’s oppression of them. Sparta made no contribution to the art human, progress or peace. They had no literature other than that of the sword. Agriculture, trade, and even gold and silver totally neglected, Ancient Sparta was thus a military colossus, without a head and heart. Brawn, not brain, was its scan song. Patriotism and discipline are their only heritages to posterity

Question 8.
Discuss the Roman Republic becoming a power in Rome?
Answer:
The Roman Republic brought the whole of Italy under its authority and direct control. Thus, though Italian in the larger context, the republic and the empire that followed it are prefixed as Roman. The Roman civilization was a continuation of the Greek civilization in a broad sense.

Yet the two popular cultures had some distinct differences between them. The Greeks were idealists and romanticists, but the Romans were very practical and down-to-earth. The Romans concentrated on law and the politics of government, military security, and an inventive genius for organization.

Patricians and Plebians :
The nobles overthrew the monarchy and captured political powers. The nobbles were called the Patricians and the other citizens – were the Plebians. The Patricians were very much oppressive. They exploited the people or Plebians in various ways, especially when in that society the Plebians were poor and enjoyed no political rights or privileges. The Plebians thus came to start a movement against the Patricians.

Their sole advantage over the Patricians was that they far outnumbered the nobility. This made possible their novel weapon of the ‘Strike’. So, whenever the Plebians thought that some injustice had been done and they had been the victim of any discrimination, they left Rome to settle in some nearby military settlement as long as the Patricians did not come to them for compromise.

The rulers and authorities cannot continue without the meld. So the Patricians would then go to the Plebians, compromise, and bring them back. On five occasions the Plebians went on this ‘Strike’. On the first such occasion, the Plebians got the concession of becoming tribunes – officers entrusted with the authority to protect the Plebians from the government.

This was the first of the many concessions to them, like, the legalization of the inter-marriages between the two classes, laws codified into ‘Twelve Tables’, the Plebians got the right to be members of the Senate and to be appointed as high-ranking officers of the government. All these opened the way for good cordial relations between them.

The Codes :
In 450 B.C. the Romans codified their laws. These were inscribed on twelve bronze tablets. These are called the ‘Twelve Tables’. These codified laws helped and protected the common people. In 367 B.C. the Tribune Licinius Stolo prepared laws to protect the peasants from impressive landlords. These came to be called the Lic Nian Laws’.

Question 9.
Discuss the government system of the Roman Republic?
Answer:
The Lesson learned from the dark days of the monarchy led the Romans to set up a republican form of government in which precaution was taken to stop too much power from getting into the hands of one person. They separated religion from the government by appointing a separate religious officer who was to act as the chief priest but was to have no political authority at all. He held the title of the King of Sacred Things.

As per the Roman constitution, there would be two Consuls with administrative and military powers. Both would enjoy equal powers. They were elected for one year. In times of peace, they would act as the Executive heads. In times of war, they would be the Chief Commanders of the army. Each Consul enjoyed equal powers as the other and each acted as a check on the other so that neither became a dictator with absolute powers.

They enjoyed the powers of life and death over the citizens. They had the power to summon the legislature. For extra-ordinary situations and emergencies of external invasion, the constitution provided for a Dictator. He would be appointed for six months only. The Senate appointed him by nomination. He was free to take any action he deemed fit to meet the crisis. All other organs of the government stood temporarily suspended for these six months.

None enjoyed the right to criticize the Dictator. He would not go out of the State and might be re-appointed for another six months. He had to resign after every such six-month period or immediately after the crisis was over. Otherwise known as ‘Magister Populi he was not to have any access to public funds. The’Patricians were alone eligible for the posts of Consul or Dictator. The general style was for the distribution of power among more and more people.

Thus, less would be the chance for anybody to become supreme. Praetor was the chief judicial officer of the state; Quester, the treasurer; Aedile, administrator of the Police and municipality. There were two censors for census after every five years and for assessing the individual property of every person for fixing revenue collections. The Roman Constitution provided for a Senate. It was the most powerful body in the Republic.

Otherwise known its the Council of Elders, it was composed of 10 members from each of the thirty Patrician groups. Each of these 300 senators held the post for life. Each Senator must have to be above twenty-eight years and must be an ex-magistrate. They embodied the wisdom and experience of the State Senate elected the Consuls and looked after the affairs of public expenditure.

To protect the interests of the Plebians, the Constitution later provided for two Tribunes to be elected for one year. They protected the common man from the oppressive Magistrates. They even came to acquire the power to veto any law of any Magistrate. They were to preside over the popular assembly. The Comitia Tribute was the popular Assembly. It was for the Plebians. It passed laws for them only.

But in 287 B.C., by a constitutional amendment, it came to be authorized to pass laws applicable to the Patricians as well. It appointed the Tribunes, and certain other low-ranking officer, and tried cases against the Plebians. There was also another Assembly, The Comitia Centuriata, that tried all cases of crimes committed against the Republic, and elected the Consuls as the highest court appeal. aristocrats manned its ranks. In all other matters, these Assemblies were to approve the Senate decisions.

Question 10.
Discuss three stages of the Roman Republic?
Answer:
First Stage: Rome defeated and humbled all hostile tribes of Italy during the period from 89 B.C. to 266 B.C. They captured the Etruscan city of Veil in 396 B.C., after a prolonged struggle, captured other such cities one after the other, and humbled all Etruscan territories. Three wars over thirty-five years were fought against the Samnite hilly tribes to humble them. They also defeated the Volscians and Aequians.

Finally, the Greeks in the south of the Italian peninsula were all conquered by 270 B.C. and Rome became the mistress of all of Italy. The only setback of the period was when the Gauls of the Po valley defeated the Romans in 390 B.C. and left two months later, after collecting a handsome penalty from the Republic. Rome treated the conquered people well and granted them citizenship.

Second Stage The Punic Wars :
The conquest of the whole of Italy made the Romans more enthusiastic about further conquests abroad. A rich Mediterranean colony of the Phoenicians soon attracted their attention. This was Carthage, “the Mistress of the Seas”. Carthage was richer and navally superior. The entire Mediterranean was a lake of the Carthaginians. A clash between Rome and Carthage was thus inevitable. Three such wars were fought between 264 B.C. and 146 B.C.

These are known as the Punic wars. The first Punic war began in 261 B.C. and continued till 241 B.C. The superiority of the navy of Carthage made the task of Rome difficult. When Rome won, it was a hard-earned victory. A treaty signed with Carthage in 241 B.C. made age to pay a huge penalty, give up Sicily, and, later in 238 B.C., Corsica and Sardinia also. Rome came to reign supreme in the Mediterranean and the Carthaginians went to settle in Spain.

The Second Punic War (218 B.C. to 201 B.C.) started when the Carthaginians wanted to take revenge and in 218 B.C. and under their great leader Hannibal attacked the Roman city of Saguntum. Hannibal succeeded his father Hamilcar and had taken an oath as a nine-year-old boy to avenge the first Punic war. He became the greatest military genius of his time and has come to rank with Alexander and Napoleon same.

He marched to Italy via France and Switzerland and after crossing the Alps, a rare feat of military achievement defeated the Romans at Trebia, Canne, and Trasimene. The emergency led the Romans to appoint a Dictator. He was Quintus Fabius Maximus. He resorted to the trick of avoiding a direct attack but was finally defeated in 216 B.C. at Canne. But, “Romans are feared most when their danger is the greatest”.

Hannibal received no help from home. Many of his good soldiers were already dead. Finally, in 202 B.C. at Zama, the new great Roman gene bliss Cornelius Scipio defeated Hannibal. A treaty followed. By it, the Carthaginians surrendered their navy, a huge price in gold, and agreed not to go to war without the permission of Rome. Thus ended the Second Punic War that re-established the supremacy of Rome over the Mediterranean.

Third Stage :
In the East lay the dominions of Alexander like Athens, Rhodes, and Pergamum, etc. now ruled by Alexander’s generals. Rome defeated Macedon in 197 B.C. and annexed it in 148 B.C., In 190 B.C. Antiochus of Syria was defeated in the battle of Thermopylae and also was Mithridates of Asia-minor. Thus, Rome came to acquire a gigantic empire, for herself.

Question 11.
Discuss Julius Caesar and his career?
Answer:
Julius Caesar did “bestride this narrow world like a Colossus”, to quote Shakespeare. He was the general who thrust the power of Rome northward; he was the dictator who made possible the existence of a Roman Empire. Here was a man who claimed kinship with the gods and came to be revered by the people as such. He left a mark on history that has never faded. Cicero was a better orator, Cassius was wealthier, and Pompey a good soldier, but Caesar was all the three put together and much more.

Gaius Julius Caesar appeared on the Roman scene when the public was withering rapidly. The vast empire arid its possible administration, the corrupt Senate, the Social war between the Italians and civil war between the Senate and the people, the slave war between the slaves and the army, and the popular demand for independence in remote areas of the Empire contributed together to the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Empire under Julius Caesar.

Julius Caesar was born in the Patrician class of Juli in 100 B.C. His father was Gaius and his mother was Aurelia. His family supported the Plebians because of previous matrimonial links with them and even Julius Caesar supported them during their struggle with the Patricians towards the far end of the Republic. One of his aunts was married to the Plebian leader Marius. He was, married to Cornelia, the daughter of the popular leader Cinna and his daughter Julia Pompey’s wife.

He lost his father in 84 B.C. and as a teenager was tutored capably by Amelia and tutor Antonius. Caesar grew up as a man of vision with a superlative will-power, clear purpose, amicable dealings, and quick decisions. He knew that would be extremely difficult to manage the empire through the Senate, knew that the trend of times pointed to dictatorship, and was determined that he should direct the affairs of the State.

Career:
The rise in his political carrier was meteoric. He began as Tribune. Aedile and Praetor before capturing the attention of all of Rome with feats of military conquest, as the governor of Spain. When Pompey returned from the East, the whole of the Republic and Crassus in 60 B.C. This was known as the First Triumvirate. Rome was ruled by the Triumvirate up to 48 B.C. with Caesar in the West, Crassus in the East and Pompey in the South, and Centre zones of the Empire.

Three changes however came in the situation. The first was the defeat and death of Crassus by the Parthians. The second was the conquests of Caesar. To dazzle the Roman eyes with his military genius, Caesar entered Gaul (corresponding to modem France) in 58 B.C. and in course of nine years won many great victories. The most notable was his victory over the Germans under Ariovistus that saw the military.

The skill of Caesar in full bloom, the capture of slaves and spoils of war, and the annexation of Gaul to Rome which continued for three hundred years. The Englanders were the allies of the Gauls in these wars and so Caesar attacked England twice in 55 B.C. and in 54 B.C. crossing the English channel to go right up to the Thames. The British Prince Cassivellaunus was forced to pay taxes and tributes.

Question 12.
Discuss Caesar as a dictator of Rome?
Answer:
Caesar won the civil war and returned to Rome. Not only was Caesar a great ‘conqueror but had great achievements to his credit. His victories brought great honors and a real power.

Dictator :
Caesar was voted dictator for life. He became in effect a monarch. He was adorned with the title – Imperator. He aimed at the all-round development of his subjects. The people of Romo enjoyed peace during his time. Mal¬administration and revolts at Rome brought chaos and indiscipline to the country. That was the time of 45 B. C. He brought confidence in the Roman citizens through his administrative, economic, and other reforms.

Administrative Reform :
Although Caesar was a virtual dictator, he respected the Republican traditions and the Government of Rome. The Roman government was brought under his own autocratic and unlimited control. He secured all the powers of the Consuls and the Tribunes. He increased the number of senators from 600 to 900 through his own supporters. The Senate just became an advisory body. He acted as the chief priest. He could appoint the magistrates, command the army and declare war and peace.

He reduced the powers of provincial governors. He was authorized to spend the public fund. Citizenship was granted to all aliens in Roman dominion like the Roman citizens. Roman laws were codified and systematized. Municipal laws were standardized. He imposed order in Roman streets and took action checking the moneylenders to participate in politics. Italy town-planning scheme was introduced.

Economic Reforms:
To seek the welfare of his subjects was the principal work of Caesar. He took steps to relieve the burden of loans of the common people. He distributed lands among the landless poor. Water supply for cultivation was Caesar’s principal job. He constructed highways and dams. He prepared a flood control scheme for the Tiber. Colonies were established.

Near 80,000 people were sent to Carthage, Corinth, and other places. Caesar introduced regular taxation. He protected trade and commerce. He improved the coin system which facilitated the expansion of trade. Even gold coins bearing his effigy were issued.

Miscellaneous Reforms:
Caesar’s building activities were no less inferior to other rulers. He renovated the old temples and buildings. He built a temple for Mars and established an auditorium. A public library was built. The introduction of Julian’s calendar was his best contribution to future Europe. The new calendar started functioning from the first of January, 45 B.C. The calendar actually came from the Hellenistic Alexandria where an astronomer suggested to Caesar that “the year of 365 days.

An extra day each fourth year would make it possible to emerge from the complexities of the traditional Roman calendar.” Census was conducted in the whole of Italy. An incentive was given to increase the population. He also for the first time in history started a kind of newspaper – the Acturbols. In this way, Caesar brought peace and prosperity to the people of the Roman empire and earned fame.

Question 13.
What are the contributions of Rome to Human Civilization?
Answer:
It is observed that the culture of the Greeks highly influenced the culture of ancient Rome. The Greek language, science, and arts penetrated Rome through the Greek colonies in South Italy. Even Greek social, political and economic conditions no less impressed the Romans. That is why the Roman poet Horace said, “captive Greece had captured her rude conquerors”. But it cannot be said that the Roman civilization was fully influenced by the Greek civilization.

The Romans created many new elements. As J.M. Roberts puts it,” “The Greek contribution to civilization was essentially mental and spiritual, that of Rome was structural and practical.” The Romans possessed creative power. In politics and jurisprudence, the Romans had greater development than the Greeks. Below are enumerated the contributions of Rome to ancient civilization.

Government and law:
Monarchy was prevalent in Ancient Rome. But soon kingship was abolished and Rome became a republic. The powers of the king were captured by two Consuls. The Consuls were elected from among the Patricians for a term of one year. The Consuls enjoyed the highest administrative and military powers. They also acted as Judges, n case there was a difference between the two the Senate meditating.

The Senate was the most powerful political body. In administrative matters, the Consuls were to seek its advice Questions related to war and peace were settled by the Senate. It also controlled the National finance. The Romans had their edit of establishing a systematic code. There was a feeling at Roman laws were often interpreted to suit the Patrician’s interest. So the Plebians demanded written laws.

Accordingly, the laws were codified and inscribed on the Twelve Tables of bronze and displayed in the marketplace. When the Roman empire grew, foreigners lived in Rome. To secure their right it was necessary to enlarge the scope of the Twelve Tables. The special judges known as the praetor were appointed to look into the matters. A new body of laws came to be evolved for the administration of justice.

In the 6th century A.D. Emperor, Justinian codified the Roman laws which came to be known as the Justinian code. The Roman laws were just and humane in character. It is not exaggerated to mention that many European countries have prepared their laws on the basis of Roman laws.

Religion :
The Roman religion was a very obvious part of Roman life. The early Romans worshipped spirits rather than gods. Every family worshipped its spirit. The head of the family offered simple ceremonies to the family spirit. There was no priestly caste, nor was there creed or dogmas. Some of the popular spirits were Vesta, Janus, Juno, Penates, and Genius Familiae. Influenced by the Greeks, the Romans started worshipping the phototype of Greek Gods.

They worshipped Mars, Jupiter, Minerva, and Neptune, Jupiter, the spirit of the sky became the God of justice, and Mars who agricultural deity became the God of war. Venus was the goddess of beauty and Minerva was the goddess of wisdom. Neptune was the sea god. They observe an agricultural festival, the Saturnalia. Mysticism also entered into Roman belief.

Philosophy:
In the field of philosophy, Rome could not progress a lot like Greece. However, Rome had great thinkers. The Romans borrowed “Epicurian and Stoic philosophic ideas of ancient Greece” Lucretius was a thinker of ‘Epicureanism and wrote ‘On the Nature of things. Cicero, Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius advocated Stoic philosophy. Aurelius, in his book ‘Meditations’, interpreted, “Stoic philosophy and its place in Roman civilization.”

Literature:
The literature of Greece also influenced the Romans. But Roman literature was unique and it was a great contribution to human civilization. Their Latin works were more moralistic and less imaginative. Roman literature attained perfection in the fields like didactic poetry, historical writing, and satire. Virgil, Lucretius, Horace, and Ovid were great genius in poetry written in the Latin language.

Ovid was a model poet of his time. Virgil was a poet of supreme genius. He was famous for his pastoral poem, the Georgies. Here was painted a peaceful and harmonious World with nature. His World was the World of hard work, sincere faith, and simple pleasures. In theAeneidheisknownasthe ‘Voice ofRome’. It was written in the style of Homer’s ‘Iliad’ and ‘Odyssey’. The epic ‘Aeneid’ dealt with the foundation of Rome by the great Trojan Hero, Aeneas.

Ovid wrote poetry like the Metamorphoses. It was a collection of stories taken from Greek mythology. The Roman drama was not original, yet it prospered a lot. Seneca wrote nine tragedies to please Emperor Nero. His works served as a model for plays of the sixteenth century. In comedy, the Romans were more successful than in tragedy. Terence and Plautus were two great comedians.

Architecture :
The Romans were great builders. They followed the architectural technique of the Greeks and added many new elements to it. For example, they followed the technique of construction of Greek pillars or columns but the building of arches and domes was their own creation. H. A. Davies holds the view, “If Rome plundered she also civilized the world.” Sculpture. The Roman artists were also greatly influenced by the Greek sculptural style. However, they also developed their own technique.

Their sculptures were realistic, secular, and individualistic. The Roman sculptures expressed their skill in making statues of gods goddesses. In the first century A.D. There was a school of portrait bust-makers. Busts of emperors, administrators, and soldiers were produced life-like. Most remarkable of them were die-bust images of Pompey, Julius Caesar, Augustus, and Cicero. The collection of fine Roman busts is there in British Museum.

Science and Engineering:
Probably the Romans were ignorant of pure science, but their technology was highly advanced. Roman roads, bridges, and tunnels bear the testimony of Roman constructive genius. They had a deep knowledge of metallurgy. Roman craftmen were well-skilled in mining, glass works, dyes, and textiles. Claudius Ptolemy who was an astronomer compiled “The encyclopedia of Astronomy”.

He also displayed his knowledge of Geography. He was the first map-maker in the world. Pliny wrote ‘Natural History’ on nature. Galen was a great physician. He demonstrated that the arteries contained blood, not air. Celsus, another physician practiced medicine in Rome. Chiefly the Roman doctors contributed to healing rather than to theories about diseases and medicine.

The Roman culture was rich and it was not confined to Rome. Soon it was widespread throughout the Roman empire and contributed greatly to human civilization. Being impressed by the glory of Roman civilization, Edgar Allan Poe sings – “I Kneel, a layered and humble man, Amid thy shadows and drink within my very soul thy grandeur, gloom, and glory”.

Question 14.
What is the meaning and significance of terniTeudalism?
Answer:
What is known as the Feudal system came gradually into existence in the centuries following the collapse of the Rorpan empire in the west, particularly after the death of Charlemagne. During that long period of chaos, warfare, and insecurity, when the weakness of kings was exposed, the tiller of the soil found it safer to surrender his land and ‘commend’ himself to the armed man or ‘lord’ who could protect him in the use of this land. In return, the lord himself acquired certain liberties and privileges.

This development is known as Feudalism and it took a century or more to reach its full development. The name “Feudalism” is, however, a later invention of the lawyers and historians for it was unknown to the very people who practiced it and about whom so much has been written. This new socio-economic system made its first appearance in France and it was here that the system found fruition.

Gradually, however, it spread to other parts of Europe, and through every country had its distinctive features, the basic characteristics of feudalism were almost the same everywhere. In England, Feudalism developed after the Norman conquest during the eleventh century. The term feudal is derived from the Latin word ‘forum’, that is, ‘fee’ from ancient. Germanic word meaning ‘property’. Other terms linked with the system were fief (land), vassal (land-holder), and fealty (loyalty).

There is no definite demarcation to indicate the birth of feudalism. It was essentially an outgrowth in response to the needs and conditions of the times Prior to the growth of feudalism as an institution, its duties were being performed by such Roman and Germanic organizations as the ‘Clientage’ and ‘Commendation’. But their jurisdiction was not very for a fling. After the death of Charlemagne, his weak successors were unable to maintain effective control over his vast empire.

During the 9th century A.D., his empire broke into fragments. The petty kings who emerged in this fragmented empire lacked the power and authority to maintain law, order, and discipline. Without the support of a regular standing army, they even could not provide protection to their own subjects. Taking advantage of this rampant chaos hordes of German plunderers, looted people’s properties.

External invasion too was endemic. People lived in mortal fear since there seemed no one to protect them from the internal plunderers and external enemies. The condition of the peasants and laborers became particularly deplorable. Charlemagne had been assisted by a group of high officials known as the Dukes, Courts, and Margraves. After his- death, the successors of these officials declared independence from their titular kings and each one of them maintained a regular standing army.

They built numerous castles and continued to live luxurious life within these castles. Gradually, there developed a tendency among the weak kings, to grant land to these strong and wealthy people and in return, they were given protection against internal disorder and external aggression. Such seems to be the origin of Feudalism in Medieval Europe. Though kings were only in name, they nevertheless owned all land in the state.

After receiving the land from the kings, these powerful men, now known as Lords, promised to provide protection and security to the society. These Lords were termed the king’s vassals or feudatories. Even Bishops and Abbots gave away church land to these lords and in return received protection and security. The Lords in turn gave away land to the people in general and to the helpless peasants and laborers in particular.

These people owed them to the lords. The piece of land given to the peasant by the Lord was known as a ‘Fief or ‘Feud’ and from this term took shape an institution known as Feudalism. It was based upon an implicit contract between the kings, lords, and subjects but there was no legal sanction behind it.

Question 15.
Why it is regarded that all land was King’s land?
Answer:
Theoretically, all land was king’s land and there were no landowners in the modem sense of the word ‘owners’, but only shareholders or tenants. Society being graded or hierarchical, kings granted land to powerful lords or barons and they, in turn, sublet it to numerous tenants. The main duty of the baron and the knight was to provide soldiers to the king, usually for forty days of service per year. The performance of this duty was what he owed the king in return for his land.

These barons and knights who held their land directly from the king were known as tenants-in-chief. The lesser barons and knights who held land from the tenants-in-chief and not directly from the king were the sub-tenants. Just as the great nobles or lords were expected to supply the king with soldiers when the king went to war, the obligations of the sub-tenants to their lords would be similar. But generally speaking, a vassal or a sub-tenant did not serve for more than forty days.

Other Obligations of a Vassal:
Besides rendering military service, the vassal had other obligations to fulfill. A payment called a ‘relieF was due to the lord when a vassal succeeded to his father’s estate. He could not take possession until the relief was paid. Again, a vassal had to pay his lord feudal taxes or ‘aids’ on certain occasions like to ransom the lord from captivity to provide a marriage dowry for his eldest daughter when his eldest son received the honor of knighthood.

Ceremonies: Homage and Investiture:
A tenant – the tenants-in-chief to the king and sub-tenants to their immediate lord – before receiving his land, did allegiance or ‘homage’ for their holdings of fiefs. The land which the vassal received was termed the Fief or Feud. He had to kneel before his lord to do homage by placing his hands between his lord’s and then he swore fealty [loyalty] to his lord. The tenant was then ‘invested’ or presented with some symbol, such as a clod taken from the soil of the manor or estate.

The oath of fealty not only bound the tenant to faithful obedience but implied also that he would perform his feudal duties and render some form of service, particularly military. A feudal fief was hereditary in the family of the vassal or villein and passed down to the eldest son from one generation to the other. So long as the original conditions of the grant were observed faithfully, neither the lord nor his successors could rightfully regain possession of the land given to the vassal.

Mutual Rights and Duties :
The lord held the land, the peasant tilled it. The lord was duty-bound to protect the community and his rights included a tax on both the labor and the produce from the peasant. Conversely, the peasants’ duties were to perform these personal services to the lord, His right obviously was to expect protection, and also, by custom, to farm part of the soil for his own sustenance.

The Monor Duties by Villeinss Serfs :
The normal unit of a holding of land was the manor or an estate and a manor might include a whole village or part of one or more than one village. It was through the manor that the lords enforced their feudal arrangements. The lords whom the manors were granted had the entire mass of the villagers at their command. At first, the term ‘villein’ meant a villager, but in time it came to imply servitude.

The lord of a manor had various classes of tenants and he himself had his own farm. His farm was worked by the villagers. This compulsory labor on the lord’s land was one of the distinctive marks of the system of villeinage. In return, the villein had to cultivate certain strips of land.
He received no wages, but he had to do certain ‘base’ services for his lord. It included the heavy ‘week work’ and extra work or ‘boon work’.

The villain was not ‘free’ and he was ‘bound to the soil.’ He could not change his occupation, migrate from one village to another, or even get married without his lord’s permission. However, no one could take away his land, not even the lord, as long as the peasant or the villain performed his due services.

During festivities like Christmas and Easter, the lord claimed payment in kinds like poultry, eggs, butter, and whatnot. Sometimes there were workers known as bondmen or ‘serfs’. They held no land but were kept by the lord to do his chores and special tasks, for example, the beekeeper, the Hayward, and the swineherd.

Question 16.
Who is ‘Freemen ’ and what is the general condition of the villain?
Answer:
The villeins formed the great mass of the population, perhaps three-quarters. But besides the villeins, there were ‘freemen” who held varying amounts of land. The freeman was ‘free’ in the sense that he enjoyed various legal rights. He, in fact, could enforce his rights even against the lord and could even sell or give away his land to anyone he liked. Though at times he plowed the Lord’s land, unlike the villains he did not perform any weekly work.

On the whole, judging from the condition of the people, it was apparent that under feudalism their lives were far from being a happy ones. Though it was the labor of the villeins which made it possible for the feudal lords to pursue their passion for fighting they hardly had the will or inclination for looking after the welfare of the villains. Perhaps the only way a villein could obtain his freedom was by running away to a town and remaining there undetected.

The Castle :
The manorial village provided the lord of the manor with profit and it also provided the villagers with the means of existence. It is no exaggeration to say that war was the law of the feudal world. While brothers fought against brothers, sons stood up against their fathers, the tournaments of the medieval times which are so vividly described as avenues for entertainment were, indeed military exercises by the knights to keep them ever-prepared for the eventuality of war.

The military potential of the lords and barons often led to many cases of abuse. For instance, when the Duke of Normandy decided to break his feudal vows and fight against the king of France, it became imperative on the part of Norman landowners and villains to follow their duke. This had a disrupting effect for, it was absolutely fatal to the growth and development of a powerful nation.

Feudal warfare disrupted the normal and healthy growth of agriculture, commerce, and trade. Though a desire for security on the part of ordinary people was a powerful factor in the development of feudalism, that system did not provide a cure for their ills. The feudal lord often claimed and exercised rights that were detrimental to the interests of the community the right of private jurisdiction and the right of private war.

A strong king might be able to restrain such activities of a feudal lord, but few of the kings of Western Europe during the Middle Ages were strong enough to curb the rebellious instincts of their barons. A strong English king like Henry II might have been successful but the reign of the good-natured yet back Stephen illustrates what the lack of an effective central authority meant.

The initial feudal contract degenerated into a systematic exploitation of the weaker section of the community by the strong and powerful. Instead of a mutual distribution and sharing of concerns, it was sheer coercion by a small minority of a vast majority. Feudalism led to the evolution of serfdom a condition of abject poverty, misery, and deprivation.

Though gradually New Monarchs rose to power in Europe and restored order and fixed definite boundaries, the institution of the nobility- lords, dukes, barons counts-continued to survive and thrive. This feudal institution became parasitical which enjoyed privilege without responsibility. The kings, in fact, were to be blamed for this, they considered this exploiting class to be the mainstay of their strength.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 History Solutions Unit 2 Ancient Greece Objective & Short Answer Type Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 2 Ancient Greece Objective & Short Answer Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
The people of which country called themselves Hellens?
(a) Ancient Greece
(b) Ancient Rome
(c) Ancient China
(d) Egypt
Answer:
(a) Ancient Greece

Question 2.
Which of the following city-states created the warriors?
(a) Sparta
(b) Thobes
(c) Pisistratus
(d) Clecisthenes
Answer:
(a) Sparta

Question 3.
Who did introduce the code of laws in Athens?
(a) Draco
(b) Salon
(c) Pisistratus
(d) Clecisthenes
Answer:
(a) Draco

Question 4.
The Marathon race in modern sports is a tribute to whose memory?
(a) Darius
(b) Philippides
(c) Philip
(d) Euripides
Answer:
(b) Philippides

Question 5.
Who introduced the system of Ostracism?
(a) Clesilphenes
(b) Pisistratus
(c) Draco
(d) Pericles
Answer:
(a) Clesilphenes

Question 6.
Who did make Athens the school of Greece?
(a) Xanlhepas
(b) Pericles
(c) Sophocles
(d) Aeschylus
Answer:
(b) Pericles

Question 7.
Who is known as the father of history?
(a) Herodotus
(b) Socrates
(c) Plato
(d) Thucydides
Answer:
(a) Herodotus

Question 8.
Who did influence the youth with the ideas of monotheism?
(a) Plato
(b) Socrates
(c) Sophocles
(d) Pericles
Answer:
(b) Socrates

Question 9.
Who is the author of “Republics”?
(a) Aristotle
(b) Plato
(c) Machiavelli
(d) Homer
Answer:
(b) Plato

Question 10.
Where was the temple of Parthenon situated?
(a) Acropolis
(b) Delphy
(c) Olympia
(d) Laconia
Answer:
(a) Acropolis

Question 11.
When was the second Peloponnesian war waged?
(a) 431BC
(b) 470 BC
(c) 480 BC
(d) 490 BC
Answer:
(a) 431BC

Question 12.
On which river bank the city of Rome was founded?
(a) River Nile
(b) River Thames
(c) River Po
(d) River Tiber
Answer:
(d) River Tiber

Question 13.
Which city is known as the city of seven mountains?
(a) Sparta
(b) Athens
(c) Rome
(d) Nineveh
Answer:
(c) Rome

Question 14.
Who were Plebeians?
(a) The noble class of Rome
(b) The administrative class of Rome
(c) The poor class of Rome
(d) The capitalists class of Rome
Answer:
(c) The poor class of Rome

Question 15.
Who were the administrative heads of Roman Republics?
(a) Praetor
(b) Consuls
(c) Quester
(d) Aedile
Answer:
(b) Consuls

Question 16.
When did the first panic war start?
(a) 261 BC
(b) 218 BC
(c) 241 BC
(d) 149 BC
Answer:
(a) 261 BC

Question 17.
When was the ‘Battle of Pharsalus’ fought?
(a) 48 BC
(b) 58 BC
(c) 68 BC
(d) 78 BC
Answer:
(a) 48 BC

Question 18.
Which of the following months was named after Caesar?
(a) January
(b) September
(c) June
(d) July
Answer:
(d) July

Question 19.
Who did say you too, Brutus”?
(a) Pompey
(b) Crassus
(c) Julius Caesar
(d) Marius
Answer:
(c) Julius Caesar

Question 20.
Who was the author of the book named ‘Form Founding of the City”?
(a) Tacitus
(b) Livy
(c) Ovid
(d) Caesar
Answer:
(b) Livy

Question 21.
Who is known as the voice of Romi in the epic “Aeneid’?
(a) Virgil
(b) Lucretius
(c) Horace
(d) Ovid
Answer:
(a) Virgil

Question 22.
In which of the following countries feudalism was originated?
(a) England
(b) France
(c) Russia
(d) America
Answer:
(b) France

Question 23.
The piece of land given to the peasants is known as a?
(a) Abbots
(b) Fief
(c) Manor
(d) Relief
Answer:
(b) Fief

Question 24.
What do you mean by Manor?
(a) Vast area near the castle
(b) Dwelling house of vassals
(c) Deep trench full of water
(d) Camp of soldiers
Answer:
(a) Vast area near the castle

Question 25.
Who was at the top of the feudal system?
(a) Feudad lord
(b) Baron
(c) Knight
(d) King
Answer:
(d) King

Question 26.
Feudalism was destroyed by the act of which king?
(a) Henery VII
(b) Henery VIII
(c) Elizabeth
(d) James I
Answer:
(b) Henery VIII

Question 27.
Which of the following was not essential to become a knight?
(a) Be a rider
(b) Be a swordsman
(c) Be an archer
(d) Be loyal to lords
Answer:
(d) Be loyal to lords

Question 28.
What do you mean by ‘Relief’?
(a) Land tax
(b) Commercial tax
(c) Guardianship tax
(d) Fodder tax
Answer:
(c) Guardianship tax

True & False Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Athenians defeated the Persians in the Marathon war?
Answer:
True

Question 2.
Education was not spread by sophists?
Answer:
False

Question 3.
Education was spread by the sophists?
Answer:
True

Question 4.
The spartan society was divided into four segment?
Answer:
False

Question 5.
The spartan society was divided into three segment?
Answer:
True

Question 6.
Greece is situated in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula in Europe?
Answer:
True

Question 7.
Greek architectural marvel is revealed by the Parthenon temple on Aeropalis?
Answer:
True

Question 8.
Does Roman legend say that twin brothers Romulus and Remus set up the Rose city?
Answer:
True

Question 9.
The Roman society only patrician?
Answer:
False

Question 10.
The Roman society is divided into patrician and plebian?
Answer:
True

Question 11.
The panic wars were fought between Rome and Carthage?
Answer:
True

Question 12.
In a panic war, Rome was defeated?
Answer:
False

Question 13.
In panic war, Carthage was defeated?
Answer:
True

Question 14.
Julius Ceasar defeated Pompey?
Answer:
True

Question 15.
The Romans worshiped Janus Vesta, Penates, Jupiter, and Mars?
Answer:
True

Question 16.
Romans are not quite adept in science instruments, architecture, and sculpture?
Answer:
False

Question 17.
Romans are quite adapted to science instruments, architecture, and sculpture?
Answer:
True

Question 18.
The period between 9th. and 14th. century AD is known as the feudal age?
Answer:
True

Question 19.
The land given to the peasant was termed as fact or feud?
Answer:
True

Question 20.
Feudalism was not an impediment to national unity?
Answer:
False

Short Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What Arnold did say about European civilization?
Answer:
European civilization developed in the body of Greek society like a child in the womb said Arnold Toynbee and said Greece is the mother of all European civilization.

Question 2.
Why geography of Greece is the dark side of the country?
Answer:
Geography is the darker side for the Greeks because mountains divide Greece into several separate regions that helped communities of settlers, but made their unity difficult.

Question 3.
What was the raj name of Greece and how they are known as Greeks?
Answer:
Greek was not their original name. They called themselves Hellens’ but the Romans called them Greeks and the world has adopted that name from the Romans.

Question 4.
Describe Minoan civilization?
Answer:
Minoan civilization was named after the legendary king-Minos of Crete sometimes referred to as Mycenean civilization, after a city called Mycenae which the Cretans had built.

Question 5.
Who pioneered the birth of European literature?
Answer:
Homer pioneered the birth of European literature. His most famous works were the “Illiad” and the “Odyssey” which he composed in the seventh century BC.

Question 6.
What gods do Greeks worship?
Answer:
They worshipped a number of deities like Zeus, Apollo, Athena, and Mount Olympus – the abode of gods.

Question 7.
What is Magna Grecia?
Answer:
Magna Grecia is in Greater Greece. The ancient Phoenicians turned them out to be good interiors. Gradually they conquered and colonized the whole of the Mediterrianregion. which is named Magna Grecia or Greater Greece.

Question 8.
Describe the state of Athens?
Answer:
Athens was the pioneer city-state that contributed much to the culture of ancient Greece. It was founded in the province of Attica. Its acro pales were four miles off the sea- coast. The soil was arid, the rainfall was scanty and so the inhabitants were hardened by toil and sweat for earning a living.

Question 9.
What was the contribution of Athens to Greece?
Answer:
Athens contributed immensely to Greek civilization as a whole. They improved Greek literature, philosophy, religion, politics, art, architecture, etc.

Question 10.
What is Draco?
Answer:
Draco was the written law of code entrusted in 621 B.C. an Athenian noble. These laws were extremely harsh and failed to serve the purpose of the common man. The severity of these laws led the common man of the time to quip that these were written down with blood, not ink. Since then the word ‘Draconian’ has come to symbolize any harsh law.

Question 11.
Who Is called the father of Greek democracy and why?
Answer:
Cleisthenes had rightly been called the ‘Father of Greek Democracy. A practical reformer, he took steps to prevent tyranny and protect democracy. He divided the four classes; of Athenian society into ten ‘deme’s or tribes. S Each tribe was to elect 50 members every year! to constitute the council of the “five hundred”. Every free man has the right to vote. The council was the supreme authority.

Question 12.
To protect democracy what did Cleisthenes do?
Answer:
To protect democracy, he also used a novel system called ‘Ostracism’. The method authorized the people to vote for any influential man as dangerous to the state. Individual voting to be conducted once a year on a piece of ostracon against any such person would be valid only beyond 6000 votes.

Question 13.
WhyageofPericlesisknownasthe Golden Age in Greek history?
Answer:
The age of Pericles is regarded as the ‘Golden Age in Greek history. It was as remarkable as the Augustan age in Rome Elizabethan age in England, the Gupta age in India, and the Meiji age in Japan. Around literature, philosophy, politics, etc. marked this age.

Question 14.
What was the difference between Greek and Roman civilization?
Answer:
The Roman civilization was a continuation of the Greek civilization. The two popular cultures had some distinct differences between them. The greeks were idealists and romanticists but the Romans were very practical and down to earth.

Question 15.
Describe Roman law?
Answer:
In 450 BC the Romans codified their laws. These were inscribed on twelve bronze tablets. These are called the ‘Twelve Tables’. These codified laws helped and protected the common people. In 367 BC, the Tribune Licinius stole prepared laws to protect the peasants from oppressive landlords. These came to be called the ‘Licinian laws’.

Question 16.
Describe the Gods of Romans?
Answer:
Jupiter was the principal god of their polytheism. Juno was Rome’s presiding deity. Janus was the god of past and present and Mars of war. At the beginning of Roman civilization, human sacrifices were performed to please gods.

Question 17.
When second panic war started?
Answer:
The second panic war (218 BC to 201 BC) started when the Carthaginians wanted to take revenge and in 218 BC and under their great leader Hannibal attacked the Roman city of Argentum.

Question 18.
What economic reforms occur e during the time of Caesar?
Answer:
To seek the welfare of his subjects was the principal work of Caesar. He took steps to relieve the burden of loans of the common people. He distributed lands among the landless poor. Water supply for cultivation was Caesar’s principal job He constructed highways and dams. He prepared a flood control scheme for fiber.

Colonies were established nearly 80,000 people were sent to Carthage and another place. Caesar introduced regular taxation. He protected trade and commerce. He improved the coin system which facilitated the expansion of trade. Even gold coins bearing his effigy were issued.

Question 19.
What was the order of the society of Romans?
Answer:
The Roman society wits divided into two segments – Patrician or the upper class and plebian or the poor commoners. At different times three major clashes occurred between them but finally, they lived together.

Question 20.
What was the contribution of Julius Caesar?
Answer:
As an imperator, Julius Caesar introduced reforms in the administration, justice, and finance departments. He also introduced the Julian calendar. He brought out a newspaper, the Acturbols, commentaries, and a famous history book written by him. He fell prey to a conspiracy and died in 44 B.C.

Question 21.
Who are the famous Roman Philosophers?
Answer:
Famous Roman philosophers were Cato, Cicero, Seneca, and Lucretius. Notable historians were Livy and Tacitus.

Question 22.
What is the importance Of the Caste in Europe?
Answer:
The manorial village provided the lord of the manor with profit and it also provided the villagers with the means of existence. The lord’s manor house or the castle was the nerve center of all activity in every village. In the hall of the castle was held the manor court in which villagers quarrels and business were settled.

Question 23.
Which period is known as the Feudal age?
Answer:
The period between the 9th. and 14th. century AD is known as the feudal age.

Question 24.
Who was a freeman and what was their importance in the feudal society of Europe?
Answer:
Freeman is the people who held varying amounts of land. The freeman was free in the sense that he enjoyed various legal rights. He in fact could enforce his rights even against the lord and could even sell or give away his land to anyone he liked.

Question 25.
There were no landowners in feudal society. Describe?
Answer:
All land was king’s land and there were no landowners in the modem sense of the word owners but only shareholders or tenants. Society being graded or hierarchical, kings granted land to powerful lords or barons and they in turn sublet it to numerous tenants.

Question 26.
What were the main advantages of feudalism?
Answer:
The advantages of feudalism were the provision of peace and security to end arbitrary rule, .end slavery economic upliftment of subjects, and the growth of art and architecture.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 4 Process, Stratification and Change Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 4 Process, Stratification and Change Short Answer Questions

Short Type Questions and Answers

Question 1.
What do you mean by Social Process?
Answer:
Social interaction assumes a number of terms. These forms of social interaction are called social processes. Different sociologists have defined social processes in different ways. Social processes are many. However, it can be broadly categorised into two kinds:

• Associative
• Disassociative.

Question 2.
What is Associative Social Process?
Answer:
The associative social process always works for integration in society. These include cooperation, accommodation, assimilation, acceleration.

Question 3.
What is a Disassociative Social Process?
Answer:
The disassociative social process often works towards the disintegration of society. These include competition and conflict.

Question 4.
Define Co-operation?
Answer:
Merril and Eldredge say “Co-operation is a form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end”.

Question 5.
What is the main characteristic of cooperation?
Answer:

• Cooperation is a conscious process.
• Cooperation takes place between two or more individuals.
• Cooperation is a personal process.
• Cooperation is a continuous process.
• Cooperation is an associative process.

Question 6.
Write the names of several types of co-operation?
Answer:

• Direct co-operation
• Indirect co-operation
• Primary co-operation
• Secondary co-operation
• Tertiary co-operation

Question 7.
What is the competition?
Answer:
Competition is the most fundamental form of social struggle. It is a contest to obtain something which does not exist in a quantity sufficient to meet the demand that makes two or more individuals or groups struggle for some naturally desired ends.

Question 8.
Define competition?
Answer:
Park and Burgess says-that “Competition is an interaction without a social contract”.

Question 9.
What is the type of competition?
Answer:
Bernard mentions three broad types of competitions, such as:

• Social
• Economic and
• Political competition.

Other sociologists have spoken of cultural and racial competitions.

Question 10.
What is conflict?
Answer:
A conflict is an extreme form of disassociative process in which individuals and groups try to achieve their goals by eliminating other contestants.

Question 11.
Define various types of conflict?
Answer:
There are various types of conflict.

• Terminal conflict.
• Personal conflict.
• Episodic conflict.
• Racial conflict.
• Continuous conflict.

Question 12.
What is Political Conflict?
Answer:
Political conflict creates different political parties trying to achieve their self-interests. The main reason for political conflict is the power and money which they want to capture. The conflict between different political parties is an example of political conflict.

Question 13.
What is international conflict?
Answer:
International conflict occurs among the different nations of the world that are engaged in war. The conflict between India and Pakistan is an example of international conflict.

Question 14.
What ¡s Personal Conflict?
Answer:
Personal conflict occurs between two individuals on one personal level. It arises due to two individual classes with each other. The quarrel between two persons in a college for the post of principal is an example of personal conflict.

Question 15.
What is Racial Conflict?
Answer:
Racial conflict arises due to physical differences and cultural differences. This type of conflict is now found in South Africa between black people and white people.

Question 16.
What is Direct Cooperation?
Answer:
In direct cooperation, individuals do like things together playing and worshipping together.

Question 17.
What is Indirect Cooperation?
Answer:
Persons work individually for the attainment of a common goal called indirect cooperation.

Question 18.
What is Primary Cooperation?
Answer:
Where there is an identity of ends called primary cooperation. Each and every member work for the betterment of all primary co-operation is found in primary groups such as family, neighbourhood, friends, groups and children’s playground.

Question 19.
What is Secondary Cooperation?
Answer:
Secondary cooperation is directed towards achieving definite goals and collective interests. In secondary co-operation, members co-operate without knowing each other. This type of cooperation is found among the members of secondary groups such as economic, political and industrial organisations.

Question 20.
What is Automatic Cooperation?
Answer:
People cooperate with each other and live in a particular locality to achieve common goals unplanned and unnoticeable cooperation is called automatic cooperation.

Question 21
What is Tertiary cooperation?
Answer:
Aimed to meet a particular situation called tertiary cooperation. Two political parties may work together to defeat a third party although they have different ideologies.

Question 22.
What is Direct Cooperation?
Answer:
Cooperative with each other as a requirement of the organisation is called direct co-operation. This type of cooperation is found among the members of military organisations.

Question 23.
What is Automatic Cooperation?
Answer:
People cooperate with each other and living1 in a particular locality to achieve common goals unplanned and unnoticeable cooperation are called automatic Cooperation.

Question 24.
What is Contractual Cooperation?
Answer:
People co-operate with each other in a formal way according to some agreed terms and conditions called contractual co-operation.

Question 25.
What is Traditional Cooperation?
Answer:
People co-operate with each other to achieve some common goal is not prompted will call traditional cooperation. For example, Co-operate among the members of a joint family and members in a village community.

Question 26.
What is Economic Competition?
Answer:
Economic competition occurs due to producing distribution and consumption of goods. Both group and individual-level economic competition arise.

Question 27.
What is Social Competition?
Answer:
People compete to achieve higher status and positions called social competition. This type of competition is found in open societies.

Question 28.
What is Cultural Competition?
Answer:
Competition between two or more cultural groups is called cultural competition. Competition between Aryan and Dravidians. Hindus and Muslims examples of cultural competition.

Question 29.
What is Racial Competition?
Answer:
Competition between the different races of the world to establish racial superiority is called racial competition. Example – In South Africa competition between white and black people.

Question 30.
What is Political Competition?
Answer:
The desire of capturing power by the political party is called political competition.

Question 31.
What is stratification?
Answer:
Stratification is simply a process of interaction of differentiation whereby some people come to rank higher than others.

Question 32.
Definition of Social Stratification?
Answer:
Raymond W. Murry says that “Social stratification is a horizontal division of society into high and lower social limits”.

Question 33.
Mention characteristics of social stratification?
Answer:
According to M.M. Tumin the main characteristics of stratification is:

• It is universal.
• It is ancient.
• It is social.
• It is consequential.
• It is in diverse forms.

Question 34.
Define the origin of the word caste?
Answer:
The term caste is derived from the Spanish also Portuguese word meaning breed, or lineage. The Portuguese used the term caste first to denote the division in the Indian Caste System.

Question 35.
Define the origin of the Caste System?
Answer:
The caste stratification of the Indian Society has/had its origin in the chaturanga system. According to the chaturanga doctrine, the Hindu Society was divided into four main games namely the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas and the Shudras.

Question 36.
What is Caste System unique to India?
Answer:
The caste system as a form of social stratification is peculiar to India. The caste is an inseparable aspect of Indian Society. It is peculiarly Indian in origin and development.

Question 37.
Define the Universality of Social Stratification?
Answer:
Social stratification is obiquitious. In all societies, there is social differentiation of the population by age, sex and personal characteristics.

Question 38.
What is the meaning of Social Stratification?
Answer:
All societies arrange their members in terms of superiority interiority and equality. The vertical scale of evaluation this places people in strata or layers is called social stratification.

Question 39.
What is Social Change?
Answer:
Social change means a change in the social structure of society or in other words social change means a significant change in social relationships. Social changes include those changes in society which are sufficiently durable and which influence a majority of people.

Question 40.
Mention four characteristics of social change?
Answer:

• Social change is universal.
• Social change is continuous.
• Social change is associated with time.
• Social change is caused by multiple factors.

Question 41.
Mention the cause of social change?
Answer:
A number of factors are responsible for social change such as:

• Cultural
• Physical
• Biological
• Technological factors.

Question 42.
What is Endogenous Social Change?
Answer:
Endogenous social change refers to change from within the society. For example The birth of trade unions and communalism are some examples of endogenous social change.

Question 43.
What is Exogenous Social Change?
Answer:
Change comes from outside called exogenous change. Wars and conquest and western technology are the best examples of exogenous social change.

Question 44.
What is Planned Social Change?
Answer:
Planning in our society brings about changes field of social and economic development. Such as city planning and rural development. Planning in our country also caused significant and widespread changes in the fields of agriculture, industry and technology such changes are called planned social change.

Question 45.
Name of the main sociologists who support the technological factors?
Answer:
W.F. Ogbum and Karl Marx have supported technological factors.

Question 46.
Write short notes on any three factors of social change?
Answer:
Demographic Factors play an important role in bringing change in society. The size and composition of the population and the quality of the population bring a variety of changes in society. Cultural Factors bring changes in society. Cultural factors include values, attitudes, beliefs, ideologies, customs and traditions. Technological Factors bring changes in society. Technology refers to the use of animate power in production. Change in the technology of work produces changes in material conditions.

Question 47.
Write a short note on demographic factors of social change?
Answer:
Social change is caused by multiple factors out of which demographic, factors is the most important. Demography means the science of population. The size, composition and quality of the population produce a variety of changes in society. Differences in the density of the population also bring changes in society.

Question 48.
Write a short note on cultural factors of social change?
Answer:
Cultural factors greatly influence social changes and determine social change. Cultural factors include values, attitudes, beliefs, ideologies, customs and traditions. Any change in these factors brings changes in society. The relationship between society and culture is very close. Hence cultural change involves social change.

Question 49.
Write short notes on technological factors of social change?
Answer:
Among other factors of social change technological factor is important. By technology, we mean the use of inanimate power in production. Many sociologists recognised the role of technology in bringing social change. Karl Marx opines that change in technology brings changes in all areas of social life.

Question 50.
Write short notes on cultural lag?
Answer:
The concept of cultural lag was first used by W.F. Ogbum in his book social change. He classified culture into two types. Material, Non-material aspects of culture call for changes in the non-material aspect of culture. Non-material culture takes time to adjust to the changes taking place in the material aspect. As a result, a gap is created between the two which is known as cultural lag.

Question 51.
Write short notes on the effects of technology on family life?
Answer:
Technology brings changes in all areas of social life. Accordingly changes in technology results in changes in family life, its structure and functions:
Technology led to the breaking up of joint families and the formation of the nuclear family. Technology led to the liberation of women in different fields. Technology brought industrialization which brought women from home to factories and offices. Technology reduces the importance of family as an agent of social control.

Question 52.
Write short notes on the effects of technology on social life?
Answer:
Technology brings changes in all areas of social life. It affects our social life in the following ways:
Technology made social relationships formal and contractual and goal-oriented. It changed the old bases of stratification and introduced wealth and power to new determinants of social stratification. Technology led to the fall of community life individuals became more selfish.

Question 53.
Explain the Social process?
Answer:
The social process is the fundamental way in which men. interact and establish relationships. They are repetitive forms of behaviour which are commonly found in social life. These are forms of social interaction and characteristic ways in which interaction occurs.,

Question 54.
Distinguish between Social interaction and Social process?
Answer:
Social interaction is a process whereby men inter-penetrate into the minds of each other. But social processes are repetitive forms behaviour which is commonly hard in social life. Smiling with friends is an example of social interaction whereas cooperation is an example of an associative process.

Question 55.
Explain the dissociative Social process?
Answer:
Though there are many kinds of social processes they can be broadly divided into two kinds associative and dissociative social processes. The dissociative social process works -towards disintegration in society. Competition and conflict are examples and dissociative social processes.

Question 56.
Distinguish between the Associative and Dissociative process?
Answer:
Associative social process. works towards the integration of society whereas the dissociative social process works towards the disintegration of society. Co-operation accommodation and assimilation are examples of the associative social process whereas competition and conflict are examples of the dissociative social process.

Question 57.
Explain Co-operation?
Answer:
Co-operation is an associative social process. The term co-operation is derived from the two Latin words ‘Co’ meaning together and operate meaning to work. According to, co-operation means working together for a common goal. It is the continuous and common endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task or to reach a goal that is commonly cherished.

Question 58.
Distinguish between Direct and Indirect Co-operation?
Answer:
When co-operating individuals do like things it is called direct cooperation. But in indirect cooperation, people do different tasks towards a similar goal. In direct cooperation, members perform identical .functions whereas indirect co-operation is based on the principle of division of labour and specialisation. Playing together weaving cloth is an example of indirect cooperation.

Question 59.
Distinguish between Primary and Secondary Co-operation?
Answer:
In primary cooperation, there is the identity of ends whereas in secondary cooperation members cooperate without knowing each other. Primary cooperation is found among the members of the primary groups like family whereas secondary cooperation is found among members of secondary groups such as banks, offices etc. Mutual obligations are the bases of primary cooperation whereas the achievement of individual aims is the bases of secondary cooperation.

Question 60.
Explain Competition?
Answer:
Competition is a dissociative social process. Here, people strive to forget scarce goods. Park and Burgess opine that competition is an interaction without social contact. It is a struggle to possess rewards which are limited so that all cannot share.

Question 61.
Explain three characteristics of Competition?
Answer:
Competition is both an impersonal and personal activity. It is impersonal because it is directed towards a goal when it is face-to-face it is personal. Competition is always governed by norms. It never goes in an unrestricted manner. It hardly operates in an unrestricted manner. Competition is a never-ending and continuous social process. Competition is always going on among people to get their desired things.

Question 62.
Distinguish between Cooperation and Competition?
Answer:
Co-operation is an associative social process whereas competition is a dissociative social process. Co-operation means working together for a common goal whereas competition is interaction without social contact. Co-operation is a conscious process whereas competition is an unconscious process.

Question 63.
Distinguish between Cultural and Racial Competition?
Answer:
Cultural competition Recurs between two or more cultural groups, whereas racial competition occurs between two different races. Competition between Hindus and Muslims is an example of cultural competition whereas competition between white and black is an example of racial competition.

Question 64.
Explain Conflict?
Answer:
A conflict is an extreme form|of dissociative social process. Here individual it. groups try to achieve their goals by eliminating contestants. Defeat or destruction of the opponents to attain the goal is the main aim of conflict. It is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another.

Question 65.
Explain any three characteristics of Conflict?
Answer:
Conflict is a conscious activity because individuals or groups involved in conflict know that they are conflicting. Conflict is an intermittent social process. It does not take place continuously. It occurs suddenly and disappears after some. Conflict is universal in nature. It is found in all societies and at all stages of development.

Question 66.
Distinguish between Cooperation and Conflict?
Answer:
Co-operation is an associative social process whereas conflict is a dissociative social process. Co-operation means working together for a common goal whereas conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or others. Co-operation is continuous process but conflict is an intermittent process.

Question 67.
Distinguish between Competition and Conflict?
Answer:
Competition is dissociative. social process but conflict is an extreme form of dissociative social process. Competition is interaction without social contact whereas conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another. Competition is an unconscious process whereas conflict is a conscious process.

Question 68.
Distinguish between Latent and Manifest Conflict?
Answer:
The unexpressed and hidden conflict is known as manifest conflict. Hostile action is an example of latent conflict whereas war between India and Pakistan is an example of overt or manifest conflict.

Question 69.
Explain Social Stratification?
Answer:
Every society is divided into various groups and these groups enjoy different social statuses and privileges. This deviation of society is called social stratification. The term social stratification refers to the division of a population into strata, one on top of another, on the basis of possession of certain characteristics like inborn qualities material possessions and performance. It involves the distribution of unequal rights and privileges among the members of society.

Question 70.
Explain the Indian Stratification system?
Answer:
The system of stratification in India fails in a class itself. The advanced industrial societies of the west the characterised by the ‘open-class system’. The social structure of India on the other hand is dominated by the closed class that is the caste system. Any careful observer will find two types of class hierarchy in Indian social science, the traditional caste hierarchy which is articulated in religious terms and the modem hierarchy which is emergent.

Question 71.
What do you mean by a caste system?
Answer:
Caste is or was until recently almost universal in India. There are many castes among Muslims whose religion supposedly derives caste. Even among the Indians who have embraced Christianity caste distinctions still generally prevail. It is, however, the Hindu caste system that is unique among the system of social stratification.

Question 72.
Explain the concept of class.
Answer:
Another important element of social stratification is class. A social class is a category or group of persons having a definite status in society that permanently determines their relations to other groups. Social classes have been defined by various thinkers in different manners. The nation of objectivity of class existence is the main contribution of Karl Marx.

His emphasis is on the economic factors, power style of life, and property that determines the class status of individuals in society. Karl Marx defined the social classes by their relation to means of production (ownership or non-ownership). In a modem capitalist society, there are two principal classes the capitalist and the proletariat.

Question 73.
Distinguish between Social Stratification and Social Differentiation.
Answer:
Social stratification is however different from social differentiation. In social stratification, there is a hierarchy in which one class is above the other. On the other hand in social differentiation, there is no hierarchy e.g. male and female. In stratification organized group division is needed whereas in differentiation there is no such division of society.

Question 74.
What is Racial competition?
Answer:
Competition among the different races of the world to establish racial superiority’ is called racial competition. In South Africa competition between white and black people is the burning example of racial competition.

Question 75.
What is Cultural competition?
Answer:
Competition between two or more cultural groups is called cultural competition. Competition between Aryan and Dravidians. Hindus and Muslims Indians and Britishers can be cited as examples of cultural competition.

Question 76.
What is Political competition?
Answer:
The desire of capturing power by the political party is called political competition. This type of competition is even found at the international level like the Nations U.S.S.Rand U.S.A.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 History Solutions Unit 4 Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 4 Long Answer Questions

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What are the main features of the Industrial Revolution?
Answer:
The Industrial Revolution had the following main features. Firstly, industrialization made more inventions and discoveries possible. The Spinning Jenny, Mule. Cotton Gin, Steam-engine, Flying shuttle, Water frame, and lamp Power Loom were the most significant ones in this regard. Secondly, the ideology of capitalism came to replace the age-old and outdated stem of feudalism. New capitalist class industrialists and entrepreneurs came to replace the old feudal lords in European societies.

Thirdly, with the growth of industrialization, a large number of rural people migrated to industrial centers in search of better means livelihood. They joined the industries as workers and laborers. They had to, now, set up their new homes in industrial centers, away from their ancestral villages. governments were now bound to pass social legislation in favor of their living and working conditions.

Fourthly, it gave rise to specific difficulties and problems in the industrial centuries. The problem of housing workers, their health sanitation needs, working conditions, and an ever-increasing population of workers were problems to be attended revolutions to these have to be gradual, not Overnight.

Fifthly, it led to an increase in the production and sale of goods, as stated earlier, result, trade, and commerce made rapid progress. Sixthly, agriculture and industries became the two legs or the main pillars of the economy. Gone were the days when European states depended only on agriculture for their survival and sustaining themselves. Finally, industrialization led to competition among the nation-states of Europe.

From industrialism to colonialism, from colonialism to commercialism, from commercialism to imperialism, from imperialism to militarism, and from militarism to war were the natural and inevitable phases. Industrialization lay at the root of competitive nationalism. This finally led to a clash of interests and war among nations.

Question 2.
Discuss the inventions that brought in the industrial revolution?
Answer:
Spinning Jenny – The following is ‘a list of the first inventions that accounted for the outbreak of the Industrial Revolution. Textile Industry – The Englishmen had colonized India. India was famous for the quality and quantity of its production of cotton. The Englishmen took away Indian cotton to England in huge quantities. But weaving cotton and spinning its thread was done manually.

The weaver wove cloths out of threads spun out of cotton by the English housewives. It took the ladies a lot of time to spin a thread for a single piece of cloth, The need quicker spinning was urgently felt The solution to this problem came in 1764 when the Englishman James Hargreaves invented the “Spinning Jenny”. This machine could spin 8 threads at a time.

This machine revolutionized the spinning of threads. It was later improved to bring out nearly a hundred threads at the same time. This small wonder was so important that England came to have more than eighty thousand spinning jennies by 1778, the year death Hargreaves. Spinning work was thus greatly speeded up. Arkwright – John Kay invented the Flying Shuttle by which the weaving process was speeded up.

Richard Arkwright improved upon Hargreaves and Kay by inventing the water- frame in 1769 This water frame could have thinner stronger threads. In 1776 Samuel Crompton invented the spinning “Mule”, further improving upon the quality of threads. Cartwright’s Powerlopms Correspondingly, weaving also underwent great change. Hand-weaving had been improved upon by the flying shuttle of John Kay.

But this was not enough to cope with the volume of spun threads. The hand-loom was replaced by the power loom which was invented by Edmund Cartwright in 1785. The power loom did the work of many weavers and took up a fraction of their time. Powerlooms came up in every nook and comer of England.

Eli Whitney, the American inventor, invented Cotton Jin in 1793. The above inventions radically changed the textile industry for the better. It involved less manpower and still less cost reproduction while greatly increasing the volume of production (or ‘output). Profit and prosperity came as a natural result.

Question 3.
How are Coal and Iron Industries part of the Industrial Revolution?
Answer:
Coal and iron were the two basic factors of progress. Coal was the source of energy. But mining coal was difficult. The water underground made coal mining difficult. This water had to be emptied by buckets. It took a lot of time and money because holies in hundreds were used in every colliery for emptying the water bucket by bucket. Finally, Thomas Newcomen invented the 1705, Steam Engine to pump out water from the mines.

James Watt improved upon this invention in 1769 and these improved versions of the Steam Engine served the purpose in a more efficient and economical manner. Factories could now be set up in the heart of a city. Steam power helped the machines also to run better and produce more goods in less time. In the early days smelting of iron was done in charcoal furnaces. The iron, thus produced, was of low grade. In 1750Abraham Derby started using coal to process iron.

This helped England, in particular, because England was rich in coal deposits. This process made the industries produce steel at a cheap rate. As a coal-mining was dangerous, Humphry Davy invented the Safety Lamp. Miners used this lamp for mining coal in the underground darkness. Thus coal and iron revolutionized the world of industry. The modem age came to be known as the “Age of Iron and Coal.

Question 4.
How were transport and communications – are of Industrial Revolution?
Answer:
With the growth of steam power, the transport and communication scene witnessed corresponding improvements. The British engineer John Macadam started the mode of building ‘macadamized’ roads. In 1814 Sir George Stephenson invented the “Rocke” which was a railway engine driven by steam power: This steam engine ran the first locomotive between Manchester and Liverpool. Steam engines revolutionized navigation and iron ships driven by steam power replaced the old ships of wood.

In 1838 the Atlantic ocean was crossed by two such new ships Ocean travel and maritime trade and commerce came to flourish from then on. The entire communication network came to be helped by the invention of the telegraph in 1835 and of electric telegraphs by Samuel Morse in 1840, Graham Bell’s invention of the telephone in 1876, and Marconi’s invention of the wireless. Thomas Alva Edison invented 187 8 the electric light. The age of electrical most radically transformed the modem world.

England was a prosperous country. For centuries, it was carrying out trade and commerce with other countries. England also had access to plenty of natural resources and materials for herself and her colonies. The shipping industry of England was the biggest and best. The cost of labor was cheap due to the shifting of people from villages to cities. All the city’s reasons explain why the industrial revolution, first, took place in England.

After the machines were invented and came into use, England became the foremost industrial nation in the world within half a century. Between 1813 and 1855 Egland’s textile exports to India increased fifty times, coal production rose by over four times, and pig-iron, over four times. England’s industrial revolution and prosperity came to affect and inspire countries in Europe.

France, Spain, Prussia, Portugal, Holland, and others adopted the industrial revolution and, by the second half of the 19th century, the whole of Europe even the far-away United States of America came to be under its total influence, age of electricity brought more light to human civilization as a whole.

Results of the Industrial Revolution :
The industrial revolution has had no end so far. From machines to electricity to the modem space age of nuclear energy, the industrial revolution is still continuing. As such its results so far can only be studied. Its record so far has been glorious. It has marked a giant step forward for human civilization as a whole.

But while like a flower the industrial revolution has spread its fragrance throughout the world, like a disease it has also infected human civilization. The following analysis of its merits and demerits would show how “Industrialisation was a mixed blessing.

Question 5.
Write the merits of the Industrial Revolution?
Answer:
The merits or advantages of the industrial revolution are summed up as under. Firstly it led to mechanized production. This, in turn, increased production much more than before. Thus, it resulted in improved production, in quality and quantity. This was true of both agriculture and industry. Mass production of goods inaugurated an era of plenty. Secondly, agriculture was to benefit immensely from the industrial revolution.

New tools and machines, steel plow and harrow for tilling, the mechanical drill the planting of seeds, and machines for thrashing, reaping, and cultivating mechanized agricultural production. As such the harvests became bumper and production increased by leaps and bounds with the use of chemical fertilizers. Thirdly, the mass production of goods and articles gave encouragement to trade and commerce.

Transport and communication systems improved with the network of roads and railways. Water transport did not lag behind. Travelling and transportation of goods revolutionized. Europe became one big trading village, with this conquest of man over time and distance. Human mode of life became fashionable and more comfortable with the production of articles of basic and conventional necessities.

Life was pleasant and comfortable, with man’s needs being satisfied more fundamentally and easily. Fourthly, the exploration of markets abroad and beyond the shores of Europe started more seriously. Before shins and navigation helped the process. Internpailade improved. Fifthly; serialization bought urbanization of cities in industrial centers. The inadequacies of village life came with the new urban life. neighbors and gradually demanded political rights.

Trade-union of workers came tip to successfully work for the protection of workers’ rights. Sixthly, the industrial revolution resulted in a contrast. While it came to strengthen capitalism, it also gave birth to communism as propagated by Karl Marx. Seventhly, the growth of science and technology continued unabated. The tire industrial revolution was the greatest blessing for mankind in this regard. The conquest of time brought more leisure, which came to be used for creative purposes.

Question 6.
Write the demerits of the Industrial Revolution?
Answer:
The industrial revolution brought, in its wake, a host of demerits. Firstly, it broke the back of the self-sufficient rural life. The old life style was replaced by a new economic system that brought a virtual end to traditional society. In this transition, artisans of village industry and the peasants came to forfeit their hereditary means of livelihood. Farmers became landless laborers and artisans gave up their ancestral profession to seek means of livelihood in industrial centers.

In a word, the industrial revolution broke the link with the past. People found it difficult to adjust to this transition. Secondly, rural unemployment led to the overcrowding of cities and industrial centers. As such, unemployment in the cities grew. Not everybody can get a job in an industry because the industry would not absorb any laborer over its needs. Increased unemployment led people to frustration.

More availability of labor led to lesser wages. As such the gulf between the rich and the poor widened. This led to class rivalry between the capitalists or the rich or the ‘Haves’ and the laborers or the poor or the ‘Have-nots’. Thirdly, therefore, the industrial revolution made class wars inevitable. Fourthly, the industrial revolution led to capitalism inside countries; but on the international stage, it brought competition, imperialism, and war among the nations.

Fifthly, the industrial revolution made the life of the workers and laborers wretched. Miserable life in the slums of the cities, with no sanitation or hygienic living conditions and exposure to smoke and gas pollution, brought diseases. No grant of leave, no insurance against death by disease or by accident, and the burdens of poverty made their life hell. Sixthly, industrialization brought the political ideology of imperialism into Focus on the international stage and made war inevitable.

From an economic and political point of view, it brought capitalism and communism face to face. It also led to Europe’s colonial and commercial hold over the rest of the world. Thus as a result of the industrial revolution, human civilization came to have a post and materialism came to have a future. The victim was humanism.

Question 7.
State the development of colonial government in England?
Answer:
Meanwhile, certain political changes had come to the fore in England. Queen Elizabeth was succeeded to the throne of England by James I of the Stuart dynasty. James, I was a Catholic and adopted a policy of religious persecution of the Protestants and Puritans of England. The English Puritans, on their part, hated to be brought under the English Catholic Church and decided to leave England to settle elsewhere.

Thus have they come to be known as the Pilgrims. In 1620, they left England from the port of Plymouth fol. North America in a ship named ‘May Flower’. These Pilgrims were known as ‘Pilgrim Fathers’, the ancestors of the modem Americans. They landed at a port that they named as Plymouth in an area to be known as Massachusetts. This ‘May Flower’ voyage came to be followed by many such voyages from England during the reigns of James I and Charles.

The Puritan unhappiness was the principal cause of this exodus. There were certainly other reasons as well. The plight of poverty at home and the promise of prosperity on the fertile lands of the “New World” was under such consideration. Then there was also a zeal for freedom from feudal burdens and the old social system as well. The prospects for living in a free society were also alluring. Thus the English Pilgrims began pouring into America.

The Irish, the Dutch, and people from different German states also came away to America in large numbers. A healthy climate, fertile soil, and an unlimited prospect for prosperity were too tempting. Gradually the English came to settle down in the area permanently. settlements came to be known as colonies. As many as thirteen such colonies came to be established. All these were on the Atlantic Seaboard of North America.

Each colony flourished in its own way, but the procedure for government and administration came to be uniformly based on their English background. The English system of laws and law courts was introduced. Each colony came to have its legislative assembly and a governor. The governor was regarded as the supreme executive authority and was broadly regarded as the representative of the English King. The colonial people came to prosper and flourish. Each colony flourished in its individual way.

Better economic life than their living standards in England led to a sense of pride and contentment. The English Government and people came to regard the thirteen colonies, as English property, because their people had done it. The people of the thirteen colonies had also theoretically accepted it, having made provision for treating the Governor as an agent of the British Crown in a broad sense.

England had thus come to be regarded as the mother country of the thirteen colonies. It was nice of the colonial people to owe loyalty to England, for this was more out of their habit than out of any necessity. The only genuine necessity was with regard to their own security. France had already entrenched herself in her Colonies in Canada, to the north of the thirteen colonies. Fear of a French invasion had led them to owe allegiance to England in expectation of English protection in such contingency.

However, they, later on, came to be discontented with England because of the various manners in which England came to exploit them. The seeds of discontent had come to be sown. The opportunity for their germination came during and after the Seven Years’ War (1756-63) in Europe. In this European War, the English triumphed over their enemies including France. The English captured Canada from France. With the fall of France in Canada.

Die threat of French invasion vanished for the thirteen colonies. Time was now ripe for them to re¬assert themselves. They now decided to break the chains of the English colonial yoke. Discontent spurred them. The ideals of life; liberty and the pursuit of happiness moved them. Many other factors also came to inspire them to rise in revolt against the English.

Question 8.
Write the causes of the American War of Independence.
Answer:
The causes of the ‘American War of Independence were many. The upheaval was a sign that the thirteen colonies had reached such a degree of economic, political, and cultural maturity, that their achievement Of autonomy was inevitable. But it was also a consequence of certain new developments in British colonial policy that provoked the colonies into asserting their independence.

Its causes can therefore be broadly classified into two categories, i.e. the fundamental causes that ignited the spark of discontent and the immediate causes that brought it to a conflagration.

Fundamental Causes:
England symbolized old and traditional institutions like the Church, monarchy, and feudal heritages as well as a general conservatism. On the other hand, ever since ‘May Flower’ brought the ‘Pilgrim Fathers’ to American soil, they had developed a progressive outlook for a society of free men without the bondage of the Church or such other out-of¬date restrictions.

They stood for modem outlook, wherein life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness were to be the subtle visions. Thus, superior progressive political consciousness tempted them to separation.

Sense of Economic equality and Individual dignity :
Economic equality was a beacon feature of American Society. There was no feudal heritage nor stake. Each was free to develop his economic condition through perseverance and imagination. This spirit came to be described in the 19th century as ‘Social Darwinism’. In the survival of the fittest in human society, only industrious and imaginative individuals can succeed. Each was free and equal, society was thus egalitarian, offering equal opportunity to all and treating all on an equal footing.

Only the Red Indians and the Negroes were the social subordinates as slaves, This emphasis on individual dignity was the source of Social courage and political wisdom. English society, with its hierarchy of Lords, Dukes, the clergy, and commoners, thus came to be looked down upon. Thus, the Americans were only too eager to break the links that chained them to the backward social systems of the mother country.

To these considerations of political, social, economic, and religious differences also came to be added the geographical consideration of distance and isolation from the mother country. The thirteen colonies were thousands of miles away from the mother country. geographical remoteness, at a time when seam-ships and telegraphs were yet to be developed, led to an absence of frequent contacts.

The relationship was thus too formal for a generation of Americans, who were under nothing, except a historical obligation to continue to be loyal to a government hundreds of miles away. Economic grievances of the Americans also added to these sentiments. The commerce of the colonies was regulated by England by virtue of its political authority. It was out of obligation that the colonial people were acknowledging the authority of England over them.

But the English government regarded the colonies as its rightful property because the colonies had been set up by the English. Therefore, England was bent on getting economic benefits out of these colonies. The rules, thus framed, made the American colonies. supply those goods which England did not possess or produce.

pay a part of the English expenses on the army and navy, not to compete with English commerce, and not to grant trade rights to any other country. The colonies felt uneasy under such growing economic burdens. With the withdrawal of the danger of the French invasion at the end of the Seven Years’ War, the Americans were now under no obligation to continue the economic exploitation of them by the English.

Question 9.
Write the immediate causes of the American War of Independence?
Answer:
At the end of the Seven Years’ War, the British government was faced with a grave economic problem. This was because of a business depression after the war as well as an increase in the national debt of England as a consequence of the expenses during the war. The victory was a matter of pride for Englishmen everywhere. British king George III and British Prime Minister Grenville had come to the opinion.

that since the war had been to the advantage of the North American colonies, by freeing them from the French danger, these colonies should help solve some of the economic problems arising out of the war. In the first place, the colonies should assume some of the burdens of their own protection. Total expenses for the defense of the colonies amounted to about 3,00,000 pounds per in.

Second place, they should contribute to the relief of the English Treasury and the recovery of English commerce. It would have been a normal policy under normal circumstances. But the situation had become somewhat abnormal owing to the 1763 proclamation of George III. In that year the British army had suppressed a mutiny of the Red Indians under Pontiac.

The British King, angry that the colonies did nothing to suppress Pontiac, passed this proclamation in 1763, forbidding “all our loving subjects” in the colonies to go beyond a particular point in the western direction. The colonial people regarded this proclamation as deliberately designed to exclude them from the riches of the West. Thus the colonists now came to resent still more keenly the attempt by Parliament to raise more revenue in North America

Question 10.
What are the different Acts and what are their impacts?
Answer:
The first of the new revenue measures, the Sugar Act of 1764, alarmed the American merchants, because it imposed an import duty on sugar, on the colonists. The Stamp Act was passed in 1765. This act imposed a duty on various items including legal and commercial papers, liquor licenses, playing cards, newspapers, calendars, and academic degrees. These duties drained the supply of specie (gold and silver coins) and threatened the colonial economy.

These revenue measures touched off a major controversy. The colonies now boycotted all imports. In 1765 delegates from the thirteen colonies met in New York in a “Stamp Act Congress”. To them, the Stamp Act had a “manifest tendency” to suppress “the rights and liberties of the colonists”. They, therefore, came to argue that as long as they were not allowed to send their representative to the British Parliament to voice their grievances against these high-handed measures of the British government, would not pay these taxes.

Their celebrated slogan now was, “No taxation without representation”. The Stamp Act was withdrawn in 1765 on the appeals of London merchants, threatened by economic ruin, because of the American boycott. The ministry of Grenville resigned. Nevertheless, the Parliament passed the Declaratory Act asserting that the king and Parliament could indeed make laws affecting the colonies.

To King George of England, the Colonies were English property and thus he had the right to rule, control and tax them. In 1767, his government passed the Customs Duties Act (or Townshend duties), levying duties on colonial imports of tea, paper, paint, and lead. Again the merchants of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia organized boycotts. In 1770, British Prime Minister Lord North modified the Townshend duties and made only tea dutiable.

In 1773, the English East India Company attempted to sell its tea in North America. It hoped to overcome American opposition to the hated duty by making the retail price of East India tea far cheaper than that of the Dutch tea smuggled by the colonists. On December 6, 1773, to the cheers of spectators lining the waterfront, a group of Bostonians, disguised as Red-Indians, boarded three East India Company ships and threw the tea chests, worth thousands of pounds, into the sea.

They described this incident as the Boston Tea Party. British government adopted policies to suppress the colonists. The “Intolerable” Acts of 1774 closed the port of Boston and suspended the elections in Massachusetts. This added insult to injury of the “Boston Massacre” when British troops fired and killed some Americans.

Question 11.
What are the implications of the American War of Independence?
Answer:
For Britain, the American revolution brought more severe losses than simply the loss of thirteen colonies. Britain was totally devastated by it. It dealt a great blow to her worldwide prestige and dominance. The Sun has started to set on the British empire. Her international prestige was at stake, particularly after the surrender of armies to the American forces at Saratoga in 1777 and at Yorktown in 1781.

The British used to regard themselves as invincible. The American revolution pricked the bubble of that myth. The loss of American colonies came also as a blow to the power and position of the king, at home. The British King, George III, came to lose the trust of his own people. Even his admirers now became his critics. Before the American war of independence the people of the Thirteen Colonies were regarded as “a race of convicts” who ‘ ‘ought to be thankful for anything we allow them, short of hanging”.

Now public opinion has changed in Britain. The personality and policy of George III came in for severe criticism. In 1780, the British House of Commons passed a resolution that declared that “the influence of the crown has increased, is increasing, and ought to be diminished”. The Prime Minister, Lord North, resigned and was replaced by Pitt, the younger who was a professional politician. He continued in office for long eighteen years and during this entire period, the King was content to play a supporting role to the seasoned Prime Minister.

By far the greatest impact of the American revolution was on international and European politics. During the latter portion of the revolution, France took the stand to isolate Britain in international politics. While its volunteers under Lafayette had joined the forces of George Washington, France came to sign a treaty with Spain (1778) directed against Britain. France also took the lead in Europe to influence other countries against Britain.

Britain stood frustrated, lonely, and humiliated. The American revolution successfully challenged the system of colonialism. All anti-colonial liberation movements that followed in the next 200 years throughout the world drew their inspiration from the American model. American revolution inaugurated an era of democracy and popular governments, All nationalist movements owed their ideals of detente fancy and equality to the American Revolution.

Even, it became one of the immediate causes of the French Revolution. The French soldiers who acted as ‘volunteers’ with the American freedom fighters, returned home and spoke in praise of the better nature of the government and living conditions of the people Ironically, France used Montesquieu’s and Rousseau’s philosophies after the Americans had done so. These two great philosophers belonged to France.

In this regard it can be said that the ideals and ideas of the American revolution influenced those of the French revolution; The American revolution was a national affair w le the French revolution was an event that influenced every nook and comer of Europe and the world. Both were, thus, events of monumental significance for mankind.

Question 12.
What is “Revolution” and what are the political causes of the French Revolution?
Answer:
“Revolutions are not made with rose water” nor are they mere Explosions that announce them – like the first shots at Concord, the fall of Bastille, or the mutiny of the Petrograd troops that signaled the start of the American, French or Russian revolution respectively. A revolution is not an event but a process. It starts in the minds of men and releases a rush of elemental forces in them. A revolution is not made; it comes out of the past and when it comes, it cannot be avoided.

Reform is a correction of the evils and defects, but revolution means nothing less than the complete transfer of power. To quote Edgar Brown, “Revolution means that power must pass from one class to another and even if Bonapartism interrupts the process, a revolution never goes backward.” Thus revolution may be defined as the displacement of the sovereignty of the state. The French Revolution was neither incidental nor accidental. It was in the logic of history and was almost inevitable.

It was a rejection of the past ancient regime; it was a prescription for the future of popular sovereignty. It came towards the end of the 18th century and had already seen the ‘Age of Reason. ’ That is why the 18th century is known as the grave of one epoch and the cradle another. This, the historic landmark was the climax of the enlightenment of the age, for, a revolution always occurs first in the minds of men. Yet, political, social, economic, and philosophical causes also contributed no less to its outbreak.

Political Causes:
Responsibility of Louis XIV Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette :
The Bourbon Monarchy was the root cause of all political unrest in France. The Bourbon dynasty was ruling over France. Louis XIV was the King of France during a long reign from 1661 to 1715. He was fortunate to be the King of France when France was prosperous and the people, were extremely loyal. Feudalism was dependent on royal support. France had no Constitution.

The Parliament of France had not met since 1614. It was not going to meet for 175 years, till 1789. The government was a centralized despotism. All power lay concentrated in the hands of the king. Justice was the hand-maid of the ruler. Louis XIV further consolidated his powers and came to proclaim, “L’etat test ” or “I am the State”. It was a monarchy by “Divine right”, a heritage of the Middle Ages.

The King was regarded as a divine agent, appointed to rule, therefore, the king was only answerable to God, not to his people, for his deeds and misdeeds. Louis XIV was a grand monarch. He was not only a capable general but also a competent builder. He ordered palaces to be built at Versailles, eleven miles from Paris, and he decided to rule from there far away from the dins and bustles of Paris.

Versailles became the dazzling apex of a state edifice that had cost the treasury only 24 million pounds. Versailles was a monument to Louis XIV’s thoughtless extravagance though it was the citadel of his absolutism. The expenditures were unwise, while the seclusion it brought for the monarch from the people, created artificial barriers between the ruler and the ruled. It brought fame to France in Europe, yet it increased the size and volume of French loans from other European Governments.

Louis XIV was a Grand Monarch. His successors were weak. They lacked his personality. So they became unpopular and were too weak to suppress the public discontent. Louis XV was a weakling who could not check the tide of popular disavowal of the growing poverty of the common man and the system of punishment through emergency laws, like “Letter de Cachet” by which a man can be jailed or punished without explanation or trial.

It was already too late, when he regretted, “After me the deluge”. He was succeeded by Louis XVI, in 1774. He was a good man, but a bad king was afraid of taking in dip ’pins of administration and kingship “as if the Universe is falling on me”. “God! What a burden is mine and they have taught me nothing”. “I wish, I could resign too” – reflects his attitude to kingship. He was a kind-hearted man who loved France and her people.

But time had already started blinking at the downfall of the Bourbons. He was a good judge of men and appointed capable administrators like Turgot and Necker. But no one trusted Louis XVI, for his worst shortcoming was that he had no will of his own. Though brilliant, he was unable to exert himself while his wife, Marie Antoinette was under the suicidal bliss of ignorance.

She made luxury the prevailing note everywhere. As gaiety was unconfined, so necessarily was the expenditure that kept it going. Wilful wastes thus paved the way for woeful wants. Expenditure was larger than income and foreign loans were sought to keep the machinery going. The total palace expenses f<?r 1789 alone were more than 20 million Francs.

The royal court was the tomb of the nation. Thus, despotism was changed to its own misdeeds and could not escape their consequences. The Parliament or ‘States General’ had not met for 175 years. Public appointments continued made by nomination rather than merit. Privilege, not law, was the basis of the state; expedient, not principle, the principle of its rulers.

Question 13.
What are the social causes of the French Revolution?
Answer:
The Third Estate:
Like the monarchy itself, the social and economic foundations of the old me were beginning to crumble and slip by the middle eighteenth century. French society was divided into three traditional classes or ‘estates’. They were the nobles, the clergy, and the common people. The nobles and the clergy were the first two estates and the common people were the ‘third estate.’

The first two estates were the aristocrats who enjoyed all powers and privileges and were exempted from paying any tax to the State. Only the third estate paid taxes of various kinds because they did not enjoy privilege and bore the brunt of the wrath of the privileged aristocracy. They paid the ‘Taille’ or land tax, ‘Vingtieme’or income tax, ‘Gabelle’ or salt- tax, and Corvee’ or road tax. Apart from these, they paid ‘Tithe’ to the Church and feudal dues to the nobles. Discontent grew at these disparities.

The peasants and common people were thus groaning under the oppressive burdens of taxation, poverty, and punishment by the King through ‘Letter de cachet’, by the nobility through coercion, and by the Church through persecution. The peasants were the worst suffers. To add to their misfortune, there had been the famine of 1788, as a result of which “one-third of them had nothing but third-rate potatoes to eat, for one-third of the year – in the words of Carlyle.

The King had no time or inclination for them, “Wha is the Third Estate ?” asked Abbe Sieyes and answered, “Everything, what has it been in politics until now? Nothing. What does it desire? To become something.” The picture of the society was described in a famous way, “the nobles fight, the clergy pray, the people pay.” The Nobles and the Clergy “The revolution of 1789 was much less a rebellion against despotism than against inequality.”

The nobles and the clergy constituted one percent of the total population of France. The institution of nobility had been a feature of society since the days of feudalism. When the strong monarchy was revived, the institution was not abolished; rather the volume of its vices of exploitation had gone up. They continued to enjoy their rights, while they continued to forget their obligations to the State and people.

They continued to receive their feudal dues from the people but did not pay their taxes or dues to the State. The clergy did not lag behind the nobles. The clergy possessed estates, collected tithe from the people, threatened persecution and the Church was autonomous. The government had no control over Church or religious affairs. The Church was thus “a State within a State.” While superstitions grew, so did religious exploitation.

Gradually the intelligentsia took up the gauntlet against the Church and clergy, exposed and criticized them, and exhorted the people to rise n rebellion against in clergy. Holbach, an intellectual of the age, lamented, “Religious and political errors Have turned the Universe Into a valley of tears.” “The French Revolution was a general mass movement of the nation against the privileged classes”, said Napoleon Bonaparte.

No man could have held back those social forces, setting the dimensions of the new era. Thus, the national discontent led to the prominence of the middle class or bourgeoisie. The revolution was bourgeoisie in origin, character, and climax. The middle class is the backbone of any society. They are educated people belonging to various professions.

They were the seat of revolutionary spirit. They criticized the existing vices, promoted discussion, roused passion, and led the people to believe that the only limits to the realization of a better tomorrow were the doubts of today. The middle class became the vanguard of the revolution.

Question 14.
What are the economic causes of the French Revolution?
Answer:
French society was characterized by various economic imbalances. The nobles and the clergy constituted one percent of the total national population. They owned forty percent of the total national wealth. They did not pay any tax by virtue of the convention of privilege. This created inevitable bitterness because the unprivileged class bore the brunt of taxation.

Short Notes on :
Montesquieu :
Foremost of these philosophers was Montesquieu (1689 – 1755). He was a lawyer by profession. This French philosopher set out to analyze political virtues. In 1748 was published his great work, ‘The Spirit of the Laws. This work was to initiate a philosophic movement against the ‘ Old Regime. ’ The work was not a figment of fiction nor a flight of fancy.

To Montesquieu, liberty is the ultimate objective of all reason or rational processes. Liberty was impossible v without, what he called, the separation of powers. The legislative, executive, and judicial ‘ powers of a State should be in separate hands. Each of these three branches should be as powerful as any of the other two. No two such branches should come together.

Thus, the government can run smoothly through this system of checks and balances. Thus, through the ‘Separation of Powers’, public liberty can come, not only to be granted but guaranteed, as well. When “The Spirit of the Laws” came to be published, it was in such heavy demand that there were 22 editions of this book in only t eighteen months. It awakened a taste for ’ political studies by bringing social sciences into the focus of literature.

It was a challenge to the Monarchy of France because by wielding all legislative, executive, and judicial authority of the State, the Monarchy was denying liberty people. Montesquieu, thus, inaugurated the attacks of philosophy and reason on the ‘Old Regime’ and its vestiges in France.

Voltaire :
Another philosopher, though in a different mold, was ‘King’ Voltaire. He was one of the masterminds of Europe and his age (1694-1778) is known in the history of Europe as the ‘Age of Voltaire’. This philosopher was famous for his wit and wisdom. He preferred to be ruled by one lion than by a hundred lambs. Yet he was for benevolent despotism. This controversial philosopher was therefore adored by Catherine the Great and Frederick the Great in their respective courts.

But Voltaire was against weak despotism and called upon the people to rise in revolt against weak rulers. The people affectionately described him as ‘King’ Voltaire. Voltaire vehemently opposed to the corruption in the Church and called upon the French people to “crush the infamous thing”. Voltaire was “a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.” Tyranny of any form was opposed to him. The French took up his advice as a mandate to strip the Church of wealth and power.

Rousseau:
But if any philosopher deserves singular credit for having fathered the French Revolution, it was Rousseau (1712 – 78). His ideas inspired the radicals of the French Revolution. He started with a sweeping generalization, very typical of the Enlightenment. Whereas nature dignifies man. Rousseau argued that civilization corrupts him; man would be corrupted less if civilized institutions followed nature more closely.

This was the central theme in “Emile”, in “Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences ” as well as in his masterpiece “Social Contract” (1762). “Man is born free and everywhere he is in chains” Rousseau regretted. He, therefore, urged the people to rise in revolt against the oppressive tyranny of their despots, “sweep away all the false fabric of society.

the world of ugly wants and insolent riches and establish ‘felicity of life’ by destroying the serpent of property. Iron and com had a civilized man and thereby ruined mankind. The simplicity of ancient ways of life was destroyed by the concept of property. Rousseau raised the clarion call of “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity”. The French Revolution of 1789 adopted the call as its swan song. Rousseau was a champion of liberty.

“Better the perils of liberty than the privileges of servitude”. Rousseau was an egalitarian society without distinctions of class or status. He stood for the universal brotherhood. Rousseau attempted to harmonize government and liberty through the theory of the social contract. While earlier theories postulated a political contract; Rousseau’s contract was social, where a whole society agreed to be molded by its ‘general will’.

Rousseau was an advocate of democracy and individualism. His idea was a free citizen in a free state His ideal State was a republic virtue’. His philosophy breathed “revolt in the name of nature, against the artificial social system” in France. It also inhaled the sweet breeze of virtue and ‘Liberty, equality, and fraternity.’Thus Rousseau gave the future revolution, its own philosophy, creed, its purpose, and its direction.

He was true, the Father of the French Revolution, though he had died eleven years before its outbreak. Apart from Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau, there were other intellectuals, philosophers, and encyclopaedists who also prevailed in the French mind. Diderot and the other encyclopaedists gave the synthetic knowledge of ages to the French and thereby started discussions and aroused passion.

among other things, popular sovereignty. Helvetius projected “the self-interest” of man and society. Holbach criticized the Church, D’ Alembert, Quesnay and others inspired the French people with their writings.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 History Solutions Unit 4 Objective & Short Answer Type Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class History Unit 4 Objective & Short Answer Type Questions

Multiple Choose Questions With Answers

Question 1.
In which country industrial revolution was first started?
(a) France
(b) Belgium
(c) England
(d) Italy
Answer:
(c) England

Question2.
Who invented the flying shuttle?
(a) James Hargreaves
(b) New Comen
(c) Arkwright
(d) John Kay
Answer:
(d) John Kay

Question 3.
Which of the following machine was invented by James Hargreaves?
(a) Spinning Jenny
(b) Water Frame
(c) Spinning Mule
(d) CatttonGin
Answer:
(a) Spinning Jenny

Question 4.
Who was the inventor of the water frame?
(a) Samuel Crompton
(b) John Kay
(c) Arkwright
(d) Cartwright
Answer:
(c) Arkwright

Question 5.
Who invented the Steam Engine?
(a) Cartwright
(b) James Watt
(c) Arkwright
(d) Hargreaves
Answer:
(b) James Watt

Question 6.
Who was the inventor of the safety lamp?
(a) Henry Court
(b) Humphry Davy
(c) Abraham Derby
(d) Metcalf
Answer:
(b) Humphry Davy

Question 7.
When did Stephenson invent the ‘Rocket”?
(a) 1814 AD
(b) 1830 AD
(c) 1840 AD
(d) 1876 AD
Answer:
(a) 1814 AD

Question 8.
Who was the inventor of the telephone?
(a) Graham Belt
(b) Marconi
(c) Edison
(d) Morse
Answer:
(a) Graham Belt

Question 9.
When did the seven years’ war come to an end?
(a) 1752 AD
(b) 1758 AD
(c) 1760 AD
(d) 1763 AD
Answer:
(d) 1763 AD

Question 10.
Which of the following acts was passed by the British Parliament in 1764 AD?
(a) Stamp Act
(b) Sugar Act
(c) DeclaratingAct
(d) Tea Act
Answer:
(b) Sugar Act

Question 11.
When was the stamp act was introduced?
(a) 1763 AD
(b) 1765 AD
(c) 1767 AD
(d) 17773 AD
Answer:
(b) 1765 AD

Question 12.
Who was the king of England during the time of the American War of Independence?
(a) Gage
(b) George Washington
(c) Cornwallis
(d) William Hove
Answer:
(b) George Washington

Question 13.
Where did the first American Congress meet?
(a) Newyork
(b) Philadelphia
(c) Yorktown
(d) Versailles
Answer:
(b) Philadelphia

Question 14.
Who was the first Prime Minister of England during the America War of Independence?
(a) Grenville
(b) Rockingham
(c) Lord North
(d) Townshend
Answer:
(c) Lord North

Question 15.
Who was the first President of ISA?
(a) George Washington
(b) Thomas Jefferson
(c) Abraham Lincoln
(d) Benjamin Franklin
Answer:
(a) George Washington

Question 16.
When did the incident Boston Tea Party occur?
(a) 1767 AD
(b) 1770AD
(c) 1773 AD
(d) 1771 AD
Answer:
(c) 1773 AD

Question 17.
Who did draft the Declaration of Independence of America?
(a) Tom Paine
(b) Thomas Jefferson
(c) Benjamin Franklin
(d) George Washington
Answer:
(b) Thomas Jeflerson

Question 18.
Which king of France did say “I am the State”?
(a) Louis XIV
(b) Louis XV
(c) LouisXVI
(d) Louis XVII
Answer:
(a) Louis XIV

Question 19.
Which king of France did regret ‘After me the deluge?
(a) Louis XIV
(b) Louis XV
(c) LouisXVI
(d) Louis XVTI
Answer:
(b) Louis XV

Question 20.
Which king of France did say ‘ as if the universe is falling on my head”?
(a) Louis XIV
(b) Louis XV
(c) LouisXVI
(d) Louis XVD
Answer:
(c) LouisXVI

Question 21.
Gabellwas?
(a) A salt tax
(b) A road tax
(c) A religious tax
(d) A land tax
Answer:
(a) A salt tax

Question 22.
Which of the following books was written by Monetesquiev?
(a) Letter in English
(b) Social Contract
(c) The spirit of the land
(d) Commonsense
Answer:
(c) The spirit of the land

Question 23.
Which of the following words was not a call of Rousseau?
(a) Justice
(b) Liberty
(c) Equality
(d) Fraternity
Answer:
(a) Justice

Question 24.
Who was a pillar of cloud by day and fire by night?
(a) Rousseau
(b) Voltaire
(c) Holbach
(d) Fiberot
Answer:
(b) Voltaire

Question 25.
When was the prison of Bastille razed to the ground?
(a) 1788 July 14
(b) 1789 July 14
(c) 1790 July 14
(d) 1791 July 14
Answer:
(b) 1789 July 14

Question 26.
How many deputies constitute the Estates General?
(a) 1000
(b) 1100
(c) 1200
(d) 1300
Answer:
(c) 1200

Question 27.
Who did describe the French Revolution as ‘world historical’?
(a) Diderot
(b) Hegel
(c) Rousseau
(d) Voltaire
Answer:
(b) Hegel

True & False Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Industrial Revolution started first in France?
Answer:
False

Question 2.
Industrial Revolution started first in England?
Answer:
True

Question 3.
James Watt invented the Steam Engine?
Answer:
True

Question 4.
With the introduction of new agricultural equipment, there were revolutionary changes in agriculture?
Answer:
True

Question 5.
Samuel Crompton invented Water Frame?
Answer:
False

Question 6.
Samuel Crompton invented Spinning Mule?
Answer:
True

Question 7.
Did Cartwright invent Cotton Jin?
Answer:
False

Question 8.
Did Cartwright invent Powerloom?
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Whitney invented Cotton Jin?
Answer:
True

Question 10.
John Kay invented Spinning Jenny?
Answer:
False

Question 11.
John Kay invented Flying Shuttle?
Answer:
True

Question 12.
Hargreaves invented Spinning Jenny?
Answer:
True

Question 13.
Did Arkwright invent Water Frame?
Answer:
True

Question 14.
In 1607 the British set up a colony at Vi Virginia in North America?
Answer:
True

Question 15.
Major event Boston Tea Party took place due to Lord North’s tax on tea?
Answer:
True

Question 16.
Cornwallis became the Commander-in¬chief of the American war of Independence?
Answer:
False

Question 17.
George Washington became the Commander-in-chief of the American War of Independence?
Answer:
True

Question 18.
Ramsay Muir has aptly described the French Revolution of 1789 as a world revolution?
Answer:
True

Question 19.
The bourgeoise provided the leadership for French Revolution?
Answer:
True

Question 20.
Voltaire has written the book ‘ spirit of the law’?
Answer:
False

Question 21.
Montesquieu has written the book ‘ spirit of the law’?
Answer:
True

Short Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
In which country industrial revolution first began? When did it begin?
Answer:
Industrial Revolution began in England during the 2nd. half of 18th century.

Question 2.
Why industrial revolution began in England?
Answer:
It began in England because new countries were discovered and England’s colonization for trade in India and other countries open the w ay for the industrial revolution

Question 3.
Why industrial revolution is known as the ‘Machine Age”?
Answer:
It is rightly known as the machine age as new and heavy machines started to. dominate the industry.

Question 4.
Which machine revolutionalizes spinning and how?
Answer:
James Hargreaves invented the ‘spinning jenny’ which could spin 8 threads at a time. It was later improved to bring out 100 threads at the same time.

Question 5.
Who invented the spinning mule?
Answer:
Samuel Crompton invented the spinning mule to improve the quality of threads.

Question 6.
What is the result of the industrial revolution?
Answer:
The results of the industrial revolution are many some of them are:
Mechanized production increased production. New tools and machines benefitted agriculture. Mass production of goods and articles give encouragement to trade and commerce. Better transport system and urbanization. Growth of science and technology.

Question 7.
Does flow industrialization ruin the economic system?
Answer:
The industrial revolution many ways ruin the economic system. Clashes between capitalists and proletariats became inevitable. Workers and laborers lived in unhygienic conditions.

Question 8.
When did Britisher establish the first colony in America? What was its name who rules over England at that time?
Answer:
In 1607 the British set up a colony in Virginia in North America. Within a very short span of time thirteen British colonies sprang in North America. Queen Elizabeth rules over England at that time.

Question 9.
Discuss the seven-year war?
Answer:
In this European war, the English triumphed over their enemies including France. The English captured Canada from France. They want to break the chains of England. The ideals of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness moved them to revolt against England.

Question 10.
Who was the commander-in-chief of the American War of Independence?
Answer:
At York town in October 1781, British General Cornwallis surrendered to the Americans.

Question 11.
What is a revolution?
Answer:
A revolution is not an event but a process. It starts in the minds of men and releases a rush of elemental forces in them.

Question 12.
What is French Revolution to Ramsay Muir?
Answer:
Ramsay Muir has aptly described the French Revolution ofl789asa world of revolution and rightly so since it influenced mankind as a whole.

Question 13.
Who provided the leadership for French Revolution?
Answer:
The bourgeoisie or the middle class provided leadership for the revolution.

Question 14.
What Mo.ntesquicu criticized in his book ‘Spirit of Law’?
Answer:
He criticized the despotic rule of king Voltaire. He opposed the activities of the church and clergy. Rousseau’s Cale for Liberty, Equality and Fraternity provided a necessary boost for French Revolution.

Question 15.
What Louis XVI did to improve the economy?
Answer:
He appointed able financers like Target, Necker, and Calonne to put the economy in order. Common people were no longer in a position to bear the burden of taxation. French economy doldrum and the national debt went on rising.

Question 16.
What was the idea of Rousseau?
Answer:
Rousseau was an advocate of democracy and individualism. His idea is ‘a free citizen in a free state. His ideal state was a republic. philosophy breathed revolt in the name of nature against the artificial ‘social system. His ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity gave the food for future revolution. He was indeed known as the father of the French Revolution.

Question 17.
What were Voltaire’s contributions to the Revolution?
Answer:
Voltaire’s philosopher was one of the masterminds of Europe. People affectionately called him King Voltaire. He vehemently opposed the corruption of the church and called upon the french people as to “crush the infamous thing”. He was ‘a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night. The French took up his advice.

Question 18.
Who had written, “Spirit of the Law” and what was its impact upon French society?
Answer:
In 1748, Montesquieu published ‘the spirit of the law’ this work was a philosophical movement against old regions when it came published. It was in such high demand that there were 22 editions of this book in only eighteen months. It was a challenge to the monarchy of France.

Question 19.
What was the impact of the American War of Independence?
Answer:
Participation in the American war of Independence also enlightened the french mind. The American ideal of democracy with its characteristic features of separation of power and life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness appealed to the French mind.

Question 20.
How Marie Antoinette was responsible for the outbreak of the French Revolution?
Answer:
Marie Antoinette wife of Louis XVI was under the suicidal blessing of ignorance. She made luxury the prevailing everywhere. Her expenditures are larger than her income. Total palace expenses were 1789 alone were more than 20 million francs. She ruled over the mind of Louis XVI and didn’t control the expenditure leading to foreign loans and creating economic unrest.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part 2.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Type Questions with Answers

Question 1.
Discuss the meaning and operational definition of learning?
Answer:
Meaning and operational definition of learning:
Learning has been described by some as a modification of behavior. In learning vocabulary, tennis, football, remembering a poem, learning typing, or driving modification of behavior takes place. As a result of repeated practice modification of behavior takes place whether it is sensory, motor or psychological learning starts with an absolute zero. But this definition is too wide and suffers from vagueness. All modifications of behavior cannot be called learning. Some cases of change of behavior appear like learning from the surface. Once not actually learning modification of behavior due to:

• Sensory adaptation
• Maturation
• Fatigue
• Drugs cannot be attributed to learning

Sensory adaption:
When you entered the class you got the strong smell of perfume. But after a few minutes, you are no more aware of the fragrance as the Olfactory sense organ has adapted very quickly. This insensitiveness to the smell of perfume is not because of previous learning but because of the adaptability of the Olfactory senses of the individual.

Maturation:
Two kinds of changes in behavior take place: Those changes which occur due to endogenous (internal) factors are called changes due to growth and maturation, Those changes in behavior that take place due to external factors like environment are called learning changes, called maturational changes. Thus, due to maturation birds start signing at a particular period. The human babysits, stands, walks, and babbles at a particular age. Sexual growth starts at a particular age and so on.

Changes in behavior due to maturation should not, therefore, be confused with changes in behavior due to learning. Changes due to maturation are usually stereotyped and practically identical to all members of the species. But most of the learning changes are varied, also behavior changes due to abnormal glandular secretion, brain damage, and disease should not be attributed to learning.

Fatigue:
A decrement in work performance takes place because of fatigue or tiredness. Fatigue decreases efficiency. A student who is taking down notes in the class at a fantastic speed in the early hours, may not be able to write at the same speed in the last hours. comparative change in performance is not due to learning, but due to fatigue. A person is instructed to draw two parallel lines as quickly as possible for an unlimited period.

After some time, the performance gradually decreases and a period comes when he cannot move his wrist any further. Does this work decrement take place because of practice, due to learning? No, it is not due to practice or learning. It is due to fatigue. This work decrement is also temporary and disappears after rest or change in work.

Drug:
After taking some drugs, some people may suffer from the “drug effects”. The effect of drugs brings a complete change in their behavior for a temporary period. This change in behavior of the ‘ O ’ is not due to practice and hence cannot be attributed to learning. Further temporary that it cannot be called a case of learning.

In view of these facts, learning can be described as a permanent modification of behavior as a result of past experience and practice. Practice reinforces learning firstly, the change in behavior must be more or less, permanent and secondly, it must be the effect of past experience and practice. Any modification of behavior not due to past experience and practice cannot be attributed to learning.

Learning can also be defined as a progressive improvement in performance as a function of practice. No improvement in performance would be possible if the practice does not result in cumulative retention. Secondly, the change that we refer to in learning must be a quantitative and measurable change in performance. The following table demonstrates the measurable change in the performance of a person while learning typing.

Both reductions in error and an increase in the speed of typing day by day suggest that the output of learning can be measured by trial. A number of different learning psychologists have emphasized different aspects of learning in their definitions. Some of them are discussed below Boaz (1984) defines learning as the process by which the individual acquires various habits, knowledge, and attitudes that are necessary to meet the demands of life in general.

Learning according to Boaz is a continuous psychological activity that takes place to solve the problems, needs, and demands of the concerned person. Secondly, by learning he develops those attitudes, knowledge, and habits that are required to meet the specific needs of problems of the learner. A person leams typing and shorthand to get a paying job as a personal secretary. A student leams cycling, so as to cover the distance from his residence to school.

A housewife leams the operation of electrical gadgets for the smooth functioning of domestic work, a girl learns cooking, knitting, and signing to have better prospects in the marriage market. Thus, Boaz emphasizes the motivation behind every learning. Learning by Morgan and King (1978) is defined “as any relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of practice and experience.” thus he deals with three major elements Learning is a change in behavior.

it is a change that takes place through practice and experience. Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent; it must last a fairly long time. According to Garrett, “Learning is that activity by virtue of which we organize our response with new habits.” Thus the element of organization in learning cannot be overlooked according to Garrett. In the opinion of Woodworth, learning a new thing adds to one’s experiences. He emphasizes the role of reinforcement in learning by saying it is indispensable for learning.

Woodworth and Scholasberg have given a very comprehensive definition of learning. According to them, “Learning is a change that occurs in the ‘O ’during any kind of activity. It shows later on after the effect of activity. A later activity is different from the earlier activity. We are tempted to say that learning is demonstrated when even a later activity shows some after-effects of earlier activity.

According to Ruch (1970), Learning is a process that brings about changes in the individual s way of responding as a result of contact with aspects of the environment. Ruch views that behavioral changes induced by drugs, brain injury, and maturation are not considered to involve learning Hilgard has defined.

learning as follows Learning is the process by which an activity originates or is changed through training procedures as is distinguished from changes by factors attributable to training. According McGcoch, “Learning as we measure it is a change in performance as a function of practice. In most cases, if not in all, this change has a direction which satisfies the current motivating conditions of the individual.”

Question 2.
What is trial and error of learning? Describe the process of trial and error learning with an experiment?
Answer:
Methods or process of Learning :
How learning takes place? This has been a major issue for many decades and various methods have been developed for learning psychologists to explain how learning takes place. Theories of learning explain the learning process. Mainly the learning theories can be classified into two groups on the basis of their approaches. Stimulus – Response Theory supported by Thorndike, Pavlov, Skinner, Hull, Guthrie, etc. Cognitive Theory is supported by Kohler, Koffka Tolman, Lewin, etc.

The S-R theorists argue that learning occurs by habit due to a chain of reflexes. The ‘ O ’ learns to perform an activity by repeating the performance which brings the correct response or which leads one to reach the goal. This sort of learning process according to them takes place purely mechanically due to habit, due to stimulus-response association.

It does not require the understanding, the brain, or the intelligence of the learner. Paradoxically, cognitive theorists stress the role of organism variables in any learning. They argue that for any learning process to continue, intelligence, understanding, cognitive structure, etc. play an important role. Thus, they stress the role of brain processes in learning. They emphasize the means and the end, and understanding of the situation as a whole.

E.L. Thorndike’S Contribution To Trial And Error Learning:
The psychology of learning owes its existence to American Psychologist E.L. Thorndike (1874¬1949) for his first scientific study of learning. A glance at the contemporary situation of learning psychology indicates that for over half a century, the whole scene of learning psychology has been dominated by one person directly or indirectly and he is E.L. Thorndike.

It is also interesting to note that Thorndike has many followers as well as haters and rivals. When he first propounded his theory of Trial and Error Learning, it produced quite a stir in psychology. Tolman has, therefore, rightly pointed out, “He may be a starting point of attack.”. So, it is said that the psychology of animal learning, not to speak that of child learning, has been or still is primarily a matter of agreeing or disagreeing with Thorndike or tiyin in minor ways to improve upon him.

Prior to Thorndike, nobody did deal with the problem of motivation, not even Wundt or Ebbinghaus. But Thorndike brought a radical change in the history of psychology by bringing motivation into the picture. He conducted a large number of experiments on animal learning, and contemporary psychology and came to the conclusion that animals have no rational faculty in learning. They do not leam by reasoning but by trial and error.

Trial And Error Learning:
Animals go on hitting the target by impulse or leam out of a blunder of hit and miss. This is called Trial and Error Learning. Among the random hits, the correct response which is rewarded is ‘ Stamped in’. The wrong response which is not rewarded is ‘ Stamped out’. Thus; stamping incorrect responses and stamping out wrong ones is the core of learning according to Thorndike.

Trial and error is the simplest form of learning. It came into existence by means of animal experimentation. The trial and error method means trying one way to escape, reach the food or solve a problem, becoming unsuccessful and so trying another way. In this manner, the animal tries and tries until the correct solution is achieved until the goal is reached. The correct response is then repeated to strengthen the S-R connection.

This sort of hit-and-miss learning proceeds slowly, and gradually. The errors fall slowly. The process of selecting and rejecting consists of this gradualness. On the basis of his vast amount of findings on animal experimentation. Thorndike viewed that animals come to leam things quite by chance rather than by anything like understanding. They learn blindly, mechanically, and randomly.

The solution comes by chance, accidentally. To study animal learning by Trial and Error method. Thorndike conducted a classic experiment on a hungry cat, which is described below A hungry cat was put inside a puzzle box. A piece of food (motivation) was kept outside the box at a little distance so that the cat cannot reach it unless she opens the door of the puzzle box. The cat had to press the lever by pulling the loop of the chord to open the door and to get the fish.

At first, the cat tried a number of ways and made lots of unnecessary movements to open the door. The random movements included clawing, biting, pulling, pushing, thrusting, and paws through any opening and the like. In this way after trying several hit-and-miss random acts, making enough struggle, accidentally, the loop was pulled and the door opened.

Finally, the animal reached its goal. Time taken for reaching the food was recorded. After several trials like this, the cat learned to go straight to the lever, press it, open the door and reach the food. A comparison of the time and unnecessary movements from the first to the last trial showed a gradual decrement in the time taken to reach the food.

Also, the unnecessary movements gradually decreased. This type of random hit-or-miss, exploratory activity is called Trial and Error. When these data are plotted into a curve, the irregular slopes at places indicate that animals do things accidentally without understanding. In this case, the cat leams through errors.

Question 3.
Discuss the stages of trial and error learning?
Answer:
Stages of Trial and Error Learning:
Need or Drive:
For any learning to operate need or drive is essential. It goals or motivates the organism to action. In Thorndike’s experiment, the cat was hungry. Hunger was the drive and the need was to get food. In certain cases when the cat is not hungry, the drive for exploration may serve as the need in learning the maze. The motivation should be goal oriented.

For instance, the cat is hungry. But there is no food outside the puzzle box. In this case, the animal will not try at all to open the door, unless, of course, the need to escape from the box operates as a goal. There must be some goal whatsoever, otherwise learning will not be effective.

Block or Resistance:
By preventing the direct release of tension blocks are created so that the animal would make attempts to learn. Without blocks, there cannot be any learning. Thorndike made many T & Y mazes and artificial blocks.

Random Movement:
Rigidity on the part of the ‘O’ does not help to learn quickly. Accidentally the rat heats so many paths; shows random, variable hit-and-miss kinds of activities that are blind, mechanical, and lack understanding and meaning.

Chance Success:
When the cat was trying to get the fish, it made many random unsuccessful activities. Out of these random attempts, by chance, accidentally, the ‘O’ succeeds in reaching the goal. So in .trial and error learning, success comes by chance.

Selection:
The successful movements or the correct responses which lead to the goal are reinforced and hence selected for further practice. The unsuccessful activities are discarded and the successful ones are encountered. This is called selection.

Repetition of the Successful Movements:
Repetition of successful movements leads to the establishment of a habit for a definite movement. When the cat found that certain selected movements led him to food, it attempted only those movements that enabled him to get out of the box and reach the food.

Fixation:
Fixation takes place due to habit, due to the repetition of the successful movements. The habit leads to a definite S-R connection. In fixation, certain essential factors like a decrease in time taken to reach the goal, no random movement, and anticipation of behavior observed. All the above principles are found generally, in any type of trial and Error learning.

Question 4.
Discuss briefly the curve of trial and error learning and maze learning?
Answer:
The curve of Trial and Error:
A curve can be drawn by taking the learning trial, a number of errors, etc. into consideration. The trial and error learning curve has the usual characteristics of a gradual decrease in time and error.

The blind and random activities, at last, come to an end. Errors become zero when the learning becomes perfect. But the time period never comes to zero because some time is necessary to reach the food object. It will vary from organism to organism according to its physiological limit A Japanese experimenter, Kuo did an experiment, on Maze. Shock chambers and confined chambers were allowed.

The shock was given in the earlier path but no food, he went in the short path but got shocked. So he went on another path but again got shocked. Finally, he went on another path and took more time to run. He learned the last path because it gave him reward and pleasure. In this case frequency with reward was found to be the effective answer. Kuo thus disapproved. Thorndike’s Frequency Theory by finding that frequency followed by motivation results in learning.

Kuo’s experiment concludes that practice always depends upon the consequence of reward. The rewarded learning is only fixated. Adam repeated Trial and Error Learning and formulated certain principles which opposed Thorndike’s. He conducted an experiment on discrimination learning where the monkey was trained to select a particular circle that brought him food.

There are two circles, one is big and the other is small. Food is always reinforced to the small circle. After some training, this big circle was substituted by a small circle which was smaller than the second one. In spite of this change in the size of the first circle, the monkey discriminated between the two circles and also learned to always respond to the circle which accompanied the food.

Here, Adam says, the monkey did not learn quite blindly but tried to perceive the relationship between the circles and discriminate one from the other. So he retorted, animals always do not learn by chance. Their activities are not always random or unsuccessful. Sometimes the animal tries to understand the situation and gives a response accordingly.

Thorndike counteracted this criticism by the argument that trial and error learning occurs in the case of lower animals only. Monkeys, chimpanzees, and human beings do not learn by trial and error. Adam conducted another experiment where even after 21 trials, the animal did not learn to open the latch because there was no reinforcement (food) outside the box. But when the smell of fish was noticed by the animal, it tried to open the latch.

Thus, Adam proved that motivation followed by practice strengthens learning. He proved that without motivation learning cannot be specific. This data also went against Throndike’s assumption and emphasized more practice for effective learning. The findings of several such studies led to severe criticism of the Law of Exercise of Thorndike. Thus after 1933 of Effect was included along with the Law of Exercise.

Maze Learning:
Several maze methods were used extensively to demonstrate trial-and-error learning. Maze refers to a number of complicated ways in which the ‘O’ tries to escape or to seek food. In such learning, time and errors are taken as criteria of learning. As the time and errors, reduce the ‘O’ is said to proceed toward learning. The number of unnecessary movements taken to reach the goal is counted as error. By making suitable readjustments, each time the ‘O’ attempts to improve his performance.

Question 5.
What is human learning define the meaning of the law of learning and explain different laws of learning?
Answer:
Human Learning:
Human beings also learn by trial and error method. A human ‘O’ is given to learning a complicated maze blindfolded. In the beginning, he makes several wrong movements though less in degree than, the animal. Gradually in a few trials, he learns the maze. Besides simple mazes, hand stylus and complicated mazes are also used in human learning. Trial and learning also take place in our everyday life.

Opening a lock by selecting from a bunch of keys without knowing the actual key, solving a sum by different formulas, sensory-motor learning like tracing star papers with the help of mirror drawing, typing, cycling, and other motor skills are all cases of trial and error learning. Though simple by nature, the trial and error method is said to be one of the most important methods of learning.

In some conditioning and insightful learning trial and error, the method is also involved. Trial and error learning can be overt and covert. Thinking is said to be covert or mental trial and error. However, the trial and error method does not take into account the importance of the whole situation in learning. It has always emphasized part learning, i.e., learning part by part.

Laws of Learning:
on the basis of several experimental findings on animal learning. Thorndike formulated certain laws to explain, the fundamental process of learning. Learning can be explained as an operation of these laws or principles. These laws explain the how and why of learning, a) Law, of Readiness It refers to the physical or psychological (mental) preparedness of a person to do a job or to attend to a stimulus.

If one is prepared to learn; or acquire something, he welcomes it and gets a satisfying feeling while doing it. Conversely, if one is not ready to receive a stimulus, he regrets it and demonstrates dissatisfaction while making a response. Thus, in the opinion of Thorndike, readiness for doing work makes learning smooth, pleasant, and economical.

The Law of readiness has three parts:
If there is, a conduction unit that is ready to conduct an impulse, the act of conducting is satisfying or pleasing. This unit is nothing but a neural pathway or a relay of neural. If there is a conduction unit that is ready to conduct, not doing so is annoying. You are all prepared to/run a race. You are in attendance. If this race is canceled suddenly you are annoyed.

You are all dressed for a film show. Your spouse or friend does not reach in time to accompany you to the show. So it is canceled and you are deeply annoyed. If there is a conduction unit not ready to conduct and if you force one to conduct that creates annoyance. For instance, when you are not ready to sing a song but are forced to do so, it creates annoyance.

Some critics of Thorndike argue that Thorndike in three formulations speaks entirely in terms of physiology, only neural readiness. But looking at these laws, it seems that no legitimate physiological meaning can be attached to them. Later students of Thorndike attempted to attach a more legitimate meaning to these principles.

They say that though Thorndike speaks in the language of physiology, he actually meant psychology. Thus they interpret the conduction unit as a readiness, a set, a preparedness for making a response tendency which is more a psychological readiness.

Law of Exercise:
It is the principle of repetition or the frequency principle. This law states that if an S-R connection is used repeatedly, the strength of that connection is increased and if an S-R connection is not used, the strength of that connection is weakened. Repetition, therefore, increases the strength of response and lack of repetition weakens it. Hence, the law of exercise is based on the principle “Practice makes one perfect. A person who has repeated a poem several times will remember it more than one who has not.

The Law of exercise comprises two short laws:
Law of use and law of disuse. The S-R connection is strengthened by using it and weakened by not using it. This law of exercise is defined in terms probability of response strengthening and weakening. This suggests that the response acquires proficiency when it is repeated. Proficiency decreases when it is not repeated.

Criticism – Other behaviorists Thorndike took the law of exercise as the sole principle of learning. They argued that it leads to the fixation of certain definite S-R responses, a tendency leading to specific learning. But many experiments including Adam proved that learning is net-specific as Thorndike thought. It is rather a general orientation. Adam and others found that the same animal used different methods to achieve the same goal.

Thus, considerable doubt is focused on the specific nature of learning. Secondly, subsequent learning psychologists did not find the law of exercise as effective as Thorndike thought. Mere repetition without motivation does hot achieves anything. The person must have some reinforcement or incentive to learn a skill. Otherwise, practice proves ineffective.

Several experiments on knowledge of results show that repetition without reinforcement does not bring learning. Japanese psychologist Kuo has also found the same thing. That learning becomes ineffective without an intention to learn is proven in most of our daily activities. In view of this criticism, Thorndike decided to Supplement the Law exercise with the law of effect.

Law of Effect:
It follows from the Law of Exercise. The Law of effect refers to Some kind of reward or reinforcement. It stresses the role of motivation in learning. It is the cornerstone, the cardinal principle of Thorndike’s theory of learning. Thorndike viewed that in all situations involving learning, be its sensory or motor or both, the principle of effect is exemplified. conditioning learning, insightful learning, and in trial and or learning, the law of effect is indispensable. This law is responsible for the selection of some goals and the rejection of others. The whole system of Thorndike, in fact, falls or rises with this law.

Question 6.
What is learning of performance and discuss the maturation of learning?
Answer:
Learning and Performance:
Sometimes learning is confused performance. But learning is different from performance. Learning cannot be directly observed, but it is inferred from performance. So learning contributes to performance, but it is only one ingredient of performance. Performance is affected by many factors other than learning. Performance refers to observed behavior while learning can only be observed through performance.

The several factors which influence performance are – need, motivation, attitude, past experience, and learning. Thus, among several factors influencing performance, learning is only one factor.

Learning and Maturation:
Learning basically depends upon the psychological system, i.e. the sensory organs and the cerebral cortex. The growth of organs, therefore, helps in learning. Whatever training we may give to a baby of 5 months, he cannot walk or speak a language. Similarly, a five-year-old boy cannot solve complex mathematical problems, because the solution to mathematical problems depends upon the development of intelligence and the cerebral cortex.

If the brain is not ready enough to grasp a thing, learning will not be possible. Thus it seems apparent that maturation of that organ is necessary, which is to be used for particular learning. What is Maturation? If simply refers to growth, both physically arid and mental. Munn (1954) opines that maturation in man depends upon the existence of human genes and human intracellular, intercellular, and external preconditions.

Those changes which take place due to endogenous or internal factors are called changes due to the influence of growth and maturation. Changes due to the influence of external factors are due to learning. Maturation mostly depends upon prenatal conditions and genes and partly upon the environment. Maturation can be accelerated or retarded by the postnatal environment because feedback from the early environment has also something to do with growth and maturation.

Maturation occurs after birth as well as before. Maturation greatly depends upon heredity. But since the early environmental conditions play a role in development, it would be incorrect to say that any structure or function which matures is purely inherited. Due to the major influence of heredity and genes upon maturation, birds start singing at a particular age, and children start walking and babbling at a particular age. Sexual growth also begins at a particular period of life, even though no training is given.

Hence maturation does not depend upon learning maturation can be accelerated by training, by the factors of the external environment. Maturation can take place without learning, within the four walls. A person can sit, stand, walk and babble without getting special training. A lot of research on maturation has been conducted on animals and some on human infants. Evidence of maturation is found in experiments on birds, rats, monkey,s and human infants.

Arnold Gesell (1946) conducted a study to examine the importance of maturation over learning. She took two twin girls, say A and B. At 46 weeks A was trained to climb stairs and she took several weeks to leam the skill. At 53 weeks B, her sister, was taught to climb the same stairs. She only took 2 weeks to leam it. This difference in learning can be well attributed to better maturation in the case of who was taught to climb stairs seven weeks after her sister A was taught.

The findings of this study make it clear that maturation helps one to leam much more quickly. It also suggests that maturation may not necessarily depend upon learning, but learning definitely depends upon maturation. Why? According to Boaz (1984) “for the learning of complex tasks, particularly for the symbolic learning, maturation of the cerebral cortex and its association areas is an absolute necessity.

Lashley’s experimental findings also show that learning ability directly depends upon the size of the cerebral cortex. That is why, when the child is not ready to leam, no amount of teaching or training will make any good. This is what everyone, including the parents and the teachers, should realize.

Kellog and Kellog (1933) conducted a classic experiment on “The Ape and the Child.” A human child Donald and a Chimpanzee baby Gua were brought up in the same environment and treated identically. Gua, who was two months younger than Donald was humanized earlier than Donald. Munn in this connection describes.

In learning to skip, cooperate with her foster parent, obey requests, kiss to makeup, open doors, anticipate her bowel and bladder needs, eat with a spoon, drink from a glass, and understand such expressions as “Kiss, Kiss” “Come here” Shake hands” and “Bad girl”. Gua was ahead of Donald. She learned faster than Donald because she was more mature.

The conclusions of this study are:
Though the Chimpanzee was of an inferior race and was superior to the child in certain respects due to greater early maturation, Donald could leam certain things like speaking, which Gua without special training could not leam, even though she was more mature. It is because men are more mature than apes.

Question 7.
Define (aw of learning). Describe the law of effect?
Answer:
On the basis of several experimental findings on animal learning. Thorndike formulated certain laws to explain the fundamental process of learning. Learning can be explained as an operation of these laws or principles.

Law of Effect:
It follows from the law of exercise. The Law of effect refers to some kind of reward or reinforcement. It stresses the role of motivation in learning. It is the consumer stone, the cardinal principle of Thorndike’s theory of learning. Thorndike viewed that in all situations involving learning. Law of effect in Thorndike’s opinion refers to the strengthening and weakening of connection as a result of its consequences.

When a modifiable connection is made and is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the connection is increased. If a connection is made and is followed by an annoying state of affairs, the strength is decreased. If the hungry rat gets food after running the maze, it again runs the maze when hungry. But if it fails to get food, it will no more run.

Similarly, if the dog in the conditioned response method gets food, after salivating to bell it will again salivate to below. The learning which gives satisfaction is repeated over and over again. Conversely, failure and dissatisfaction will create an aversion to that learning. If several runs in a particular pathway do not lead to food, but to shock, the rat with a feeling of failure leaves that path and takes another, which leads to a reward.

If the animal is rewarded, next time it expects food and so learns quickly. Thorndike talks about the effect in operational terms. A connection is strengthened and associated with fulfillment of drive, weakened in the case of the opposite. The strength of connection takes place in terms of result i.e., it depends upon the result. The law of effect, therefore, can be called the law of consequence of results from this angle.

The satisfying consequences or results are retained and the dissatisfying ones are eliminated. Thorndike said, “By a satisfying state of affairs is meant one which the animal does nothing to avoid, often doing things which maintain or renew it. It is something that the animal always tried to maintain. An annoying state of affairs is meant one in which the animal does nothing to preserve often doing things that put an end to it.

Objections against the Law of Effect:
Some have argued that Thorndike’s reasoning is circular. Thorndike had to define satisfaction and annoyance in the manner of annoyance. In the pretension of defining a problem, he again comes back to the same problem. Another objection comes from Watson himself. He said that it has a subjective tinge. So he stated that satisfaction and annoyance are connected with some mental state and as such is inappropriate for the description of animal behavior.

Thirdly, the “backward effect” of the Law of Effect has been certified, because the effect going backward is not logical according to them. In Thorndike’s view learning consists of a series of S-R units like S -S2-S3-S4-S5 and so on. The effect comes only at 5. However, it not only influences S. but all the back stimuli like S, S, S3, and S4. But since learning is discreet, how can it be connected with other stimuli, and how the correct response at the 5th’ stage can again go back to the first one?

This idea of Thorndike is very legitimately doubted. To meet this criticism Thorndike argued that the effect of going backward is a matter of empirical observation and reality and hence should not be challenged. The Geslaltists rejected the law of effect. Their objections were based upon experiments and hence more troublesome for Thorndike, the Law of effect, in spite of this criticism is central not only to Thorndike but to all who believe in some sort of reinforcement in learning.

This was the position of Thorndike up to 1929. From 1929 onwards, a very great change took place in his theory, i.e., he modified it. The necessity of modification arose due to severe criticism from various contemporaries like behaviorists and Gestalt Psychologists. Thorndike was so much perturbed by the criticism coming from the Gestalt School and from Iris’s own experimental findings at the meeting of International Congress in Psychology (1927).

he confessed “I am wrong” With this statement, he suggested some radical modifications to his theory of trial and error. He completely gave up the law of exercise and so the law of effect after 1930 was called the “Truncated Law of Effect.” The weakening effect of punishment was also given up or renounced. Thus, he substituted only half of the original law of effect.

The other half dealing with punishment was given up as the negative side appeared to be unimportant for learning. He stated that mere occurrence was enough to counterbalance the eliminating force of punishment. This he did on the basis of his famous experiment on chicks. In a simple maze, the choice of three correct pathways was given such as:

• Freedom,
• Company,
• Food.

The wrong responses led to a punishment of confinement for 30 seconds. A careful record of the data was kept in regard to the times the chicks followed a path when it led to rewarding and it led to punishment. The aim was to examine if a particular pathway led to food or freedom or company or electric shock, and how often the different paths are repeated.

The findings of this study led Thorndike to conclude that rewarding a connection always strengthened it substantially, and punishing it weakened, it a little or not at all. Thorndike found that there was almost a universal view that reward was more efficacious than punishment. Contemporary psychologists called this the law reinforcement. Thorndike also discovered another important phenomenon in the law of effect.

It is known as The Spread of Effect. He noticed that the effect of reward was not only upon the connection with which the reward associated but also upon the neighborhood connections. Effect strengthens these connections which have preceded and followed reward. In short, reward not only strengthens the right connections but also the adjacent connections.

This Thomdike said is a kind of gradient effect. Subsequent experiments on the spread of the effect have yielded similar findings. Tiffin and Nuttin, for instance, got extensive results. However, this phenomenon of the spread of effect has been denied on experimental and statistical grounds. People said on the basis of empirical findings that the spread of effect is not real but conditional.

Thorndike’s theory after 1930 can be summarized as follows:
Reward is extremely urgent for learning. It minimizes the effect of punishment. In matters of potency, the reward is so potent counterbalances the effect of punishment. Rewarding connection always strengthens it substantially. Punishment weakens the connection little or not at all. Thorndike’s law of learning after 1930had a lot of social implications. The modification of this law is at the root of all social changes. It is more practical in classroom teaching, in jails, and in juvenile reform centers.

Spare the rod, spoil the child is based on this principle of learning. Canning has been banned in educational institutions. Physical punishment also is not in much use today. Thus, prisoners in jail, school students, and for juvenile delinquents laws of effect tremendous importance. The three important views about the law of effect are as follows Law of effect is essential to learning – Thorndike, Hull.

Question 8.
Discuss the few other laws of the theory of Thorndike and critical evaluation?
Answer:
Thorndike’s theory:
Thorndike has a number of subsidiary laws. They are The law of multiple responses, i.e. there are a number of responses at the disposal of the ‘O’. when one fails, one other is tried by the law of prepotency; and the law of associative setting. A few other laws of learning have also been referred to by Thorndike, which are discussed below:

Law of Contiguity:
Contiguity refers to nearness. Nearness can be two types, nearness of space and nearness of time. If two things are experienced together, either due to the nearness of space or time, when one is experienced, the other immediately comes to our mind. Blackboard and chalk, library and librarian are related by contiguity of space. When is face one, the other immediately comes focus of our consciousness? An example of the contiguity of time is thunder and lightning. When we see the lightning, immediately we anticipate the thunder which follows the lightning at once.

Law of Frequency:
It is a frequent occurrence that gives an advantage. When nerve connections are frequently used, they leave a particular mark on memory. This is suggested by Thorndike physiological change. It is very much related to the law of exercise. The Law of frequency and the law of exercise are sometimes considered as having equal functions.

Law of Recency:
Any act which has been performed recently has the advantage of being learned and remembered more quickly than the older, far-off, and distant experiences. The recent experiences are better remembered because Neural pathways involved in recent experiences are the last to be activated and the impression in the nerves is fresh. they were the acts nearer to the solution and satisfaction of the need.

The last attempt is the recent attempt and it is a nearer goal that gives a satisfying experience. So it is learned and remembered quickly. While learning the maze box, the rat remembers the last path move vividly as it brought food and satisfied its hunger need. Psychologists who have criticized the law of recency and the law of exercise believe that it is an atomic or molecular approach.

Law of Primacy:
First impressions last long. Other things being equal, all first-learned things are better remembered. The first time one meets a person, the first day of joining college, the first night of I marriage, and the first, time one joins a job or receives his pay packet are examples. Similarly, the first line of a song and the first syllable from a list of nonsense syllables are quickly learned.

Due to the operation of a law of primacy and recency, the first and last nonsense syllables of a list are more easily remembered than the materials in the middle of the list. The first things get enough time to be consolidated and there is no proactive inhibition in this case while in the middle series, both proactive inhibition and retroactive inhibition operate.

Law of Intensity:
If the experience is very intense and emotional, it is easily remembered and further learning may not be necessary to remember it. Certain childhood experiences which are extremely pleasant or deeply shocking like getting a gold medal as a reward, the sudden death of parents and failure in an examination may be remembered for the entire life because of their intense nature.

Intense experiences need not be repeated. One single experience will be enough to be remembered for one entire life. However, according to the theory of repression, if the experience is too shocking or unpleasant, it may be forgotten due to the operation of the mechanism of repression.

Law of Belongingness:
The Law of belongingness by its recognition of an organizing principle is foreign to the structure of Thorndike’s theory of specificity and mechanical action. Rather it gives some recognition to the Gestalt principles in learning. Attacked by Kohler, Koffka, and other Gestaltists for his neglect of organizational principles, Thorndike developed this law of belongingness. It states that the effect is stronger if it belongs to the stimulus-response connection.

Following this line, Thorndike said that if there is an S R connection and the effect belongs to it, the influence is weaker. When one is hungry, food belongs to the situation and so the hunger-food connection makes learning more efficient. When one is hungry, water does not belong to it, only food belongs to it, and only food can satisfy the need of hunger. The belongingness of reward and punishment depends upon the appropriateness of satisfying an arousal motive or want in the learner.

The concession to the principle of belongingness is a concession to the field psychologists who stress the field factor in every learning. Introducing this principle, Thorndike says that effect is more efficacious when it is an effect with belongingness. Belongingness of reward and punishment depends upon its appropriateness is satisfying.

An aroused motive or want in the learner and in its logical and informative relationship to the activities rewarded and punished. To be rewarded with a glass of water when one is thirsty is a reward with belongingness. Without belongingness, though the aftereffect cannot be denied, with belongingness they are more effective.

Critical Evaluation of Thorndike’s Theory:
Thorndike for the first time made a systematic and scientific study of the problems of learning. He developed methods of animal experimentation and gave such genetic and comparative psychology which provided the impetus for a tremendous amount of research on animal psychology. Looking at the theory of Thorndike, we find, it is one man who has created regular stomachs in the whole field of learning.

Though several decades have passed, still we find Thorndike at the root of all kinds of discussions in learning. Some of his ideas, though have been modified and improved, but the law of effect still continues to have a very significant place in learning. Chiefly two kinds of criticisms have been leveled against Thorndike. His stress on reaction performance, on parts rather than on whole has been criticized.

These are criticisms that result from differences in outlook and temperament. The second type of criticism is very fundamental and specific mainly against the law of effect. It was argued that the law of effect is subjective in nature and the backward nature of the law of effect was also criticized. There are also some important experimental criticisms like renunciations of punishment in the law of effect. While Mouren and others have viewed that punishment is very significant in the acquisition of behavior, taking the help of latent learning.

Tolman of the Gestalt School argued that learning can take place with simplicity without reward. The attacks by the Gestalt School in the 20s were more telling and Thorndike began to later meet some of these criticisms. But it was before the International Congress of Psychology Newttaven in September 1929, he came out with the statement “I am Wrong.”

Transfer of Training:
The theory of transfer of training refers to the popular concept that man should be given training in a general way which includes language, mathematics, and classics. They thought that training in these areas positively transferred to various walks of life. It was found that formal education is transferred to various life situations and vocations. The pattern of education at that time in England was, therefore, mainly restricted to classics, language, and mathematics.

Subsequently, there was a lot of discussion on the generalization of the transfer of training and transfer of mathematics to another subject. Thorndike was the first person to raise his voice against the unscientific character of this presupposition and said, it would be illusory to support that there is a transfer from mathematics to other subjects, He viewed that training in one subject helps the other subject only to the extent they have elements or aspects in common.

The identity may be in substance or in the procedure. Thus there can be a transfer from mathematics to statistics or knowledge of addition helps in multiplication; because both have necessary similarities. 11 hence, it is also called the “theory of identical elements”. Thorndike’s theory of transfer began to take shape in an experimental study done in collaboration with Woodworth (1903).

This study presupposes that transfer depends upon the presence of identical elements between the original and subsequent learning. What is implied by the transfer of training? When previous training or knowledge influences the acquisition of subsequent learning it is called a transfer of training. There are three types of transfer of training positive transfer, negative transfer, and zero transfer.

Positive Transfer:
In the positive transfer of training acquisition of skill in one situation facilitates the training in subsequent situations. For instance, knowledge of physics facilitates training in electronics. knowledge of mathematics accelerates the training in statistics or computer science; knowledge of language facilitates the study of classics and literature.

Positive transfer of training occurs due to the similarity of content, the similarity of technique, and the similarity of principle. Thorndike was of opinion that one activity influences another to the extent that they have common or identical elements. Contrary to the popular belief that transfer is general in nature, Thorndike put forth the idea that transfer is a matter of specific connections.

Question 9.
What is insightful learning? Discuss its characteristics and types?
Answer:
Insightful learning owes its existence to the Gestalt School of Psychology, particularly to its founders Kohler and Koffka. The theory of insightful learning developed as a revolt against Titchener’s structuralism, Thorndike’s trial and error learning, and part-whole relationship. As opposed to Thorndike, Gestalt developed and theory of whole part position in learning and perception.

Gestalt is a German word with no exact English translation. It more or less refers to the form organized whole and configuration. Objects and things are perceived and learned as a whole, in complete form. This is the salient point of the Gestalt School. According to Crow and Crow, Gestalt is a pattern a configuration of a form of apprehending a stimulus situation.

Characteristics of Insightful Learning:
Insightful learning, the ‘ O ’ reacts to the whole situation and not to some details only. The ‘ O ’ finds out the relationship between the various stimuli within the situation as a whole. The relationship that the ‘O’ perceives is mostly between a means and the end or goal. While learning by the insight the ‘ O’ modifies and restructures the perceptual field. A sudden change in the behavior of the ‘O’ is frequently observed.

The solution to the problem comes all of a sudden, in a sudden flash. The capacity for insightful learning is restricted by age and individual differences. Older children give a better response to learning by insight than younger ones. Similarly, higher animals like monkeys and chimpanzees solve problems by insight than guinea pigs. Insight depends upon past experience. However, the Gestaltists do not agree with this. They instead emphasize the present experiences of the learner.

But one must accept that a child cannot get into the heart of a mathematical problem unless the symbols stated therein are understood. For this, past knowledge of the subject is required. Even. when the problem is at the capacity level since he does not know the signs and symbols, he cannot solve the problem. Generally, it has been found that once one gets the idea for the solution to the problem in subsequent situations, that idea helps in solving the problem.

Insightful leaming needs experimental arrangement. The problem situation must be properly arranged and the tools must be kept systematically so that the necessary aspects are amendable to observation. If the required tool is out of the field of perception, solving the problem becomes difficult. Certain cases of insightful learning may be preceded by trial and error or a period for search or preparation.

In the stick and banana experiment, the first half was trial and error learning. Once achieved, insight can be used in a new situation. The same method can be repeated over and over again to solve new problems. The idea is thus transferred or carried over from previous to subsequent learning situations. In the case of human subjects, insight is often accompanied by verbal cues which help in subsequent learning. A solution of insightful learning can be readily repeated.

This has been proved in the case of the Sultan. When Sultan was again placed in the box with a bunch of bananas the next day, it repeated the same idea of joining the two sticks and getting the banana. Only it did not show any trial and error behavior as on the first day. In insightful learning we observe an integrating and reintegrating of part processes into a new total pattern, these part processes having been provided by experience, though the Gestalt School gives emphasis on the present situational factors.

Insightful learning can be of two types :

• Learning by Foresight.
• Learning by Hindsight Foresight

When the solution to the problem comes at once in the first attempt without actually trying the situation, it is called foresight. When a person solves a mathematical problem suddenly without using trial and method error it is a case of foresight. Hindsight Solution comes after trying with the elements.

Question 10.
Define observational learning?
Answer:
At the time there were rarely computer monitors in the airports of India showing the time of arrival and departure of planes indicated by their flight numbers. Only there were occasional announcements. I was waiting for a security check-up along with so many other passengers who were waiting for different flights with boarding cards of different colors kept in their shirt (front) pockets. I was a little nervous and worried because I was not very sure if I could be able to go to the right gate for a security check-up and board the right plane.

My boarding card was pink in color. Immediately I got the intrusion to follow the passengers who had also pink-colored boarding cards. I observed them and found four, or five passengers with pink colored cards, and I gave a sigh of relief. When there was a call for a security check-up, occupants of the pink-colored card got up to proceed and I quietly followed them and arrived at the right gate for the security check-up.

Subsequently, things became easy for me. I observed and imitated the activities of my co-passengers and followed them till I reached the plane. When the plane was about to take off, the air hostess announced that every one should fasten their seat belts. I tried with the seat belt but could not fasten it around my waist. Then I observed my co-passenger silently and learned the technique.

These are examples of observational learning. Observational learnings are most common in our day-to-day life. Observational learning in most cases is a simple type of learning whereby watching others in activities we learn a lot. Even we leam abstract rules, concepts, and ideas by observing others’ behavior either in reality or from cinema or T.V. Thus while watching T.V. people also learn to do things.

People leam social customs, rules, regulations, traditions, rituals, and cultural heritages of the society by observing others so that many embarrassments are avoided. When a child sees his mother showing respect to another person, the child also does the same. The child also does the same. ‘In society we leam from other people’s experiences by observing them, watching them. In fact, people leam both positive and negative behavior patterns like sociability and aggressiveness through observation of models.

Bandura, the pioneer of observational learning opines that it is a third major way by which we leam next to trial and error and conditioning. Several research findings suggest that observational learning places some role in every aspect of human behavior and we cannot manage without this method of learning. We leam cooking, stitching, washing clothes, toilet habits, knitting, making art and drawings, decorations by watching other people doing the same.

Even we leam a lot of necessities of day-to-day life by watching the T.V. Most of the household activities and various exercises are learned through observation. Many experiments on children prove this point. The famous Bobo doll experiment of Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) indicate how children leam to be aggressive by observing an adult aggressive model. They took two groups of nursery school children as samples. The control group was exposed to a non-aggressive amiable adult model.

But the experimental group was exposed to an aggressive adult model who kicked a big doll, scolded and insulted it. Then the children of both groups were allowed to play in a room with several toys. Children of the experimental group showed more aggressive behavior towards their toys and dolls compared to the children of the control group. This may also be called “Imitation Learning”.

Social scientists explain the indisciplined, aggressive, unruly violent, and ruthless behavior of many modem youths as a consequence of imitating the same from T.V. Cinema and video films. The ability to learn by observing others’ activities is due to the cognitive influence of learning. Even Toman’s experiment on rats learning to run mazes substantiates the fact that simple creatures can learn from experience to form internal models to guide later behavior.

Basic Principle of Observational:
The principles of observational learning explain what factors and conditions determine whether and to what extent we learn information skills, concepts, and ideas from others’ behaviors. Following are four basic principles of observational learning as suggested by Bandura.

The direction of attention to appropriate models performing a particular activity:
People generally imitate such people’s behavior which seems appropriate to serve their purpose or aim. Intelligent, pretty, attractive people demonstrating cognitive ability, having unique status, and success come under this category.

Remembering the actions, behaviors and skills shown by the model:
In order to be successful in observational learning, the person must retain what he has observed from his model so that he can behave in a similar way when required.

Production process or conversion of the retained behavior of the model into appropriate action at the time of requirement:
According to Bandura production processes depend upon one’s own physical abilities which can give a clear representation of its memory at the appropriate time, and the capability to monitor one’s own performance and manipulate it till it matches the behavior of the model.

Motivation:
In Bandura’s view, one may observe another person’s behavior but he may not convert it to action unless he is motivated to do so. Only those behavior that is required and useful for a person, he is motivated to practice them, so motivation is required to observe actively other’s activities and put them into practice.

Observational learning may not always be as simple as it appears. It is more complex than mere learning by imitation. It plays an important role in modifying our behaviors through observation. Observational learning leads to aggressive behavior (Baron and Richardson, 1994, Central wails 989, Synder, 1991, Wood, Wrong, and Chachese (1997). Children are found to show aggressive behavior after imitating their age mates.

It can also be used as a technique to train workers for the improvement of interpersonal relationships. Sociability, courteousness, and amiability can be developed by observing these qualities regularly in other people. Culture shock can also be avoided through observational learning. Asian and Western cultures differ contrastingly. It becomes difficult for people of both cultures to adjust and interact normally with each other. Similarly, with the globalization of the world economy, people of different cultures have to interact with each other when they meet.

Question 11.
Define the stage of insightful learning. Differentiate between insightful learning and trial, and error learing?
Answer:
Stages of insightful learning:
Need:
Like any learning, the need to leam is essential in insightful learning. The need may be biological like hunger, sex, or thirst or social like gregariousness, or personal like the desire for power, prestige, and recognition.

Preparation:
Preparation is a basic precondition before insightful learning starts. In Kohler’s experiment on the Sultan with problems involving the use of readymade implements, there were preliminary preparations for the learning. The leader makes various surveys, inspections, and acute examinations of the problem and its field.

Incubation:
It refers to the stage of clearness or dormant period when all overt activities are suspended. It is a period of progress when the ‘O’ silently thinks over the problem.

Inspiration:
In this stage, the idea for the solution to the problem comes suddenly. It flashes in the mind at once. The bright ideal, the “brain wave” comes to the mind during this stage. This stage is sometimes characterized by shouting and jumping in joy, as the ‘O’ is enlightened by the bright idea which came in a flash.

Verification:
It is the last stage of insightful learning in which the ‘O’ makes practical application of his bright new idea. In the case of the Sultan, it joined both the sticks, placed the boxes one after another, and got upon the third box, and brought the bunch of bananas hanging on the roof.

Critical Analysis of Insightful Learning Theory:
Kohler, Koffka, and other advocates of insightful learning have stated that perception of the relationship between different parts of the visual field and the goal plays a significant part in learning. They have also said that learning by insight takes a single attempt to solve a problem. But this is not the fact in reality. In most cases, we find that learning is a gradual process and the errors reduce gradually which the insight theory is not ready to accept.

So insight is not the only method of learning. It is nevertheless one of the methods of learning. Practice is also essential for learning. But practice is totally unacceptable to Gestalt psychologists. However, it can be said that in every difficult and complicated situation the only type of learning that is involved is insightful learning. Munn (1953) thus comments, “Insight is rare in animals, not quite so rare in children and quite common in human adults!”.

While American psychologists have mostly used mazes and puzzle boxes, German psychologists, used situations where all relevant aspects of the problem are visible. Thus Bertrand Russel remarked “Animals studied by Americans run about frantically, with an incredible display of hustle and pep, and at last achieve the desired result by chance. Animals observed by Germans still and think and at last evolve the solution out of their inner consciousness.”

Difference between Insightful and Trial and Error Learning:
Trial and error are more often found in lower animals and children while insightful learning is rare in animals, not so rare in children, and commonly found in human adults. Trial and error learning depends upon practice and repetition while insightful learning does not require much practice. Trial and error learning is mechanical, random, blind, a hit-and-miss type of learning where a solution comes by chance, accidentally.

Insightful learning depends upon intelligence, understanding, grasping, and perception of the whole field of the organization. Trial and error is a simple type of learning mostly found in the acquisition of skills, particularly motor skills. Insight is a complex method of learning. It is more effective in cognitive and verbal learning. Trial and error learning is gradual and slow. Several trials are required to lead.

Insightful learning is sudden and comes abruptly at once in a flash. One trial is necessary for learning. Trial and error learning is more or less temporary. When practice is given up, the acquisition of skill fades up. Insightful learning is permanent as it grows out of understanding the relationship between the tools and the goals. In trial-error learning, a reaction to a part and specific stimulus is made.

In insightful learning, the situation is perceived as a whole to bring the solution. Trial and error learning does not involve insight. Learning by the insight in many cases involves some amount of trial and error. Trial and error depend upon practice and past experience. Gestalt School argues that it does not depend upon past experience which is a controversial view. Learning is transferred from one situation to another on the basis of transposition. In insightful learning transfer of training takes place in the form of identical elements,

Question 12.
What is classical conditioning? Describe determinants and basic processes in classical conditioning?
Answer:
This type of learning was first investigated by Ivan R Parlov (1849 -1936). He was an eminent Russain Psychologist and a Nobel prize winner for his work on the physiology of digestion. During his studies, he observed that dogs started secreting saliva as soon as they did. Sighted the empty plate in which food was served. As we are aware, saliva secretion i.e. reflexive response to food or something in the mouth.

This observation led to the famous conditioned response of learning. Pavlov designed an experiment to understand this process in detail. In the first phase, a dog was left in a box and harnessed. The dog was left in the box for some time. This was repeated a number of times on different days. Then a simple surgery was made and one end of the tube was inserted in the dog’s jaw and the other end of the tube was put in a measuring glass.

Then, in the second phase of the experiment, the dog was deprived of food and was kept hungry. Again, the dog was placed in a harness with one end of the tube in the jaw and the other end of the glass jar. Now a bell was sounded and then meat powder (food) was served. The dog was allowed to eat it. This exercise was repeated for a few days. After a number of trials, a test trial was introduced in which the set up was the same except for the presentation of food.

In the first phase, the dog was secreting saliva in response to the Unconditioned Stimuli (US). But after conditioning, salivation started to occur in the presence of the sound of the bell (CS). Here, the bell becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and saliva secretion, a Conditioned Response (CR). Here, it is obvious that the learning situation in classical conditioning is one of the S-S learning, in which one stimulus (i.e. bell sound) becomes a signal of another stimulus (i.e. food).

So one stimulus signifies the possible occurrence of another stimulus. Examples of classical conditioning are many. Suppose someone has finished lunch and was satisfied with his food. But suddenly he saw some sweet dish served on the adjoining table. Then the secretion of saliva in his mouth became automatic. He felt like eating it. This is a conditioned response (CR).

Determinants of Classical Conditioning:
Practically, the acquisition of a response occurs very quickly and strongly in classical conditioning. But how it occurs depends upon several factors. Some of the major factors influencing learning a CR are enumerated below.

Time relations between Stimuli:
Basically, there are four types of classical conditioning procedures. These procedures are based on the time relations between the onset of conditioned (CS) and, unconditioned stimuli (US). The first three are called ‘Forward Conditioning’ procedures and the fourth one is called the ‘Backward conditioning’ procedure.

The basic experimental arrangements of these procedures are as follows When the onset of CS and US are concurrent, it is called simultaneous conditioning. In delayed conditioning, the onset of CS precedes the onset of the US. The CS ends before the end of the US. In trace conditioning, the onset and end of the CS precede the onset of the US with some blank time between the two.

In backward conditioning, the US precedes the onset of CS. Now it is obvious that the delayed conditioning procedure is the most directive way of acquiring a CR. Again, simultaneous and trace conditioning procedures require a greater number of acquisition trials in comparison to the delayed conditioning procedure. But the acquisition of response under a backward conditioning procedure is very rare.

Type of Unconditioned Stimuli:
I.P. Pavlov used two types of unconditioned stimuli in classical conditioning – appetitive and aversive. Appetitive unconditioned stimuli automatically elicit approach responses, such as eating, drinking, caressing, etc. But the aversive US is painful, and harmful and elicits avoidance and escape responses. Examples are noise, bitter taste, electric shock, painful injecting, etc.

The observation indicated that appetitive classical conditioning is slower and requires a greater number of acquisition trials. But depending on the intensity of the aversive US, aversive classical conditioning can be established in one or two trials.

The intensity of Conditioned Stimuli:
The intensity of CS influences the course of both appetitive and aversive classical conditioning. It observed that more intense conditioned stimuli are more effective in accelerating the acquisition of conditioned responses. In other words, the more intense the CS, the fewer the number of acquisition trials required for conditioning.

Basic Process in Classical Conditioning Parlov’s classical conditioning is an extremely simple form of learning. Truly speaking, it is regarded as the building block of all forms of learning from simple to more complex. The basic processes involved in Pavlovian conditioning are enumerated below.

Acquisition:
In the classical conditioning experiment, the paired presentation of CS and UCS is called a trial. The period in which the organism learns the association between the CS and UCS is the acquisition phase. As the trials continue, the CS becomes gradually stronger to elicit the CR. Presenting UCS with CS during the acquisition phase is a critical operation in classical conditioning.

Here the UCS serves as a reinforcer because it reinforces the connection. Again, the trials on which UCS occurs are called reinforced trials and the trials on which the UCS is omitted are called unreinforced trials. At the beginning trials of the acquisition phase, the strength of CR increases rapidly.

The rate of acquisition during the reinforced trials depends on several factors. The important factors are the time – interval between the CS and the UCS. the intensity of the CS. the intensity of the UCS and the reliability of the CS in predicting the onset of UCS. As the reinforced trials continue, the strength of CR increases but not as rapidly as it used to be in the beginning trials.

Extinction:
When the CS is repeated without UCS then the CR gradually weakens and finally disappears. The disappearance of the CR due to non reinforcement is called extinction or experimental extinction. In the classical conditioning experiments, if a bell is presented time and again without food (reinforcement).

the amount of salivation gradually decreases and finally disappears. In short, when the reinforcement is withdrawn, the CR fails to appear. But extinction is not forgetting. The CR is only temporarily suppressed and after a brief rest period, a part of CR appears.

Spontaneous Recovery:
According to Pavlov, complete or permanent extinction of conditioned response is not possible. The reappearance of an extinguished CR after a Rest period is known as spontaneous recovery. Here the CR is partially recovered after a Rest period. hr classical conditioning experiment, after the salivation response, was given a rest period for thirty minutes.

After this span of rest, the bell was presented without food (UCS), following it. Then the salivation to bell suddenly reappeared. Very often, the response is successively extinguished when it reappears, then the spontaneous recovery diminishes. As a result, the CR fails to be shown even following the rest period. This is known as permanent extinction.

Stimulus Generalization:
In conditioning, generalization occurs to a certain class of stimuli rather than to a specific stimulus. In short, it is a tendency for the CR to be aroused by a similar stimulus.

In Pavlovian conditioning, the dog was conditioned to salivate to a specific tone. Then the CR is generalized to a second tone similar in characteristics to the first tone. As a result, a new procedure began. The first tone (CS) and the second tone (new stimulus) were presented on alternate trials. The first tone was followed by food (reinforcement) and the second was never followed by food (no reinforcement).

Consequently, the CR to the first tone was maintained and the generalized response to the second tone invited extinction. The dog learned to salivate to the first tone and to withhold salivate to the second tone. Finally, the dog was able to discriminate between the two stimuli because of differential reinforcement.

Like generalization, discrimination has also an adaptive significance, too much generalization is over-responsive, whereas, too much discrimination is over-selective. In a sophisticated manner, conditioning is a process in which discrimination ultimately wins over-generalization. Salivation to light by frequently associating it will bell but without presenting the food is called second-order conditioning.

Question 13.
Define operant conditioning?
Answer:
There are two main forms of simple learning. One is Classical and the other is Instrumental, Instrumental conditioning is also known as operant Conditioning. You can take a simple example here to describe instrumental behavior. When a dog responds to the commands of its master to get some biscuits, the dog has learned an instrumental response. The dog is rewarded for a particular response.

In nutshell, the dog’s response was instrumental in fetching a sought-after reward. That is why it is called instrumental conditioning. This type of conditioning was first investigated by B.F. Skinner. He studied conditioning of voluntary responses found when an organism operates on the environment. He called them operants. Operants are that behavior or responses, which are emitted by animals and human beings voluntarily and are under their control.

Here the very term ‘Operant’ is used because any organism operates on the environment. Skinner conducted His experiments on rats and pigeons in specially designed boxes, known as Skinner boxes. A skinner box usually contains a mechanism for delivering a consequence whenever the animal in the box makes a readily identifiable response that the experimenter has decided to reinforce or punish.

In experiments that involve rewards, the delivery mechanism is often a small lever or bar on the side of the box. Whenever the animal inside presses it, the response is rewarded (B.F. Skinner, 1938,1956). In his experiment, Skinner put a hungry rat in the chamber, which was so built that the rat could move inside but could not come out. In the chamber, there was a lever, which was connected to a good container kept on the plate placed close to the lever.

The hungry rat accidentally pressed the lever while moving around and pawing the walls (exploratory behavior). The hungry rat ate the food and in the next trial, after a while, the exploratory behavior again starts. As the trials increase, the rat takes lesser and lesser time to press the lever for food. However, conditioning is complete when the rat pressed the lever immediately after it is placed in the chamber.

It is obvious that lever pressing is an operant response and getting food is its consequence. In this situation, the response is instrumental in getting the food. That is why this type of learning is also called instrumental conditioning. Examples of instrumental conditioning are around in our everyday life. Flumen beings leam shortcuts to attain desired goals through instrumental conditioning. Through this process, children learn to be polite and say please to get favors from their parents and others.

Here the response is changed according to the need and the demand of the individual. The response is made and determined by the organism himself. This is the most distinguishing feature of operant behavior. The organism is capable of making varied types of responses according to the demand of the environment.

Recently biofeedback technique is being used in instrumental conditioning which informs the individual about his unknown physiological function. But if is still unknown whether biofeedback provides direct control over involuntary responses or whether this control is mediated by voluntary processes.

Determinants of Operant Conditioning:
No doubt, operant or instrumental conditioning is a form of learning in which behavior is learned, maintained, or changed through its consequences. Such consequences are known as reinforcers. A reinforcer is defined as any stimulus or event, which increases the probability of the occurrence of a (desired) response. In other words, the stimulus event which increases the probability that behavior will reoccur is called a reinforcer (Or reward).

The impact or consequence generated by a reinforcer is called reinforcement. By contrast, a publisher is a stimulus event that decreases the probability that the behavior will reoccur. The impact of punisher punishment. Punishment is more likely to be confused with negative refreshment since both involve an aversive stimulus that the individual likes to avoid or escape from Always remember that the negative refreshment increases the response probability whereas punishment decreases the response probability.

On the whole, positive and negative reinforcements are procedures that increase or strengthen behaviors. An organism obtains reinforcement in two ways by obtaining a pleasant stimulus and by avoiding a painful stimulus. There are two types of reinforcement – Positive and Negative. In positive reinforcement, the probability of a response increases, because it is followed by a pleasant stimulus. In negative reinforcement, the response probability also increases, because the response removes an unpleasant stimulus.

Schedules of Reinforcement:
The reinforcement schedule refers to the arrangement delivery of reinforcement during conditioning trials. Each schedule reinforcement influences the course of conditioning in its own way. In our life instances, reinforcement comes on and goes off unpredictably. In many instances, reinforcements are delivered according to rules. For example, we receive a salary every month according to the rules. When the reinforcement is continuous, every occurrence of behavior is reinforced.

This simplest form of reinforcement delivery is termed a “continuous reinforcement schedule If the pigeon receives a food pellet every time it presses the tire lever, it is on a continuous reinforcement schedule. The other type is partial reinforcement (intermittent reinforcement). In partial reinforcement, the response is not rewarded every time it occurs. This type of reinforcement is conducive to maintaining learned behaviors. Once a response is learned under this schedule, it takes a longer span of time to be extinguished.

Four types of partial reinforcement schedules are:

• Fixed-interval
• Variable-interval
• Fixed ratio and
• Variable-ratio.

In the fixed-interval schedule, the organism is rewarded for the first response occurring after a fixed interval of time. Students increase their study hours as the examination approaches. The pigeon is rewarded for the first lever-pressing response occurring after one minute interval.

In a variable-interval schedule, the organism is rewarded after a variable amount of time has elapsed. The hungry rat gets the food pallet after 2 minutes, the next one after 5 minutes, the third one after 3 minutes, and so on. 1 Here, the organism responds at a steady rate in the variable interval schedule as reinforcement may come any time. Gambling behavior is the best example here.

Question 14.
What is cognitive learning? Describe insightful learning and its stages or features?
Answer:
The process of acquiring knowledge about the environment which has an internal mental representation is called cognition. But learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency. The two terms are put together to generate the term ‘cognitive learning.
Two forms of cognitive learning:

• Insightful learning.
• Observational learning.

We first discussed the:
Insightful Learning:
I. P. Pavlov, S.L. thorndike and B.F. Skinner was all behaviorist. Obviously, they have ignored the study of learning based on reason and intelligence thinks when it learns. The chimpanzee evaluates the information in the learning situation and learns to reach a goal by developing insight. Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1968) arrived at Tenerife, the small island of the West Coast of Africa, to take charge of an institute for the study of the anthropoid apes, he was a German psychologist.

He was forced to stay on the island during World War-I. He engaged himself in an intensive study of how chimpanzees perceive, think, and learn. The results were translated into English in 1925 with the little ‘The Mentality of Apes’. Kohler used five types of problems to study how Chimpanzees solve complex problems. The two most fascinating and important problems were the ‘stick’ problem and the ‘box’ problem. Both these problems involved insightful solutions.

Besides chimpanzees, he also used dogs, hens, and little girls as subjects in his experiments. Kohler placed a hungry chimpanzee named Sultan inside a cage in the ‘stick problem. A bunch of bananas was kept outside the cage beyond the direct reach of the Chimpanzee. Two hollow bamboo sticks were kept inside the cage. One of them is very short and the other one is long. Since the sticks were hollow, one stick could be pushed into one end of the other to form a longer stick.

The bananas were kept at such a distance that neither of these sticks alone would be sufficiently long enough to reach the banana. But the Chimpanzee could get the banana if the two sticks were joined. The goal of the Sultan was to fetch the banana since he was hungry. Initially, he has shown all types of reactions that, generally, a Chimpanzee shows inside a cage. First, he used one of the sticks to draw the banana towards him but did not succeed. Then he tried the other sticks but in vain.

After some unsuccessful attempts, Sultan gave up the idea of getting food and sat in one corner of the cage. Then, after a short span of rest, he started playing with the sticks. He pushed one stick out as far as it could go and then pushed the first stick with the other until the first touched the banana. He started playing with the sticks again and accidentally one of the sticks went into the hollow end of the other. A sudden insight dawned upon Sultan and he solved the problem mentally.

Then he used two sticks to form longer sticks and with the help of this long stick, he pulled the banana inside the cage. When he faced the same problem on the next day, he solved it immediately. In another situation, Kohler demonstrated insightful learning in the ‘box’ problem. Here a bunch of bananas was kept on the tire ceiling of a cage, which Sultan could not reach. There were some empty boxes inside the cage. After some trials and errors, the animal could be able to snatch bananas by stacking several boxes.

Stages of Insightful Learning:
Here, the organism needs to reach a goal by solving a problem. The subject (learner) makes inspections, surveys, and examinations of the problem and the stimulus field. The ‘incubation period’ begins after an initial period of trial and error, all overt activities are withdrawn at this stage. The organism sits silently and thinks over the problem. Suddenly the organism develops insight into the problem after the incubation period.

The subject (learner) makes an attempt to make practical verification of his idea or insight about the problem. Once the subject achieves insight and solves the problem, the organism repeats the same method of solution without any hesitation. The organism attends to the relevant aspects and ignores the irrelevant ones when it attempts to solve similar problems in the future.

Common features of Insightful Learning:
Very often, the question arises – what does Kohler mean by ‘insight’ According to him, the common features of insightful learning are as follows The experimental situation is very important in insightful learning. The organism must be able to perceive the relationship among all relevant parts of the problem before insight can occur.

In this type of learning, the organism reacts to the whole situation, not to its component parts. Perceiving the relationship between the means and goal is very important in insightful learning. He also restructures the perceptual field during experimentation. Insight is followed by a period of trial and error behavior. During this span, the organism does not exhibit blind and random attacks as shown by Thomndike’s cat.

On the contrary, he tests behavioral hypotheses in the form of accepting some and rejecting others. The insight solution comes all of a sudden. Once the insight is reached, the organism shows a high degree of retention and transfer to similar problems. There is a correlation between insight and the capacity of the organism. This capacity depends upon age, experience, and individual differences.

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