Class 11

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part 1.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is memory? Discuss the stages of memory?
Answer:
Memory is otherwise known as the retention of materials with the passage of time. When some materials are learned they are retained in a particular area of the brain for some time. While STM is forgotten quickly LTM is remembered for a long time. The term ‘memory ’ is derived from the Latin word ‘memoria’ which means long retention or historical account.

Ebbinghaus to short made simple experiments to explain practically what the term memory is But currently with the advancement of information technology Ebbehghansion’s old concept of money has changed. Present psychologists emphasize the information-processing concept of memory which is based on computers.

Stages Of System Of Memory / Model Of Memory:
Encoding, storage, and retrieval take place in each of the three basic memory systems. The three systems of memory are also called some stages of remembering or models of memory. They are conceptual models of processing incoming information, retaining the same, and then recalling or retrieving it as necessary.

Human memory has been compared to a computer having different storage systems. Some psychologists have presented most of the theories of memory in the form of information-processing models. As to which of the information will be stored in a particular system of memory and which axe to be eliminated is controlled at the level of information processing. Similarly, the stored information may not always be retrieved or recalled.

Sensory Memory:
It is a non-conscious memory developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin which is also called a sensory register. Sensory memory is an impression formed from the input of any of the senses. lnpìit means the stimulus received from the environment. Sensory stimulus when reaches the receptor is stored in the sensory memory for a very brief period i.e. 0.25 seconds to 02 seconds in case of visual sensation and about 04 to 05 seconds in case of auditory sensation.

The storage of visual memory is about 11-16 items before it is lost. If attention is paid to this information, ¡t is sent to short-term memory or short-term storage. it is lost. Since the STM has a very limited capacity it cannot hold all information received from the environment and that too for a long period. The visual and auditory information is stored in the sensory memory in the form of an image.

Working Memory or Short-Term Memory:
The information which and attended is passed from the sensory memory to short-term memory. Working memory occurs between the sensory memory (which comes in a flash) and tire more permanent storage of Long Term Memory. Working memory has a very limited capacity and therefore, very little information is stored here. It has a short retention duration. What is stored here is lost after 15-20 seconds unless it is consciously processed.

Those materials which get conscious attention stay far beyond the 20 seconds limit. Both sensory and long-term memory are non-conscious memory. When materials from sensory memory are transferred to working or short-term memory they are processed here, thought about, and organized. Someone told you his mobile phone number, but there is no pen nearby to record it. So you try to recite it, rehearse it, repeat it till you get the pen to note it down.

Encoding and storage are done here Chunking and Rehearsal (discussed elsewhere under the Memory chapter) are two important methods used to increase the limited capacity of short-term storage so that more information from the short-term memory can be transferred to long-term memory (Also see Short Term Memory elsewhere in Memory chapter).

Long-Term Memory:
Long Term Memory (LTM) is the storehouse of all experiences, events, occurrences, and information transferred from sensory and short-term memory to long-term memory. Long-term memory constitutes each person’s knowledge of the word and knowledge of himself. Materials in long-term memory help one to solve new problems, manipulate abstract symbols, and reason.

This further helps in creativity like creating and coining new words and ideas and thinking about new Situations that one has experienced earlier. In a second exact information about something can be given such as “who is the father of modem experimental psychology? Or who established the first psychological laboratory and when etc.

The knowledge in long-term memory is stored in an orderly and organized manner and different cues help him to recall exactly what he wants to recall. Every item in the long-term memory is connected by its meaning.
Long-term memory is of two types:

• Procedural Memory (see under kinds of Memory)
• Declarative Memory

It is the method or technique to recall explicit information which involves some degree of consciousness. Remembering how to drive a car is procedural memory as driving a car requires a process, which is done as per the procedure. Similarly, recalling directions for driving to specific place requires declarative memory. Declarative memory is of two types:

• Episodic memory
• Semantic Memory (see under kind of memory)

Long-term organizations help in storing the memory in the L.T.M. for a long period, even till one dies. That is why we remember meaningful associative materials better because of their associative value. Chunking and elaborate rehearsal and other methods of improving memory help long-term memory as they organize materials for storage and make it more meaningful, (also see Long Term Memory elsewhere).

Question 2.
Define the process of memory?
Answer:
According to some modem psychologists memory process consists of:

• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval

Encoding:
According to Baron “Encoding is a process through which information is converted to a form that can be entered into memory”. Code means form. Encoding means putting material into a form that the memory system can accept, retain handle. Zimbardo holds that “encoding is the translation of incoming stimulus energy into a unique neural code that your brain can process”.

For example to retain SIH one man to keep trying in the form of South Indian Hotel or mentee Hotels”. Encoding is made possible through meaningful association which the memory system can easily handle and store. In a generalized manner, encoding refers to the signals or codes which can be transmitted through a communication channel.

The encoding requires to first selecting a stimulus from among so much information available in the environment. You have gone to the crockery exhibition. There you selected a crystal fruit bowl. You identified the distinct and intricate designs engraved on it and stored the visual image in your memory. Then you tried to connect this bowl to the one you saw in a shopping mall in the USA and wanted to buy it, but could not.

When one tries to associate a newly encoded stimulus with one already there in the memory because of its associative value. The encoding process is usually automatic and mechanical. It is so rapidly done that it occurs without the awareness of the person doing it. its encoding process relates the new experience with an old one, like relating the crystal fruit bowl you purchased in India with the one you saw in the USA last year, remembering becomes better. This process is called Elaboration.

Storage:
Storage refers to a process by which the encoded information is retained in the memory. Storage retains the encoded information for some time. Those memories which associated with some other memory are more often used and better stored or retained than isolated memory having no link with any other memory. When the encoded information fails to link with the already stored information or if they are not practiced at intervals they are lost and hence forgotten.

But when the stored materials are repeated periodically, the possibility of retaining them is greater. The storage, therefore, can be short-term or long-term depending upon the degree of learning, the need of the person, repetition, and association. In fact, immediate and short-term memory supply the code that the person uses to store materials for a longer period and later on to recall or retrieve them as and when necessary.

Rehearsal or repetition is one of the means through which the encoded materials are stored in the memory. Rehearsal may be Maintenance rehearsal or Elaborate rehearsal and these two types serve two different purposes. Maintenance rehearsal or mere mechanical repetition of information over and over again (rote memory).

it keeps information in short-term memory at least till it has served its purpose. For instance, retaining a phone number till one is able to make the call and after the call is made we may possibly forget it or we get by heart some points in the night before the examination and once the examination is over, these materials are forgotten.

Elaborate rehearsal on the other hand deals with the newly learned materials according to their meaning and association we understand the information and try to remember it for a longer period by associating it with some other material or situation. While maintenance rehearsal is processed at a superficial level elaborate rehearsal is processed at a deeper level.

Various experiences in memory of day-to-day life and also results of a study conducted by Fergus, Craik, and Endel Tulving (1975) indicate that words processed at a deeper level through elaborate rehearsal were better retained than words processed at a superficial level (rote memory). When tilings are learned elaborately and their meaning and application are properly understood, it becomes fit for effective retention storage.

Retrieval:
Retrieval is a process through which information stored in memory is located and recalled. The process of retrieval, use to recall periodically only those that are required at a particular occasion. Recall and recognition are two very popular methods through which retrieval takes place. Brown and Me Neill (1968) studied the phenomenon of retrieval in a group of students.

Question 3.
Define the kinds of memory?
Answer:
Some psychologists have tried to clarify memory into:

• Episodic memory
• Semantic memory
• Procedural memory

Episodic memory:
It stores autobiographical information and immediate memories of personal experiences such as the first day of marriage, the day you get your Ph.D., or your appointment in a long-cherished job.

Semantic memory:
It refers to abstract knowledge. It is organized knowledge about the world including the verbal world of words and how they are used. The information associated with a particular time or place is contained in semantic memory. Once you get an electric shock while attending a marriage ceremony. The marriage ceremony.

However, episodic and semantic memory cannot be separated by water-tight compartments as memories of personal experiences cannot totally segregated from organized knowledge apart from the world and the environment. As we are aware, personal experience occurs in the same environment where organized knowledge about the world is also experienced.

Hence both episodic and semantic memory in spite of their differences is very much related. According to Kimbel et al, unless we have innate knowledge about the world, all memories must start as episodic, nevertheless, the distinction does provide a useful way of dealing certain important phenomena in the study of memory. The successful recall of the factual information learned in General Psychology involves episodic memory as the information has been stored according to contexts, events, or personal symbolism.

The context in which an item was stored in memory as well as the item itself are important for episodic memory. Findings show that the item can be recalled only in the context in which it was coded. You were introduced to someone at a marriage party. Subsequently, if you want to recall her name or retrieve your introduction to her you have to remember the context i.e.

the marriage party In semantic memory, the basic meanings of words and concepts without reference to their time and place are stored. While semantic memory is an encyclopedia, episodic memory is autobiographical. Facts about grammar, music, composition, scientific principles, the things one knows and the lesson he learns are stored in semantic memory. Kimbel views that semantic memory can have considerable control over how one’s episodic experiences are perceived; interpreted and stored.

A study conducted by Loftus Palmer (1974) on students indicates that semantic memory has a strong influence on episodic memory. Various studies that test memory immediately as well as afterward show how information is represented there. They also show that with passage of time the representation becomes less sensory and literal and more semantic and meaningful.

This also suggests the difference between episodic memory and semantic memory. As indicated earlier, episodic memory stores, the events of personal experience and experiences of other persons while semantic memory stores knowledge. In short, remembering a list calls upon episodic memory while the organizing structure is provided by knowledge in semantic memory.

While semantic memory lasts longer in memory, episodic memory lasts for a short period. It is more susceptible to forgetting. Older people have less episodic memory but have very good semantic memory information or incident which has more episodic than semantic value would be stored in Episodic Memory but the knowledge part of it will be stored in Semantic Memory.

Procedural Memory:
Otherwise known as implicit memory procedural memory is the knowledge of how to perform work It is the way of remembering how things are done. Procedural memory is used to acquire, retain and employ perceptual, cognitive and motor skills (Anderson, 1982, Tulving 1985) like bicycle riding, typing, or wearing a dress, without thinking consciously these are done mechanically.

It is easier to perform the task than describe how to do it. In simple terms, it is a memory of the procedure, say how a task is performed or how a grant is utilized. So procedural memory deals with the how of work or how of a procedure. Sometimes, we get at the correct solution of a mathematical.

Question 4.
Define memory failure?
Answer:
Memory Failure or forgetting takes place due to encoding failure, storage failure, and retrieval failure. Failure to remember, memory failure, or failure to develop new memory leads to tremendous inconvenience. As per estimation, the average human mind can store 100 trillion bits of information. we experience many forgetting in our day-to-day life. Sometimes, we recognize an old face but cannot recall his name.

Encoding Failure:
Encoding failure is an important cause of forgetting. As discussed earlier, the process by which information is put in the store of memory or accepted by it refers to encoding. But when there is a failure in the encoding procedure one may not be able to store information hence most forget. When one gets meaningless information that does not have associative value the Nonsense Syllables or consonant combinations or one fails to associate and organize them encoding failure takes place. That is why in rote learning forgetting takes place very quickly.

Storage Failure:
It is another major cause of forgetting. After encoding, information that is attended is stored in the Short Term Store (STS) for a brief period. Others are ignored or lost and so do not go for storage. The short-term store has, however, a limited capacity, and if information’s transmitted to .it for storage purposes some of this information which is not kept but pushed out from the short-term store is forgotten.

Similarly, the information kept in short-term stores which are not rehearsed or repeated they are also lost or decayed and so does not go to the long-term store. If the information is lost due to encoding failure or storage failure, it will not reach the long-term store. This type of forgetting is said to be due to storage failure.

Retrieval Failure:
To inadequate memory. One may, however, succeed to retrieve information from long-term stoic only if appropriate retrieval cues are present and if the information is distinguished from other information. Experience shows that when there is recall failure if some cue or clue is given immediate recall becomes possible. Suppose you are not able to recall the name of a bank you visited only once some days back. When you are told about the location-or color of the building where the bank is located, you immediately remember the name.

As a year old boy was admitted to a new school in Prep Class, on the first day he was taken to his class by the attendant. On the second day, he went alone and entered another class. Then immediately he came out of the class realizing that it is not his class since he did not find there the pictures hanging on the walls of Prep Class. He then proceeded further and entered the class.

Question 5.
Define the forgetting curve and its characteristics?
Ans:
Retention Curve / Forgetting Curve:
The course of retention which is represented by a curve is called the retention curve. It is a graphic representation of the process of retention or forgetting. The measures of retention or forgetting is plotted in the vertical axis ‘O’ ‘Y’ and the amount of time (in days or hours) is shown on the horizontal axis. If the amount Of retention is plotted, the curve will be a descending one.

If the amount of forgetting is plotted, the curve will be an ascending one. Most curves of retention for nonsense syllables measured by relearning and saving methods commonly agree in showing a negatively accelerated form. Different experimental conditions also indicate that not only the form of the curve, but the percentage of saving also varies with variation in material.

In fact, the retention curve for meaningful material may run at a different height from those of nonsense syllables. But, by and large, different retention curves have more or less similar characteristics. Though time has a direct effect on retention, the rate of forgetting is not directly proportional to the time elapsed. For instance, if half the material learned is forgotten during the first 24 hours, it does necessarily mean that during another period of 24 hours the entire learned material would be forgotten.

Ebbinghaus (1885) conducted an experiment to determine the rate of forgetting with the passage of time. The S learned a list of nonsense syllables. Retention was measured after the 1 st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th day by the relearning method. The results were plotted in a curve. This curve showed that at first forgetting is rapid and as time lapses the rate of forgetting becomes slower and slower.

Within the first 24 hours, about 65 percent of the material was forgotten. Gradually the rate of forgetting became slow. As time passed, a very small amount of the material was forgotten. At the end of the 6th day, the loss was only about 75 percent. This curve by Ebbinghaus was also accepted by later psychologists. It is a typical curve of retention or forgetting. Looking at this curve we can find out the general characteristics of the curve of forgetting.

Characteristics Of the Curve Of Forgetting:
There is a stiff fall at the beginning of reproduction. At first, forgetting is rapid but as time lapses, the rate of forgetting becomes slower and slower. There is a gradual flattening of the curve, i.e. the rate of forgetting becomes slow. It is not as speedy as it was in the initial stage. There is almost no loss in the amount of material after a good deal of interval.

This quantitative study of memory presented in the curve of retention or forgetting is the most important contribution of Ebbinghaus and later psychologists could not disregard it. Retention curves, by and large, suggest that forgetting is never complete. The curve always levels up at some low value above zero. Observation of cases over a number of decades shows that forgetting anything cannot be cent percent.

The following is a curve showing retention from different types of materials over a period of months. This curve shows that forgetting is most rapid for nonsense syllables and next for prose and minimum for poetry. But the basic law that the rate of forgetting is rapid in the beginning and then slows down with the passage of time holds good for all types of materials.

Williams from the records of adults who studied 30 nonsense syllables for 5 minutes recalled them immediately and after an interval, he plotted it into a curve and found it running at a relatively high level of retention. The curve obtained from memory for substance plotted by Dietze and Jones (1931) and the study by Briggs, Red, Stroud, etc. both concludes that a negatively accelerated retention curve is most commonly used.

(Curve showing retention for different types of materials). Various studies show that the rate of forgetting is slower with meaningful materials. Perceptual motor skills appear to be retained quite well in comparison to verbal skills.

Question 6.
Define the measurement of memory?
Answer:
Measurement of Memory Recall Method
Recall was made famous through Ebbinghaus’s experiments on memory and he used the recall method for studying, remembering, and forgetting. The ‘ S ’ is required to make the response that he has learned previously. In recall, the previously learned materials are brought to the present consciousness in their absence. This is called the free recall method. For instance, when a student is answering a question in the examination hall, he is exactly using this procedure.

In laboratory experiments, a list of items, say 15 to 20 is presented to the ‘ S ’ through the memory drum, one after another. After exposure, he is asked to recall the list. The list is produced again and again until one perfect reproduction which suggests 100 percent learning. Now after an interval of 30 minutes, the S is asked to reproduce the already learned items. The amount reproduced is his amount of retention by the recall method. This is also known as the method of reproduction. The items which the ‘ S ’ fails to recall, suggest forgetting materials.

The recall is of two types:

• Immediate recall,
• Delayed Recall

When the recall is made immediately after learning, it is called immediate recall. When the recall is made after an interval, it is called delayed recall. Four objections were raised against Ebbinghaus’s recall method.

Retrograde Amnesia:
Critics argued that lack of recall need not necessarily mean forgetting. Due to emotional disturbances like fear, anxiety, and sudden shock sometimes one fails to recall the material learned. This has been experimentally demonstrated in the laboratory and observed in practical life. Soldiers on the battlefield after some shock forget the incidents experienced just before the shock. Similarly, a person reproduces everything but forgets when he faces the interview board. It is to some extent a case of forgetting due to emotional blocking.

Lack of recall may also be due to associative interference, friability to recall in many cases is due to repression which need not necessarily suggest forgetting. If there is no will to recall, recall, also may not be possible. The concept of reminiscence is also said to be a defect of the recall method. In spite of these criticisms, the recall method is very much in use for the measurement of memory. It is nevertheless a difficult method to measure retention in comparison to other methods.

Recognition Method:
Recognition according to Guilford (1917) literally means ‘knowing again. When one recognizes an object or stimulus he behaves as if he has experienced it before. Recognition simply means to identify. Recognition is the easiest method of measuring retention. It is easier recognize a name or face than to recall it. Similarly, you may not be able to recall the lines of a well-known song, but you can recognize it instantly.

According to Guilford (1917), “the essential difference between recall and recognition is that in the first case the stimulus is not there for one’s identification while it is there in the second case.” It has been found that maximum retention is possible with this method. Recognition scores are usually quantitatively more than recall scores keeping all other factors constant.

This has been substantiated by field and laboratory investigations. In a study on the recognition method, Bahrick and his associates found that people who graduated almost 50 years back/were able to recognize 75 % of the names and photographs of their classmates accurately. During the same period recall of names declined to under 20 percent.

The present author met recently one of her school-mates studying with her, in the year 1948. She could readily recognize her face but could not recall her name. Recognition is easier than recall because in recognition the object is present and mixed with some other new materials. The ‘S’ has only to select the learned materials while in the recall method the materials are absent and they have to be reproduced from memory. Thus, the sensitivity is greater in the case of the recognition method to measure memory.

Experimental studies indicate that the number of words that one can recognize in reading is much greater than the number. One could sit down and write out, even if given plenty of time. In the recognition method, the ‘S’ is presented with a list of 20 nonsense syllables or Trigrams (nonsense combinations of consonants like QSZ, even) to learn up to a perfect reproduction.

After an interval of one hour, this list is mixed randomly with a new list of another 40 nonsense syllables or trigrams. The ‘ S ’ has to identify the earlier learned materials from the new list. Say, he could identify 15 correctly and 4 wrongly, out of the 20 items. His actual retention score would not be 15 but Jess than that as would be penalized for the wrong identifications.

Clearing or Saving Method:
The relearning or the saving method was originally introduced by Ebbinghaus as a method of measuring retention. In the relearning method, the ‘S’ is given a list of materials to learn up to one perfect reproduction (cent percent learning). After 30 minutes retention interval, he is asked to recall the list. If he recalls the entire list correctly, there is no need for relearning trials and the percentage of relearning hence is zero.

On the other hand, if he is unable to recall some items, the list is again exposed to him until he recalls all the items correctly. The trials required for perfect learning at this stage are called relearning trials. The amount of savings refers to the difference between the original learning trial and relearning trials. The percentage of savings is found by the following formula:

\(\frac{\mathrm{OL}-\mathrm{RL}}{\mathrm{OL}}\)x100

When OL means original learning trials and RL means Relearning trials. For instance, when tire ‘ S ’ has taken six trials for original learning and two trials for releasing, his saving score would be \(\frac{6-2}{6}\) x 100 = 66.67%. The 66.67 percentage saving, in this case, itself the evidence that S remembers a certain percentage of the items learned even after the time gap or retention interval.

Question 7.
Define error in recognition and discuss the cause of forgetting?
Answer:
Errors in Recognition:
Only the other day while the author was attending a dinner party, one lady observed her for a few seconds and said hesitantly. “You are Jayanthi, are not you? When I said, “No I am not, “she immediately felt embarrassed and said, “Oh, sony”. “But you very much look like her.” On another occasion, one of this author’s old students failed to recognize her when they met in a film show.

When she gave her identity, the student was very embarrassed and said, “Oh, you have grown so thin that I was unable to recognize you.” Such mistaken identities are experienced daily. Usually, two kinds of errors of recognition are noticed Failing to recognize the familiar, and False recognition of the new and unfamiliar. The above two incidents represented examples of these two types of errors in recognition. We fail to recognize familiar objects or stimuli when it undergoes changes seen under changed circumstances.

When we do not expect to meet somebody at a particular party or place we may not recognize him, particularly from a distance. Secondly, we accept a new stimulus as the old stimulus when there is a lot of similarity between the two. The greater the amount of resemblance, the larger the chance for the error to be committed. Lunel conducted an experiment where he took three lists of materials.

The words of list ‘B’ are the same as list ‘A’ with one letter changed. In list ‘C’ two letters of list Aare changed and hence are debarred from appearing in the examination. other problems pose-great botheration for us. Failure to recall the learned items in the examination or in an interview leads to failure or loss of a job respectively.

The question, therefore, is what one should forget and what one should not Those skills, knowledge, and memory traces that are essential for existence, for adjustment with life, and for achieving different goals, should be remembered while the unnecessary, unpleasant, painful and miserable experiences should be forgotten. Forgetting refers to the negative aspect or opposite of remembering.

According to Underwood (1968) “retention and forgetting are thus reciprocal terms for the quantitative aspect of memory, with retention indication the amount remembered under specified conditions and forgetting the amount not remembered under same conditions.

Causes Of Forgetting:
The basic question that everybody asks is “why do we forget?” There are several factors responsible for forgetting which are discussed below: Factors operating at the time of leasing Some of the factors have been discussed in detail under conditions of efficient memorizing. Precisely, the strength of original learning, nature of the material, method of learning, speed of learning, etc. are the factors operating at the time of learning.

Strength of Original Learning:
It has been found experimentally that when the original learning is weaker, the neural traces formed in the brain are fainter and hence are properly retained. But the amount of retention cannot increase indefinitely as a function of the degree of overlearning. A point diminishing return is to be reached. However, over-learning is ways preferable to under-learning.

Nature of Material:
From various studies discussed earlier in this text, it is found that meaningful and rhythmic material, decreases rate of forgetting. Ebbinghaus found that any material with an associative value decreases forgetting. Even when one is learning meaningless material like tri grams or nonsense syllables, he may try to relate some meaning or association to these, for quick remembering.

For example, the trigram JNF may stand for John F Kenedy or Sih may stand for South Indian Hotel. If this is done remembering becomes economical. when one is studying meaningful material, like a poem passage he may try to find out the relationship between different parts of the material.

This type of learning is emphasized by the Gestalts Materials which belong to each other and are easily learned. When one is memorizing 3 passages a poem and 3 passages of different poems, the former is quickly remembered because the different passages are parts of a general whole and they belong to each other. Many laboratory findings and day-to-day life.

Question 8.
Discuss the improvement of memory?
Answer:
Improvement of Memory:
Memory can be improved by efficient learning. Only memorizing the material does not mean improvement of memory. In one study one group tried to improve their memory repeating a material over and over again, while another group tried to improve by following the principles of efficient learning. The second group showed improvement in memory compared to the first group.

Ebert and Neumann (1905) following better techniques and principles to learn and remember a material found improvement in memory. For example, farfetched associations were avoided, and groupings of the material were made on a rhythm basis. Worry, strain, and useless muscular tensions were eliminated. The conditions of the lab were made familiar for the better adoption of the subjects.

The effect of transfer was used as far as possible and its effect on the improvement of memory was also demonstrated. Reed (1917) conducted the same, experiment taking two groups but found a very small improvement in memory due to the effect of transfer. But it was difficult to get a matched control group. Sleight conducted the same experiment with certain modifications like keeping a controlled group that was perfectly matched but found very little effect of transfer.

Any effect of transfer found was due to rhythm. On the contrary, in another experiment of the same kind, taking adult subjects Sleight found significant transfer, but negative in nature. While learning different kinds of materials, different techniques are better memorization Of course, some techniques may be used in general because of the effect of transfer. Woodrow (1927) did an experiment taking 3 groups of subjects to demonstrate this fact.

Controlled Group:
Did only the forests and after tests.

Unistructcd Practice Group:
For a total of 3 hours without any intervening practice did specific memorization of poems and nonsense syllables, and no specific technique was instructed for the use of nonsense syllables.

Instructed Group:
This group used proper techniques of memorization being specifically instructed. So in the first group, there is no intervening practice which is found in the second and third tests.

Result:
In the after-test, the practice was nearly equal to the control group, but the instructed group (the third group) did definitely better compared to the first two groups. Thus, Woodrow concluded, “In short, the experiment shows that in a case where one kind of training, undirected drill produces an amount of transference which are sometimes positive and sometimes negative; but always small,-another kind of training with the same drill material may result in a transference the effect of which are uniformly large and positive.

The following specific methods of memorizing were given to the third group:

• Learning by wholes.
• Use of active self-testing.
• Use of grouping and rhythm.
• Attention to meaning and use of images.
• Mental alertness and concentration.
• Confidence in one’s ability to memorize.
• In certain cases as in learning nonsense syllables, the use of a second association was made.

The following are some of the techniques of efficient learning which are improvement in memory. The intention or motivation to learn sometimes our memory is poor because we have no intention or desire to learn and remember the topic. Intentional or incidental learning improves memory. Giving close attention to the material to be learned improves memory of that material.

Understanding leads to little forgetting and more storage, more long-term memory. Images should be used as much as possible visual and auditory images to more remembering. a theoretical background along with visual, and auditory images improve remembering. Visual educations, cinemas and excursions, and study tours are therefore more helpful than mere lecturing only.

To improve memory one should always make attempts to associate things with another so that when one thinks of one the other easily comes to your memory. Just for this reason, meaningful words are better remembered these meaningless words. In addition to the above methods of improving memory, some further methods have been developed by psychologists engaged in tire research of memory improvement.

Organization of materials is extremely important to improve memory. The term “Mnemonics” is derived from the Greek word which means to “Remember”. Mnemonics are short, verbal devices that encode long series of facts by associating them with familiar and previously encoded information recent past. If materials lack natural organization, artificial organizations are necessary to be used by the learner for better memory. The old organization already present in the memory system is utilized for organizing unfamiliar and new sets of materials. The following Mnemonic devices are also used to improve memory.

Question 9.
Discuss in detail Mnemonic devices used to improve memory?
Answer:
Methods of LOCI:
At a banquet hall, the seating arrangements provided a spatial structure wherein he could remember the guests sitting around the long banquet table. The spatial position or place of a situation can be used to remember the name of the guests and other items. In the instant case, Simonides could be able to perfectly recall all the guests present at the banquet by remembering the seating position of the guests.

By putting images of items to be remembered at various places can be an effective method of improving memory and remembering things. By the method of LOCI by having mental images of the spatial position of the stimuli one can remember information perfectly. In our day-to-day life if we try to remember things, objects, and stimuli linking them to their spatial positions or locations.

our memory for this information can be easily strengthened. Thus, according to Kimbel. “The method of LOCI requires (the person to place each item to be remembered at some definite location on one’s mental tour and to form a vivid, image of the item in its spot.” Bower (1972) has recommended developing bizarre or unusual associations like keeping some eggs on the bed instead of the kitchen or keeping an attached in the kitchen instead of the box or bedroom.

Several experimental results indicate the effectiveness Of the method of LOCI particularly for visual memory. In .a study by Ross and Lawrence (1968), a group of students was presented with a list of 40 items to be associated with 40 locations present on their campus like a letter box, a Banyan tree, a bank near the NCC office, and each subject was given 13 seconds to form each association.

An immediate recall test showed that the average person remembered 38 to 40 items. However, after a day the recall score came down to 34 on average. This suggests that for many subjects recall was 100 percent. Kimbel holds that such excellent recall depends on the previously mastered or familiar organizations, (b) taking fairly a long time to deal with each item, and making effective use of imagery. By choosing a familiar organization the SS are free from the burden of making a new organizational structure which takes a lot of time and energy.

Numerical Pegs:
Otherwise called Number and Letter Peg. Numerical pegs serve as a good memory aid. By teaching children to remember numbers through pictures that resemble the shapes of the numbers (like a stick for one), memory is improved. In numerical pegs, each number of a series is presented with its pictures in order to make it easy for the association. The following example will explain the concept of numbers and letter pegs.

One is a fan	Four is a door
Two is a shoe	Five is a knife
Three is a tree	Six is a disc
Seven is a pen	Eight is a light
Nine is fine	Ten is men and soon.

If through such associations one tries to remember information, it becomes easy to retain. Like the method of LOCI here also as each item is presented to remember, the closer forms an image that is in association with the corresponding stimulus in the service. It has been observed that when learning is imparted with the method of numerical pegs or number and letter pegs human beings normally remember one item with one presentation only.

Those who find difficulty in retaining information can use the method as a memory aid. I taught my two-and-a-half-year-old grandson to leam the names of seven days in a week in a serial order like Sunday, Monday, etc. He failed to retain serially. But when I bought seven toothbrushes for him in seven colors and gave him one colored brush on a particular day, as I gave him a Red one on Sunday, a Blue one on Monday, a Yellow one on Tuesday, and so on, he could retain very quickly the names of seven days in a serial order associating the days with respective colors of the brushes.

Chunking:
When by using artificial grouping technique one learns to retain information where grouping is not provided, it’s called chunking. Particularly to remember long materials or long digits use of chunking is essential. The span of immediate memory is normally seven items, etc. between 5-9 items. But as experience shows we also remember longer items than the above in our life without much difficulty.

This is possible because of groupings. A five-year child remembers the mobile numbers of his mama, pappa, aunt and grandfather, and uncle, etc. along with their area code. This is an extraordinary case since the age of the child is only 5 years. But adults normally can remember mobile numbers along with their area code. This is possible by the chunking method.

The numbers are divided into small groups and remembered for example 0671-2615 308 can be remembered easily if it is divided into 3 groups – 0671 – 2615 – 308. Where grouping is not provided, one has to make the grouping himself to remember the long materials easily. Kimbel et al. have reported the case of a person who by means of some additional techniques could improve his memory span by up to 17 numbers in just 05 trials.

When initially tested his memory span was 09 digits. He was then asked to increase his memory span. He increased it up to 17 digits by the following techniques devised by him Strict attention was paid to the number of digits to be expected in each trial. Grouped the digits in sets of 3 and five depending on their number. Decided on his strategy by grouping before each trial.

Made verbal association to each group of numbers, weights, dates, or anything that came to Iris’s mind. Even made associations between groupings when he could. A group of college students increased their span of immediate memory from (9 to 12) digits in 11 trials of practice by following the above strategies.

Narrative Stories:
It is another Mnemonic method of improving memory of information received from the environment. If the items that are to be retained are presented to the person in story form it is retained for a longer period. Natural observation in day-to-day life and experimental findings prove this point. We generally teach children various values, ideologies, morals even different educational materials through stories.

Children, it is found, retain these materials for a long time when taught through the narration of stories. In an experiment two groups of subjects were taken, one control group and the second experimental group. While the SS of the experimental group was given to leam and remember 12 different lists of simple words in a story.

the SS of the control group were asked to study each word for the same amount of time that the SS of the experimental group took to make up stories. Immediate recall tests of both groups indicated that there was no difference between the two groups in the recall of each list.

Question 10.
What is Reminiscence? Discuss the factors influencing reminiscence?
Answer:
According to Stevens, “As against the curve of Ebbinghaus, sometimes retention curves show a period of increased retention immediately after the practice is stopped. This phenomenon of initial rise is leveled as Reminiscence’ Ruch (1940) defines reminiscence as “ a continuous increase in skill after practice ceases.” In the usual pattern of the forgetting curve initially, there is a stiff decline. There should thus be a progressive decrement in the curve of forgetting.

Learning by List	Recall	Recall Score	Percentage
	after 5 mints	8/10	50
	10 mints and	7/10	70
	15 mints	9/10	90

In the third recalled words would have been less than 7 according to the usual characteristics of the forgetting curve.

Factor influence Reminiscence:
The degree of reminiscence depends upon so many factors. Some of the important factors are discussed below.

Rehearsal:
In the retention interval which is the interval between test-retest situations, if there is scope for rehearsal of the original learning, there may be reminiscence.

Meaningfulness of the Material:
Martin (1940) has found greater reminiscence within meaningful material than with nonsense material. Nonsense syllables, trigrams,s, and erection are difficult to remember and hence show less reminiscence.

Degree of Learning:
Particularly mean of motor learning reminiscence is observed when practicing increases of course up to a certain point.

Positive Transfer:
English, well-born and et al have found that the students of psychology curve given materials of psychology to learn.

Reproductive Interference:
According to Leavitt and Schlosberg (1977) absence of interference during the interval between test-retest situations.

Set:
the difference in instruction and practice may affect recall tests.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 1 What is Psychology? Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 1 What is Psychology? Short Answer Questions

Short Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Watson?
Answer:
J.B. Watson (1878-1958) developed the Behaviouristic school of psychology, otherwise known as Behaviourism. Watson advocated the S-R approach towards psychology instead of the S-O-R approach.

Question 2.
Freud?
Answer:
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), was making his contributions to the study and treatment of abnormal behaviour. Freud who was a neurologist and a psychiatrist developed a “school of psychology”.

Question 3.
Behaviouristic Approach?
Answer:
The behaviouristic was influenced by Russian physiologist Pavlov’s principles of classical conditioning and other related works in the area of learning. The behaviouristic perspective deals with overt or external behaviour that can be objectively recorded and manipulated.

Question 4.
Legal Psychology?
Answer:
It is also a branch of applied psychology. Legal psychology is concerned with the discovery of motives behind the crimes and methods required for the detection of crimes.

Question 5.
Kohler and Loffka?
Answer:
Kurt Loffka (1856-1941) and W. Kohler (1887) were the founders of the Gestalt School of Psychology (1914). They mainly did research on the area of perceptual and learning processes.

Question 6.
Jung and Adler?
Answer:
Alfred Adler (1870-1937) and C.G. Jung (1875 – 1961) were the earlier associates of Freud. Adler developed the school of individual psychology “Jung’s school of Psychology” is known us the school of Analytical Psychology.

Question 7.
E.B. Titchener?
Answer:
He was an English Psychologist who wait in Leipzig to work under Wundt and propounded the structural school of psychology. He was also determined to establish psychology as a pure and perfect science.

Question 8.
Participant Observation?
Answer:
When the application of experimental and use of naturalistic methods may not be feasible, that is called participant observation. In this method, the observer takes part or participants with the ‘O’ in a particular and simultaneously observes the behaviour.

Question 9.
Introspection?
Answer:
Self-observation is popularly known as introspection. It is a unique method used in psychology which is not found in any other science.

Question 10.
Experimental Method?
Answer:
According to Ruch (1970) “The most highly developed scientific method is the experimental method. The experimental design is important aspect of an experiment.

Question 11.
Non-participant observation?
Answer:
It is the opposite of participant observation. In this method, the observer does not participate in the activities of the subject being studied but he tries to observe the behaviour from an observable distance through one vision screen.

Question 12.
Field study method?
Answer:
Application of experimental technique requires a well-equipped laboratory it can not be earned to different fields of life. The field study is used as an alternative to laboratory investigation.

Question 13.
Survey method?
Answer:
Political attitudes, consumer preference, attitudes towards family planning, dowry, marriage and divorce, women’s liberation, health care etc. are studied by survey method. The survey method used questionnaires, interviews, rating scales, checklists etc.

Question 14.
Independent Variable?
Answer:
The independent variable is the factor which is manipulated or changed in an experimental design. In complex experimental designs, more than one independent variable is introduced particularly when it is necessary for the investigation.

Question 15.
Health Psychology?
Answer:
Health psychology has gained tremendous importance as an emerging branch of psychology. Health psychology’s main purpose is to make people conscious that “prevention is better than cure”. Health psychologists can give counselling for a lifestyle characterised by high levels of commitment, flexibility in attitude and a strong motivation to change one’s irrational and anti-health activities. Health psychology also aims to maintain a harmonious and cordial relationship between the doctor and the patient. Several channels of T. V. have regulated programmes on health and health care.

Question 16.
Cognitive Psychology?
Answer:
It is originally based on Gestalt Psychology, it has developed in recent years into a separate field of psychology. Cognition means knowing or knowledge. Modem psychologists hold that emphasis on human thought, perception, knowledge and all processes of cognitive functioning centre around the heart of psychology. Cognitive psychology stands as a direct challenge to the limited view of behaviourism that scientific psychology is only the study of the overt behaviour of the organism. The cognitive model is a very broad one encircling consciousness, attending, thinking, problem-solving etc.

Question 17.
Social Psychology?
Answer:
Social psychology has been accepted as a major branch of psychology. Social psychology like clinical, educational and industrial psychology is an applied branch of psychology. It deals with the behaviour and experience of an individual in a group situation, in a community and in society. Social psychologists are taking a tremendous interest in the study of mass communication, cognitive dissonance and population research. Social psychology mainly aims at solving the various social, political, and economic problems of our life.

Question 18.
Abnormal Psychology / Clinical Psychology?
Answer:
Abnormal psychology also studies the topographical aspects of the mind, the id, ego, superego, conscious, subconscious and unconscious, and the psycho-sexual development of the child. The credit for extending the scope of psychology to the study of abnormal behaviour duly goes to If Freud, Jung and Adler. Clinical psychology applies its principles and therapies to deviants and mentally disordered persons. The clinical psychologist is mainly engaged in the classification, diagnosis and treatment of behaviour disorders. According to Morgan and King (1978), clinical psychology is now the largest field of specialisation.

Question 19.
Developmental Psychology?
Answer:
Developmental psychology studies the physical and mental development of human organisms from conception to old age. According to Morgan and King (1978), developmental psychologists attempt to understand complex behaviours by studying their simpler beginnings. Child psychology occupies a large place in the study of developmental psychology. Developmental psychology includes the study of sensory and motor development of the child and his specific abilities. Developmental psychology also deals with superior, disturbed, disadvantaged and backward children.

Question 20.
Sports Psychology?
Answer:
It is also an emerging branch of psychology. Sports psychology helps athletes to concentrate their attention on competitive goals, makes them more motivated and enables them to deal with their anxiety and fear successfully which often accompany competition in a sports field. Sports psychology is used as a therapeutic technique in hospitals and psychological clinics. The sports psychologist has a very crucial role to play particularly when the player is discouraged because of missing a ball or a catch or losing a match. A sportsman may be in high physical form but if he is psychologically unfit he cannot be a successful player.

Question 21.
Field study method?
Answer:
Psychology has extended itself to various spheres of life. Since application of experimental techniques requires a well-equipped laboratory. It can not be carried to different fields of life. The field study is used as an alternative to laboratory investigation. The method is free from artificial nature. The field study method is used in this study of children, industrial employees, animals etc.

Question 22.
Experimental Design?
Answer:
A traditional experimental design involves two groups or conditions, such as :

• Experimental condition
• Controlled condition

The independent variable is manipulated in the experimental condition. Subjects of the experimental conditions will not be given only rest during the retention interval. Experimental conditions would indicate the effect of interpolated activity on remembering. There are different designs one balancing another factor.

Question 23.
Limitations of experimental methods?
Answer:
For the application of the experimental method, a well-equipped laboratory, tools and equipment, and subjects are necessary. Human beings and animals are the subjects used in the experimental method. The artificial arrangement of the experimental set-up. The artificiality of laboratory experiments is a source of strength and a source of weakness. On the side of weakness, this control may make experiments so different from real life that the results do not apply to real situations.

Question 24.
Dependent variable?
Answer:
It is also called the response variable. According to Ruch “The dependent variable in an experiment is the factor which the experimenter predicts with change in the same way as a result to changing the independent variable. The dependent variable is better memory in the case of meaningful words. The dependent variable is the effect while the independent variable is the cause. The effect of the independent variable is observed in the results which are called the dependent variable.

Question 25.
What advantages of Naturalistic observation?
Answer:
This method does not require the cooperation of the subject. The ‘S’ is completely kept ignored that he is being observed. the artificially of the laboratory is completely absent here. Spontaneous reactions of the ‘S’ are observed and the ‘S’ makes no change in his response same to the presence of the observer.

When it is not possible to study the behaviour of children, adults, human beings and animals. Under artificially constructed laboratory situations the naturalistic observation method becomes extremely useful. Pinget feels that only through the naturalistic observation method one can get into the heart of the child’s various problems.

Question 26.
Survey Method?
Answer:
Political attitudes, consumer preference attitude towards family planning, dowry, marriage and divorce, women’s liberation, health care etc. are studied by survey method. The survey method used questionnaires, interviews, rating scales, checklists etc. to obtain information about the tire problem of the study. The survey method is a procedure of collecting certain information from the population by carefully prepared questionnaires.

The survey method has extended from mere administration of questionnaires and tests and interviews to telephone surveys, surveys by postal questionnaires etc. The personal interview technique is more popular and extensively used in survey methods. The survey method is extremely useful in social sciences like psychology, providing carefully prepared questionnaires, well-trained interviewers, carefully and cautiously selected samples and appropriate methods of data analysis and reporting used.

Question 27.
Case study method?
Answer:
it is qualitative research used mostly by clinical psychologists. A case study or case history is an in-depth look at a single individual. Mainly case studies are performed by clinical psychologists. A case study provides information about the person’s fears, hopes, fantasies, traumatic experiences, upbringing, and family relationships, herewith. A case study is the most exhaustive method of collecting data about the behaviour of a person. The case study has a clinical orientation with a focus on helping the individual self-improvement.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part 2.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 3 Learning Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Type Questions with Answers

Question 1.
Discuss the meaning and operational definition of learning?
Answer:
Meaning and operational definition of learning:
Learning has been described by some as a modification of behavior. In learning vocabulary, tennis, football, remembering a poem, learning typing, or driving modification of behavior takes place. As a result of repeated practice modification of behavior takes place whether it is sensory, motor or psychological learning starts with an absolute zero. But this definition is too wide and suffers from vagueness. All modifications of behavior cannot be called learning. Some cases of change of behavior appear like learning from the surface. Once not actually learning modification of behavior due to:

• Sensory adaptation
• Maturation
• Fatigue
• Drugs cannot be attributed to learning

Sensory adaption:
When you entered the class you got the strong smell of perfume. But after a few minutes, you are no more aware of the fragrance as the Olfactory sense organ has adapted very quickly. This insensitiveness to the smell of perfume is not because of previous learning but because of the adaptability of the Olfactory senses of the individual.

Maturation:
Two kinds of changes in behavior take place: Those changes which occur due to endogenous (internal) factors are called changes due to growth and maturation, Those changes in behavior that take place due to external factors like environment are called learning changes, called maturational changes. Thus, due to maturation birds start signing at a particular period. The human babysits, stands, walks, and babbles at a particular age. Sexual growth starts at a particular age and so on.

Changes in behavior due to maturation should not, therefore, be confused with changes in behavior due to learning. Changes due to maturation are usually stereotyped and practically identical to all members of the species. But most of the learning changes are varied, also behavior changes due to abnormal glandular secretion, brain damage, and disease should not be attributed to learning.

Fatigue:
A decrement in work performance takes place because of fatigue or tiredness. Fatigue decreases efficiency. A student who is taking down notes in the class at a fantastic speed in the early hours, may not be able to write at the same speed in the last hours. comparative change in performance is not due to learning, but due to fatigue. A person is instructed to draw two parallel lines as quickly as possible for an unlimited period.

After some time, the performance gradually decreases and a period comes when he cannot move his wrist any further. Does this work decrement take place because of practice, due to learning? No, it is not due to practice or learning. It is due to fatigue. This work decrement is also temporary and disappears after rest or change in work.

Drug:
After taking some drugs, some people may suffer from the “drug effects”. The effect of drugs brings a complete change in their behavior for a temporary period. This change in behavior of the ‘ O ’ is not due to practice and hence cannot be attributed to learning. Further temporary that it cannot be called a case of learning.

In view of these facts, learning can be described as a permanent modification of behavior as a result of past experience and practice. Practice reinforces learning firstly, the change in behavior must be more or less, permanent and secondly, it must be the effect of past experience and practice. Any modification of behavior not due to past experience and practice cannot be attributed to learning.

Learning can also be defined as a progressive improvement in performance as a function of practice. No improvement in performance would be possible if the practice does not result in cumulative retention. Secondly, the change that we refer to in learning must be a quantitative and measurable change in performance. The following table demonstrates the measurable change in the performance of a person while learning typing.

Day	Errors	Av. Performance in 30 Minutes
1	25	15Owords
2	32	180 words
3	34	190 words
4	30	190 words
5	25	200 words
6	15	230 words
7	15	230words
8	12	250words
9	06	300 words
10	00	320 words

Both reductions in error and an increase in the speed of typing day by day suggest that the output of learning can be measured by trial. A number of different learning psychologists have emphasized different aspects of learning in their definitions. Some of them are discussed below Boaz (1984) defines learning as the process by which the individual acquires various habits, knowledge, and attitudes that are necessary to meet the demands of life in general.

Learning according to Boaz is a continuous psychological activity that takes place to solve the problems, needs, and demands of the concerned person. Secondly, by learning he develops those attitudes, knowledge, and habits that are required to meet the specific needs of problems of the learner. A person leams typing and shorthand to get a paying job as a personal secretary. A student leams cycling, so as to cover the distance from his residence to school.

A housewife leams the operation of electrical gadgets for the smooth functioning of domestic work, a girl learns cooking, knitting, and signing to have better prospects in the marriage market. Thus, Boaz emphasizes the motivation behind every learning. Learning by Morgan and King (1978) is defined “as any relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of practice and experience.” thus he deals with three major elements Learning is a change in behavior.

it is a change that takes place through practice and experience. Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent; it must last a fairly long time. According to Garrett, “Learning is that activity by virtue of which we organize our response with new habits.” Thus the element of organization in learning cannot be overlooked according to Garrett. In the opinion of Woodworth, learning a new thing adds to one’s experiences. He emphasizes the role of reinforcement in learning by saying it is indispensable for learning.

Woodworth and Scholasberg have given a very comprehensive definition of learning. According to them, “Learning is a change that occurs in the ‘O ’during any kind of activity. It shows later on after the effect of activity. A later activity is different from the earlier activity. We are tempted to say that learning is demonstrated when even a later activity shows some after-effects of earlier activity.

According to Ruch (1970), Learning is a process that brings about changes in the individual s way of responding as a result of contact with aspects of the environment. Ruch views that behavioral changes induced by drugs, brain injury, and maturation are not considered to involve learning Hilgard has defined.

learning as follows Learning is the process by which an activity originates or is changed through training procedures as is distinguished from changes by factors attributable to training. According McGcoch, “Learning as we measure it is a change in performance as a function of practice. In most cases, if not in all, this change has a direction which satisfies the current motivating conditions of the individual.”

Question 2.
What is trial and error of learning? Describe the process of trial and error learning with an experiment?
Answer:
Methods or process of Learning :
How learning takes place? This has been a major issue for many decades and various methods have been developed for learning psychologists to explain how learning takes place. Theories of learning explain the learning process. Mainly the learning theories can be classified into two groups on the basis of their approaches. Stimulus – Response Theory supported by Thorndike, Pavlov, Skinner, Hull, Guthrie, etc. Cognitive Theory is supported by Kohler, Koffka Tolman, Lewin, etc.

The S-R theorists argue that learning occurs by habit due to a chain of reflexes. The ‘ O ’ learns to perform an activity by repeating the performance which brings the correct response or which leads one to reach the goal. This sort of learning process according to them takes place purely mechanically due to habit, due to stimulus-response association.

It does not require the understanding, the brain, or the intelligence of the learner. Paradoxically, cognitive theorists stress the role of organism variables in any learning. They argue that for any learning process to continue, intelligence, understanding, cognitive structure, etc. play an important role. Thus, they stress the role of brain processes in learning. They emphasize the means and the end, and understanding of the situation as a whole.

E.L. Thorndike’S Contribution To Trial And Error Learning:
The psychology of learning owes its existence to American Psychologist E.L. Thorndike (1874¬1949) for his first scientific study of learning. A glance at the contemporary situation of learning psychology indicates that for over half a century, the whole scene of learning psychology has been dominated by one person directly or indirectly and he is E.L. Thorndike.

It is also interesting to note that Thorndike has many followers as well as haters and rivals. When he first propounded his theory of Trial and Error Learning, it produced quite a stir in psychology. Tolman has, therefore, rightly pointed out, “He may be a starting point of attack.”. So, it is said that the psychology of animal learning, not to speak that of child learning, has been or still is primarily a matter of agreeing or disagreeing with Thorndike or tiyin in minor ways to improve upon him.

Prior to Thorndike, nobody did deal with the problem of motivation, not even Wundt or Ebbinghaus. But Thorndike brought a radical change in the history of psychology by bringing motivation into the picture. He conducted a large number of experiments on animal learning, and contemporary psychology and came to the conclusion that animals have no rational faculty in learning. They do not leam by reasoning but by trial and error.

Trial And Error Learning:
Animals go on hitting the target by impulse or leam out of a blunder of hit and miss. This is called Trial and Error Learning. Among the random hits, the correct response which is rewarded is ‘ Stamped in’. The wrong response which is not rewarded is ‘ Stamped out’. Thus; stamping incorrect responses and stamping out wrong ones is the core of learning according to Thorndike.

Trial and error is the simplest form of learning. It came into existence by means of animal experimentation. The trial and error method means trying one way to escape, reach the food or solve a problem, becoming unsuccessful and so trying another way. In this manner, the animal tries and tries until the correct solution is achieved until the goal is reached. The correct response is then repeated to strengthen the S-R connection.

This sort of hit-and-miss learning proceeds slowly, and gradually. The errors fall slowly. The process of selecting and rejecting consists of this gradualness. On the basis of his vast amount of findings on animal experimentation. Thorndike viewed that animals come to leam things quite by chance rather than by anything like understanding. They learn blindly, mechanically, and randomly.

The solution comes by chance, accidentally. To study animal learning by Trial and Error method. Thorndike conducted a classic experiment on a hungry cat, which is described below A hungry cat was put inside a puzzle box. A piece of food (motivation) was kept outside the box at a little distance so that the cat cannot reach it unless she opens the door of the puzzle box. The cat had to press the lever by pulling the loop of the chord to open the door and to get the fish.

At first, the cat tried a number of ways and made lots of unnecessary movements to open the door. The random movements included clawing, biting, pulling, pushing, thrusting, and paws through any opening and the like. In this way after trying several hit-and-miss random acts, making enough struggle, accidentally, the loop was pulled and the door opened.

Finally, the animal reached its goal. Time taken for reaching the food was recorded. After several trials like this, the cat learned to go straight to the lever, press it, open the door and reach the food. A comparison of the time and unnecessary movements from the first to the last trial showed a gradual decrement in the time taken to reach the food.

Also, the unnecessary movements gradually decreased. This type of random hit-or-miss, exploratory activity is called Trial and Error. When these data are plotted into a curve, the irregular slopes at places indicate that animals do things accidentally without understanding. In this case, the cat leams through errors.

Question 3.
Discuss the stages of trial and error learning?
Answer:
Stages of Trial and Error Learning:
Need or Drive:
For any learning to operate need or drive is essential. It goals or motivates the organism to action. In Thorndike’s experiment, the cat was hungry. Hunger was the drive and the need was to get food. In certain cases when the cat is not hungry, the drive for exploration may serve as the need in learning the maze. The motivation should be goal oriented.

For instance, the cat is hungry. But there is no food outside the puzzle box. In this case, the animal will not try at all to open the door, unless, of course, the need to escape from the box operates as a goal. There must be some goal whatsoever, otherwise learning will not be effective.

Block or Resistance:
By preventing the direct release of tension blocks are created so that the animal would make attempts to learn. Without blocks, there cannot be any learning. Thorndike made many T & Y mazes and artificial blocks.

Random Movement:
Rigidity on the part of the ‘O’ does not help to learn quickly. Accidentally the rat heats so many paths; shows random, variable hit-and-miss kinds of activities that are blind, mechanical, and lack understanding and meaning.

Chance Success:
When the cat was trying to get the fish, it made many random unsuccessful activities. Out of these random attempts, by chance, accidentally, the ‘O’ succeeds in reaching the goal. So in .trial and error learning, success comes by chance.

Selection:
The successful movements or the correct responses which lead to the goal are reinforced and hence selected for further practice. The unsuccessful activities are discarded and the successful ones are encountered. This is called selection.

Repetition of the Successful Movements:
Repetition of successful movements leads to the establishment of a habit for a definite movement. When the cat found that certain selected movements led him to food, it attempted only those movements that enabled him to get out of the box and reach the food.

Fixation:
Fixation takes place due to habit, due to the repetition of the successful movements. The habit leads to a definite S-R connection. In fixation, certain essential factors like a decrease in time taken to reach the goal, no random movement, and anticipation of behavior observed. All the above principles are found generally, in any type of trial and Error learning.

Question 4.
Discuss briefly the curve of trial and error learning and maze learning?
Answer:
The curve of Trial and Error:
A curve can be drawn by taking the learning trial, a number of errors, etc. into consideration. The trial and error learning curve has the usual characteristics of a gradual decrease in time and error.

The blind and random activities, at last, come to an end. Errors become zero when the learning becomes perfect. But the time period never comes to zero because some time is necessary to reach the food object. It will vary from organism to organism according to its physiological limit A Japanese experimenter, Kuo did an experiment, on Maze. Shock chambers and confined chambers were allowed.

The shock was given in the earlier path but no food, he went in the short path but got shocked. So he went on another path but again got shocked. Finally, he went on another path and took more time to run. He learned the last path because it gave him reward and pleasure. In this case frequency with reward was found to be the effective answer. Kuo thus disapproved. Thorndike’s Frequency Theory by finding that frequency followed by motivation results in learning.

Kuo’s experiment concludes that practice always depends upon the consequence of reward. The rewarded learning is only fixated. Adam repeated Trial and Error Learning and formulated certain principles which opposed Thorndike’s. He conducted an experiment on discrimination learning where the monkey was trained to select a particular circle that brought him food.

There are two circles, one is big and the other is small. Food is always reinforced to the small circle. After some training, this big circle was substituted by a small circle which was smaller than the second one. In spite of this change in the size of the first circle, the monkey discriminated between the two circles and also learned to always respond to the circle which accompanied the food.

Here, Adam says, the monkey did not learn quite blindly but tried to perceive the relationship between the circles and discriminate one from the other. So he retorted, animals always do not learn by chance. Their activities are not always random or unsuccessful. Sometimes the animal tries to understand the situation and gives a response accordingly.

Thorndike counteracted this criticism by the argument that trial and error learning occurs in the case of lower animals only. Monkeys, chimpanzees, and human beings do not learn by trial and error. Adam conducted another experiment where even after 21 trials, the animal did not learn to open the latch because there was no reinforcement (food) outside the box. But when the smell of fish was noticed by the animal, it tried to open the latch.

Thus, Adam proved that motivation followed by practice strengthens learning. He proved that without motivation learning cannot be specific. This data also went against Throndike’s assumption and emphasized more practice for effective learning. The findings of several such studies led to severe criticism of the Law of Exercise of Thorndike. Thus after 1933 of Effect was included along with the Law of Exercise.

Maze Learning:
Several maze methods were used extensively to demonstrate trial-and-error learning. Maze refers to a number of complicated ways in which the ‘O’ tries to escape or to seek food. In such learning, time and errors are taken as criteria of learning. As the time and errors, reduce the ‘O’ is said to proceed toward learning. The number of unnecessary movements taken to reach the goal is counted as error. By making suitable readjustments, each time the ‘O’ attempts to improve his performance.

Question 5.
What is human learning define the meaning of the law of learning and explain different laws of learning?
Answer:
Human Learning:
Human beings also learn by trial and error method. A human ‘O’ is given to learning a complicated maze blindfolded. In the beginning, he makes several wrong movements though less in degree than, the animal. Gradually in a few trials, he learns the maze. Besides simple mazes, hand stylus and complicated mazes are also used in human learning. Trial and learning also take place in our everyday life.

Opening a lock by selecting from a bunch of keys without knowing the actual key, solving a sum by different formulas, sensory-motor learning like tracing star papers with the help of mirror drawing, typing, cycling, and other motor skills are all cases of trial and error learning. Though simple by nature, the trial and error method is said to be one of the most important methods of learning.

In some conditioning and insightful learning trial and error, the method is also involved. Trial and error learning can be overt and covert. Thinking is said to be covert or mental trial and error. However, the trial and error method does not take into account the importance of the whole situation in learning. It has always emphasized part learning, i.e., learning part by part.

Laws of Learning:
on the basis of several experimental findings on animal learning. Thorndike formulated certain laws to explain, the fundamental process of learning. Learning can be explained as an operation of these laws or principles. These laws explain the how and why of learning, a) Law, of Readiness It refers to the physical or psychological (mental) preparedness of a person to do a job or to attend to a stimulus.

If one is prepared to learn; or acquire something, he welcomes it and gets a satisfying feeling while doing it. Conversely, if one is not ready to receive a stimulus, he regrets it and demonstrates dissatisfaction while making a response. Thus, in the opinion of Thorndike, readiness for doing work makes learning smooth, pleasant, and economical.

The Law of readiness has three parts:
If there is, a conduction unit that is ready to conduct an impulse, the act of conducting is satisfying or pleasing. This unit is nothing but a neural pathway or a relay of neural. If there is a conduction unit that is ready to conduct, not doing so is annoying. You are all prepared to/run a race. You are in attendance. If this race is canceled suddenly you are annoyed.

You are all dressed for a film show. Your spouse or friend does not reach in time to accompany you to the show. So it is canceled and you are deeply annoyed. If there is a conduction unit not ready to conduct and if you force one to conduct that creates annoyance. For instance, when you are not ready to sing a song but are forced to do so, it creates annoyance.

Some critics of Thorndike argue that Thorndike in three formulations speaks entirely in terms of physiology, only neural readiness. But looking at these laws, it seems that no legitimate physiological meaning can be attached to them. Later students of Thorndike attempted to attach a more legitimate meaning to these principles.

They say that though Thorndike speaks in the language of physiology, he actually meant psychology. Thus they interpret the conduction unit as a readiness, a set, a preparedness for making a response tendency which is more a psychological readiness.

Law of Exercise:
It is the principle of repetition or the frequency principle. This law states that if an S-R connection is used repeatedly, the strength of that connection is increased and if an S-R connection is not used, the strength of that connection is weakened. Repetition, therefore, increases the strength of response and lack of repetition weakens it. Hence, the law of exercise is based on the principle “Practice makes one perfect. A person who has repeated a poem several times will remember it more than one who has not.

The Law of exercise comprises two short laws:
Law of use and law of disuse. The S-R connection is strengthened by using it and weakened by not using it. This law of exercise is defined in terms probability of response strengthening and weakening. This suggests that the response acquires proficiency when it is repeated. Proficiency decreases when it is not repeated.

Criticism – Other behaviorists Thorndike took the law of exercise as the sole principle of learning. They argued that it leads to the fixation of certain definite S-R responses, a tendency leading to specific learning. But many experiments including Adam proved that learning is net-specific as Thorndike thought. It is rather a general orientation. Adam and others found that the same animal used different methods to achieve the same goal.

Thus, considerable doubt is focused on the specific nature of learning. Secondly, subsequent learning psychologists did not find the law of exercise as effective as Thorndike thought. Mere repetition without motivation does hot achieves anything. The person must have some reinforcement or incentive to learn a skill. Otherwise, practice proves ineffective.

Several experiments on knowledge of results show that repetition without reinforcement does not bring learning. Japanese psychologist Kuo has also found the same thing. That learning becomes ineffective without an intention to learn is proven in most of our daily activities. In view of this criticism, Thorndike decided to Supplement the Law exercise with the law of effect.

Law of Effect:
It follows from the Law of Exercise. The Law of effect refers to Some kind of reward or reinforcement. It stresses the role of motivation in learning. It is the cornerstone, the cardinal principle of Thorndike’s theory of learning. Thorndike viewed that in all situations involving learning, be its sensory or motor or both, the principle of effect is exemplified. conditioning learning, insightful learning, and in trial and or learning, the law of effect is indispensable. This law is responsible for the selection of some goals and the rejection of others. The whole system of Thorndike, in fact, falls or rises with this law.

Question 6.
What is learning of performance and discuss the maturation of learning?
Answer:
Learning and Performance:
Sometimes learning is confused performance. But learning is different from performance. Learning cannot be directly observed, but it is inferred from performance. So learning contributes to performance, but it is only one ingredient of performance. Performance is affected by many factors other than learning. Performance refers to observed behavior while learning can only be observed through performance.

The several factors which influence performance are – need, motivation, attitude, past experience, and learning. Thus, among several factors influencing performance, learning is only one factor.

Learning and Maturation:
Learning basically depends upon the psychological system, i.e. the sensory organs and the cerebral cortex. The growth of organs, therefore, helps in learning. Whatever training we may give to a baby of 5 months, he cannot walk or speak a language. Similarly, a five-year-old boy cannot solve complex mathematical problems, because the solution to mathematical problems depends upon the development of intelligence and the cerebral cortex.

If the brain is not ready enough to grasp a thing, learning will not be possible. Thus it seems apparent that maturation of that organ is necessary, which is to be used for particular learning. What is Maturation? If simply refers to growth, both physically arid and mental. Munn (1954) opines that maturation in man depends upon the existence of human genes and human intracellular, intercellular, and external preconditions.

Those changes which take place due to endogenous or internal factors are called changes due to the influence of growth and maturation. Changes due to the influence of external factors are due to learning. Maturation mostly depends upon prenatal conditions and genes and partly upon the environment. Maturation can be accelerated or retarded by the postnatal environment because feedback from the early environment has also something to do with growth and maturation.

Maturation occurs after birth as well as before. Maturation greatly depends upon heredity. But since the early environmental conditions play a role in development, it would be incorrect to say that any structure or function which matures is purely inherited. Due to the major influence of heredity and genes upon maturation, birds start singing at a particular age, and children start walking and babbling at a particular age. Sexual growth also begins at a particular period of life, even though no training is given.

Hence maturation does not depend upon learning maturation can be accelerated by training, by the factors of the external environment. Maturation can take place without learning, within the four walls. A person can sit, stand, walk and babble without getting special training. A lot of research on maturation has been conducted on animals and some on human infants. Evidence of maturation is found in experiments on birds, rats, monkey,s and human infants.

Arnold Gesell (1946) conducted a study to examine the importance of maturation over learning. She took two twin girls, say A and B. At 46 weeks A was trained to climb stairs and she took several weeks to leam the skill. At 53 weeks B, her sister, was taught to climb the same stairs. She only took 2 weeks to leam it. This difference in learning can be well attributed to better maturation in the case of who was taught to climb stairs seven weeks after her sister A was taught.

The findings of this study make it clear that maturation helps one to leam much more quickly. It also suggests that maturation may not necessarily depend upon learning, but learning definitely depends upon maturation. Why? According to Boaz (1984) “for the learning of complex tasks, particularly for the symbolic learning, maturation of the cerebral cortex and its association areas is an absolute necessity.

Lashley’s experimental findings also show that learning ability directly depends upon the size of the cerebral cortex. That is why, when the child is not ready to leam, no amount of teaching or training will make any good. This is what everyone, including the parents and the teachers, should realize.

Kellog and Kellog (1933) conducted a classic experiment on “The Ape and the Child.” A human child Donald and a Chimpanzee baby Gua were brought up in the same environment and treated identically. Gua, who was two months younger than Donald was humanized earlier than Donald. Munn in this connection describes.

In learning to skip, cooperate with her foster parent, obey requests, kiss to makeup, open doors, anticipate her bowel and bladder needs, eat with a spoon, drink from a glass, and understand such expressions as “Kiss, Kiss” “Come here” Shake hands” and “Bad girl”. Gua was ahead of Donald. She learned faster than Donald because she was more mature.

The conclusions of this study are:
Though the Chimpanzee was of an inferior race and was superior to the child in certain respects due to greater early maturation, Donald could leam certain things like speaking, which Gua without special training could not leam, even though she was more mature. It is because men are more mature than apes.

Question 7.
Define (aw of learning). Describe the law of effect?
Answer:
On the basis of several experimental findings on animal learning. Thorndike formulated certain laws to explain the fundamental process of learning. Learning can be explained as an operation of these laws or principles.

Law of Effect:
It follows from the law of exercise. The Law of effect refers to some kind of reward or reinforcement. It stresses the role of motivation in learning. It is the consumer stone, the cardinal principle of Thorndike’s theory of learning. Thorndike viewed that in all situations involving learning. Law of effect in Thorndike’s opinion refers to the strengthening and weakening of connection as a result of its consequences.

When a modifiable connection is made and is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the connection is increased. If a connection is made and is followed by an annoying state of affairs, the strength is decreased. If the hungry rat gets food after running the maze, it again runs the maze when hungry. But if it fails to get food, it will no more run.

Similarly, if the dog in the conditioned response method gets food, after salivating to bell it will again salivate to below. The learning which gives satisfaction is repeated over and over again. Conversely, failure and dissatisfaction will create an aversion to that learning. If several runs in a particular pathway do not lead to food, but to shock, the rat with a feeling of failure leaves that path and takes another, which leads to a reward.

If the animal is rewarded, next time it expects food and so learns quickly. Thorndike talks about the effect in operational terms. A connection is strengthened and associated with fulfillment of drive, weakened in the case of the opposite. The strength of connection takes place in terms of result i.e., it depends upon the result. The law of effect, therefore, can be called the law of consequence of results from this angle.

The satisfying consequences or results are retained and the dissatisfying ones are eliminated. Thorndike said, “By a satisfying state of affairs is meant one which the animal does nothing to avoid, often doing things which maintain or renew it. It is something that the animal always tried to maintain. An annoying state of affairs is meant one in which the animal does nothing to preserve often doing things that put an end to it.

Objections against the Law of Effect:
Some have argued that Thorndike’s reasoning is circular. Thorndike had to define satisfaction and annoyance in the manner of annoyance. In the pretension of defining a problem, he again comes back to the same problem. Another objection comes from Watson himself. He said that it has a subjective tinge. So he stated that satisfaction and annoyance are connected with some mental state and as such is inappropriate for the description of animal behavior.

Thirdly, the “backward effect” of the Law of Effect has been certified, because the effect going backward is not logical according to them. In Thorndike’s view learning consists of a series of S-R units like S -S2-S3-S4-S5 and so on. The effect comes only at 5. However, it not only influences S. but all the back stimuli like S, S, S3, and S4. But since learning is discreet, how can it be connected with other stimuli, and how the correct response at the 5th’ stage can again go back to the first one?

This idea of Thorndike is very legitimately doubted. To meet this criticism Thorndike argued that the effect of going backward is a matter of empirical observation and reality and hence should not be challenged. The Geslaltists rejected the law of effect. Their objections were based upon experiments and hence more troublesome for Thorndike, the Law of effect, in spite of this criticism is central not only to Thorndike but to all who believe in some sort of reinforcement in learning.

This was the position of Thorndike up to 1929. From 1929 onwards, a very great change took place in his theory, i.e., he modified it. The necessity of modification arose due to severe criticism from various contemporaries like behaviorists and Gestalt Psychologists. Thorndike was so much perturbed by the criticism coming from the Gestalt School and from Iris’s own experimental findings at the meeting of International Congress in Psychology (1927).

he confessed “I am wrong” With this statement, he suggested some radical modifications to his theory of trial and error. He completely gave up the law of exercise and so the law of effect after 1930 was called the “Truncated Law of Effect.” The weakening effect of punishment was also given up or renounced. Thus, he substituted only half of the original law of effect.

The other half dealing with punishment was given up as the negative side appeared to be unimportant for learning. He stated that mere occurrence was enough to counterbalance the eliminating force of punishment. This he did on the basis of his famous experiment on chicks. In a simple maze, the choice of three correct pathways was given such as:

• Freedom,
• Company,
• Food.

The wrong responses led to a punishment of confinement for 30 seconds. A careful record of the data was kept in regard to the times the chicks followed a path when it led to rewarding and it led to punishment. The aim was to examine if a particular pathway led to food or freedom or company or electric shock, and how often the different paths are repeated.

The findings of this study led Thorndike to conclude that rewarding a connection always strengthened it substantially, and punishing it weakened, it a little or not at all. Thorndike found that there was almost a universal view that reward was more efficacious than punishment. Contemporary psychologists called this the law reinforcement. Thorndike also discovered another important phenomenon in the law of effect.

It is known as The Spread of Effect. He noticed that the effect of reward was not only upon the connection with which the reward associated but also upon the neighborhood connections. Effect strengthens these connections which have preceded and followed reward. In short, reward not only strengthens the right connections but also the adjacent connections.

This Thomdike said is a kind of gradient effect. Subsequent experiments on the spread of the effect have yielded similar findings. Tiffin and Nuttin, for instance, got extensive results. However, this phenomenon of the spread of effect has been denied on experimental and statistical grounds. People said on the basis of empirical findings that the spread of effect is not real but conditional.

Thorndike’s theory after 1930 can be summarized as follows:
Reward is extremely urgent for learning. It minimizes the effect of punishment. In matters of potency, the reward is so potent counterbalances the effect of punishment. Rewarding connection always strengthens it substantially. Punishment weakens the connection little or not at all. Thorndike’s law of learning after 1930had a lot of social implications. The modification of this law is at the root of all social changes. It is more practical in classroom teaching, in jails, and in juvenile reform centers.

Spare the rod, spoil the child is based on this principle of learning. Canning has been banned in educational institutions. Physical punishment also is not in much use today. Thus, prisoners in jail, school students, and for juvenile delinquents laws of effect tremendous importance. The three important views about the law of effect are as follows Law of effect is essential to learning – Thorndike, Hull.

Question 8.
Discuss the few other laws of the theory of Thorndike and critical evaluation?
Answer:
Thorndike’s theory:
Thorndike has a number of subsidiary laws. They are The law of multiple responses, i.e. there are a number of responses at the disposal of the ‘O’. when one fails, one other is tried by the law of prepotency; and the law of associative setting. A few other laws of learning have also been referred to by Thorndike, which are discussed below:

Law of Contiguity:
Contiguity refers to nearness. Nearness can be two types, nearness of space and nearness of time. If two things are experienced together, either due to the nearness of space or time, when one is experienced, the other immediately comes to our mind. Blackboard and chalk, library and librarian are related by contiguity of space. When is face one, the other immediately comes focus of our consciousness? An example of the contiguity of time is thunder and lightning. When we see the lightning, immediately we anticipate the thunder which follows the lightning at once.

Law of Frequency:
It is a frequent occurrence that gives an advantage. When nerve connections are frequently used, they leave a particular mark on memory. This is suggested by Thorndike physiological change. It is very much related to the law of exercise. The Law of frequency and the law of exercise are sometimes considered as having equal functions.

Law of Recency:
Any act which has been performed recently has the advantage of being learned and remembered more quickly than the older, far-off, and distant experiences. The recent experiences are better remembered because Neural pathways involved in recent experiences are the last to be activated and the impression in the nerves is fresh. they were the acts nearer to the solution and satisfaction of the need.

The last attempt is the recent attempt and it is a nearer goal that gives a satisfying experience. So it is learned and remembered quickly. While learning the maze box, the rat remembers the last path move vividly as it brought food and satisfied its hunger need. Psychologists who have criticized the law of recency and the law of exercise believe that it is an atomic or molecular approach.

Law of Primacy:
First impressions last long. Other things being equal, all first-learned things are better remembered. The first time one meets a person, the first day of joining college, the first night of I marriage, and the first, time one joins a job or receives his pay packet are examples. Similarly, the first line of a song and the first syllable from a list of nonsense syllables are quickly learned.

Due to the operation of a law of primacy and recency, the first and last nonsense syllables of a list are more easily remembered than the materials in the middle of the list. The first things get enough time to be consolidated and there is no proactive inhibition in this case while in the middle series, both proactive inhibition and retroactive inhibition operate.

Law of Intensity:
If the experience is very intense and emotional, it is easily remembered and further learning may not be necessary to remember it. Certain childhood experiences which are extremely pleasant or deeply shocking like getting a gold medal as a reward, the sudden death of parents and failure in an examination may be remembered for the entire life because of their intense nature.

Intense experiences need not be repeated. One single experience will be enough to be remembered for one entire life. However, according to the theory of repression, if the experience is too shocking or unpleasant, it may be forgotten due to the operation of the mechanism of repression.

Law of Belongingness:
The Law of belongingness by its recognition of an organizing principle is foreign to the structure of Thorndike’s theory of specificity and mechanical action. Rather it gives some recognition to the Gestalt principles in learning. Attacked by Kohler, Koffka, and other Gestaltists for his neglect of organizational principles, Thorndike developed this law of belongingness. It states that the effect is stronger if it belongs to the stimulus-response connection.

Following this line, Thorndike said that if there is an S R connection and the effect belongs to it, the influence is weaker. When one is hungry, food belongs to the situation and so the hunger-food connection makes learning more efficient. When one is hungry, water does not belong to it, only food belongs to it, and only food can satisfy the need of hunger. The belongingness of reward and punishment depends upon the appropriateness of satisfying an arousal motive or want in the learner.

The concession to the principle of belongingness is a concession to the field psychologists who stress the field factor in every learning. Introducing this principle, Thorndike says that effect is more efficacious when it is an effect with belongingness. Belongingness of reward and punishment depends upon its appropriateness is satisfying.

An aroused motive or want in the learner and in its logical and informative relationship to the activities rewarded and punished. To be rewarded with a glass of water when one is thirsty is a reward with belongingness. Without belongingness, though the aftereffect cannot be denied, with belongingness they are more effective.

Critical Evaluation of Thorndike’s Theory:
Thorndike for the first time made a systematic and scientific study of the problems of learning. He developed methods of animal experimentation and gave such genetic and comparative psychology which provided the impetus for a tremendous amount of research on animal psychology. Looking at the theory of Thorndike, we find, it is one man who has created regular stomachs in the whole field of learning.

Though several decades have passed, still we find Thorndike at the root of all kinds of discussions in learning. Some of his ideas, though have been modified and improved, but the law of effect still continues to have a very significant place in learning. Chiefly two kinds of criticisms have been leveled against Thorndike. His stress on reaction performance, on parts rather than on whole has been criticized.

These are criticisms that result from differences in outlook and temperament. The second type of criticism is very fundamental and specific mainly against the law of effect. It was argued that the law of effect is subjective in nature and the backward nature of the law of effect was also criticized. There are also some important experimental criticisms like renunciations of punishment in the law of effect. While Mouren and others have viewed that punishment is very significant in the acquisition of behavior, taking the help of latent learning.

Tolman of the Gestalt School argued that learning can take place with simplicity without reward. The attacks by the Gestalt School in the 20s were more telling and Thorndike began to later meet some of these criticisms. But it was before the International Congress of Psychology Newttaven in September 1929, he came out with the statement “I am Wrong.”

Transfer of Training:
The theory of transfer of training refers to the popular concept that man should be given training in a general way which includes language, mathematics, and classics. They thought that training in these areas positively transferred to various walks of life. It was found that formal education is transferred to various life situations and vocations. The pattern of education at that time in England was, therefore, mainly restricted to classics, language, and mathematics.

Subsequently, there was a lot of discussion on the generalization of the transfer of training and transfer of mathematics to another subject. Thorndike was the first person to raise his voice against the unscientific character of this presupposition and said, it would be illusory to support that there is a transfer from mathematics to other subjects, He viewed that training in one subject helps the other subject only to the extent they have elements or aspects in common.

The identity may be in substance or in the procedure. Thus there can be a transfer from mathematics to statistics or knowledge of addition helps in multiplication; because both have necessary similarities. 11 hence, it is also called the “theory of identical elements”. Thorndike’s theory of transfer began to take shape in an experimental study done in collaboration with Woodworth (1903).

This study presupposes that transfer depends upon the presence of identical elements between the original and subsequent learning. What is implied by the transfer of training? When previous training or knowledge influences the acquisition of subsequent learning it is called a transfer of training. There are three types of transfer of training positive transfer, negative transfer, and zero transfer.

Positive Transfer:
In the positive transfer of training acquisition of skill in one situation facilitates the training in subsequent situations. For instance, knowledge of physics facilitates training in electronics. knowledge of mathematics accelerates the training in statistics or computer science; knowledge of language facilitates the study of classics and literature.

Positive transfer of training occurs due to the similarity of content, the similarity of technique, and the similarity of principle. Thorndike was of opinion that one activity influences another to the extent that they have common or identical elements. Contrary to the popular belief that transfer is general in nature, Thorndike put forth the idea that transfer is a matter of specific connections.

Question 9.
What is insightful learning? Discuss its characteristics and types?
Answer:
Insightful learning owes its existence to the Gestalt School of Psychology, particularly to its founders Kohler and Koffka. The theory of insightful learning developed as a revolt against Titchener’s structuralism, Thorndike’s trial and error learning, and part-whole relationship. As opposed to Thorndike, Gestalt developed and theory of whole part position in learning and perception.

Gestalt is a German word with no exact English translation. It more or less refers to the form organized whole and configuration. Objects and things are perceived and learned as a whole, in complete form. This is the salient point of the Gestalt School. According to Crow and Crow, Gestalt is a pattern a configuration of a form of apprehending a stimulus situation.

Characteristics of Insightful Learning:
Insightful learning, the ‘ O ’ reacts to the whole situation and not to some details only. The ‘ O ’ finds out the relationship between the various stimuli within the situation as a whole. The relationship that the ‘O’ perceives is mostly between a means and the end or goal. While learning by the insight the ‘ O’ modifies and restructures the perceptual field. A sudden change in the behavior of the ‘O’ is frequently observed.

The solution to the problem comes all of a sudden, in a sudden flash. The capacity for insightful learning is restricted by age and individual differences. Older children give a better response to learning by insight than younger ones. Similarly, higher animals like monkeys and chimpanzees solve problems by insight than guinea pigs. Insight depends upon past experience. However, the Gestaltists do not agree with this. They instead emphasize the present experiences of the learner.

But one must accept that a child cannot get into the heart of a mathematical problem unless the symbols stated therein are understood. For this, past knowledge of the subject is required. Even. when the problem is at the capacity level since he does not know the signs and symbols, he cannot solve the problem. Generally, it has been found that once one gets the idea for the solution to the problem in subsequent situations, that idea helps in solving the problem.

Insightful leaming needs experimental arrangement. The problem situation must be properly arranged and the tools must be kept systematically so that the necessary aspects are amendable to observation. If the required tool is out of the field of perception, solving the problem becomes difficult. Certain cases of insightful learning may be preceded by trial and error or a period for search or preparation.

In the stick and banana experiment, the first half was trial and error learning. Once achieved, insight can be used in a new situation. The same method can be repeated over and over again to solve new problems. The idea is thus transferred or carried over from previous to subsequent learning situations. In the case of human subjects, insight is often accompanied by verbal cues which help in subsequent learning. A solution of insightful learning can be readily repeated.

This has been proved in the case of the Sultan. When Sultan was again placed in the box with a bunch of bananas the next day, it repeated the same idea of joining the two sticks and getting the banana. Only it did not show any trial and error behavior as on the first day. In insightful learning we observe an integrating and reintegrating of part processes into a new total pattern, these part processes having been provided by experience, though the Gestalt School gives emphasis on the present situational factors.

Insightful learning can be of two types :

• Learning by Foresight.
• Learning by Hindsight Foresight

When the solution to the problem comes at once in the first attempt without actually trying the situation, it is called foresight. When a person solves a mathematical problem suddenly without using trial and method error it is a case of foresight. Hindsight Solution comes after trying with the elements.

Question 10.
Define observational learning?
Answer:
At the time there were rarely computer monitors in the airports of India showing the time of arrival and departure of planes indicated by their flight numbers. Only there were occasional announcements. I was waiting for a security check-up along with so many other passengers who were waiting for different flights with boarding cards of different colors kept in their shirt (front) pockets. I was a little nervous and worried because I was not very sure if I could be able to go to the right gate for a security check-up and board the right plane.

My boarding card was pink in color. Immediately I got the intrusion to follow the passengers who had also pink-colored boarding cards. I observed them and found four, or five passengers with pink colored cards, and I gave a sigh of relief. When there was a call for a security check-up, occupants of the pink-colored card got up to proceed and I quietly followed them and arrived at the right gate for the security check-up.

Subsequently, things became easy for me. I observed and imitated the activities of my co-passengers and followed them till I reached the plane. When the plane was about to take off, the air hostess announced that every one should fasten their seat belts. I tried with the seat belt but could not fasten it around my waist. Then I observed my co-passenger silently and learned the technique.

These are examples of observational learning. Observational learnings are most common in our day-to-day life. Observational learning in most cases is a simple type of learning whereby watching others in activities we learn a lot. Even we leam abstract rules, concepts, and ideas by observing others’ behavior either in reality or from cinema or T.V. Thus while watching T.V. people also learn to do things.

People leam social customs, rules, regulations, traditions, rituals, and cultural heritages of the society by observing others so that many embarrassments are avoided. When a child sees his mother showing respect to another person, the child also does the same. The child also does the same. ‘In society we leam from other people’s experiences by observing them, watching them. In fact, people leam both positive and negative behavior patterns like sociability and aggressiveness through observation of models.

Bandura, the pioneer of observational learning opines that it is a third major way by which we leam next to trial and error and conditioning. Several research findings suggest that observational learning places some role in every aspect of human behavior and we cannot manage without this method of learning. We leam cooking, stitching, washing clothes, toilet habits, knitting, making art and drawings, decorations by watching other people doing the same.

Even we leam a lot of necessities of day-to-day life by watching the T.V. Most of the household activities and various exercises are learned through observation. Many experiments on children prove this point. The famous Bobo doll experiment of Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) indicate how children leam to be aggressive by observing an adult aggressive model. They took two groups of nursery school children as samples. The control group was exposed to a non-aggressive amiable adult model.

But the experimental group was exposed to an aggressive adult model who kicked a big doll, scolded and insulted it. Then the children of both groups were allowed to play in a room with several toys. Children of the experimental group showed more aggressive behavior towards their toys and dolls compared to the children of the control group. This may also be called “Imitation Learning”.

Social scientists explain the indisciplined, aggressive, unruly violent, and ruthless behavior of many modem youths as a consequence of imitating the same from T.V. Cinema and video films. The ability to learn by observing others’ activities is due to the cognitive influence of learning. Even Toman’s experiment on rats learning to run mazes substantiates the fact that simple creatures can learn from experience to form internal models to guide later behavior.

Basic Principle of Observational:
The principles of observational learning explain what factors and conditions determine whether and to what extent we learn information skills, concepts, and ideas from others’ behaviors. Following are four basic principles of observational learning as suggested by Bandura.

The direction of attention to appropriate models performing a particular activity:
People generally imitate such people’s behavior which seems appropriate to serve their purpose or aim. Intelligent, pretty, attractive people demonstrating cognitive ability, having unique status, and success come under this category.

Remembering the actions, behaviors and skills shown by the model:
In order to be successful in observational learning, the person must retain what he has observed from his model so that he can behave in a similar way when required.

Production process or conversion of the retained behavior of the model into appropriate action at the time of requirement:
According to Bandura production processes depend upon one’s own physical abilities which can give a clear representation of its memory at the appropriate time, and the capability to monitor one’s own performance and manipulate it till it matches the behavior of the model.

Motivation:
In Bandura’s view, one may observe another person’s behavior but he may not convert it to action unless he is motivated to do so. Only those behavior that is required and useful for a person, he is motivated to practice them, so motivation is required to observe actively other’s activities and put them into practice.

Observational learning may not always be as simple as it appears. It is more complex than mere learning by imitation. It plays an important role in modifying our behaviors through observation. Observational learning leads to aggressive behavior (Baron and Richardson, 1994, Central wails 989, Synder, 1991, Wood, Wrong, and Chachese (1997). Children are found to show aggressive behavior after imitating their age mates.

It can also be used as a technique to train workers for the improvement of interpersonal relationships. Sociability, courteousness, and amiability can be developed by observing these qualities regularly in other people. Culture shock can also be avoided through observational learning. Asian and Western cultures differ contrastingly. It becomes difficult for people of both cultures to adjust and interact normally with each other. Similarly, with the globalization of the world economy, people of different cultures have to interact with each other when they meet.

Question 11.
Define the stage of insightful learning. Differentiate between insightful learning and trial, and error learing?
Answer:
Stages of insightful learning:
Need:
Like any learning, the need to leam is essential in insightful learning. The need may be biological like hunger, sex, or thirst or social like gregariousness, or personal like the desire for power, prestige, and recognition.

Preparation:
Preparation is a basic precondition before insightful learning starts. In Kohler’s experiment on the Sultan with problems involving the use of readymade implements, there were preliminary preparations for the learning. The leader makes various surveys, inspections, and acute examinations of the problem and its field.

Incubation:
It refers to the stage of clearness or dormant period when all overt activities are suspended. It is a period of progress when the ‘O’ silently thinks over the problem.

Inspiration:
In this stage, the idea for the solution to the problem comes suddenly. It flashes in the mind at once. The bright ideal, the “brain wave” comes to the mind during this stage. This stage is sometimes characterized by shouting and jumping in joy, as the ‘O’ is enlightened by the bright idea which came in a flash.

Verification:
It is the last stage of insightful learning in which the ‘O’ makes practical application of his bright new idea. In the case of the Sultan, it joined both the sticks, placed the boxes one after another, and got upon the third box, and brought the bunch of bananas hanging on the roof.

Critical Analysis of Insightful Learning Theory:
Kohler, Koffka, and other advocates of insightful learning have stated that perception of the relationship between different parts of the visual field and the goal plays a significant part in learning. They have also said that learning by insight takes a single attempt to solve a problem. But this is not the fact in reality. In most cases, we find that learning is a gradual process and the errors reduce gradually which the insight theory is not ready to accept.

So insight is not the only method of learning. It is nevertheless one of the methods of learning. Practice is also essential for learning. But practice is totally unacceptable to Gestalt psychologists. However, it can be said that in every difficult and complicated situation the only type of learning that is involved is insightful learning. Munn (1953) thus comments, “Insight is rare in animals, not quite so rare in children and quite common in human adults!”.

While American psychologists have mostly used mazes and puzzle boxes, German psychologists, used situations where all relevant aspects of the problem are visible. Thus Bertrand Russel remarked “Animals studied by Americans run about frantically, with an incredible display of hustle and pep, and at last achieve the desired result by chance. Animals observed by Germans still and think and at last evolve the solution out of their inner consciousness.”

Difference between Insightful and Trial and Error Learning:
Trial and error are more often found in lower animals and children while insightful learning is rare in animals, not so rare in children, and commonly found in human adults. Trial and error learning depends upon practice and repetition while insightful learning does not require much practice. Trial and error learning is mechanical, random, blind, a hit-and-miss type of learning where a solution comes by chance, accidentally.

Insightful learning depends upon intelligence, understanding, grasping, and perception of the whole field of the organization. Trial and error is a simple type of learning mostly found in the acquisition of skills, particularly motor skills. Insight is a complex method of learning. It is more effective in cognitive and verbal learning. Trial and error learning is gradual and slow. Several trials are required to lead.

Insightful learning is sudden and comes abruptly at once in a flash. One trial is necessary for learning. Trial and error learning is more or less temporary. When practice is given up, the acquisition of skill fades up. Insightful learning is permanent as it grows out of understanding the relationship between the tools and the goals. In trial-error learning, a reaction to a part and specific stimulus is made.

In insightful learning, the situation is perceived as a whole to bring the solution. Trial and error learning does not involve insight. Learning by the insight in many cases involves some amount of trial and error. Trial and error depend upon practice and past experience. Gestalt School argues that it does not depend upon past experience which is a controversial view. Learning is transferred from one situation to another on the basis of transposition. In insightful learning transfer of training takes place in the form of identical elements,

Question 12.
What is classical conditioning? Describe determinants and basic processes in classical conditioning?
Answer:
This type of learning was first investigated by Ivan R Parlov (1849 -1936). He was an eminent Russain Psychologist and a Nobel prize winner for his work on the physiology of digestion. During his studies, he observed that dogs started secreting saliva as soon as they did. Sighted the empty plate in which food was served. As we are aware, saliva secretion i.e. reflexive response to food or something in the mouth.

This observation led to the famous conditioned response of learning. Pavlov designed an experiment to understand this process in detail. In the first phase, a dog was left in a box and harnessed. The dog was left in the box for some time. This was repeated a number of times on different days. Then a simple surgery was made and one end of the tube was inserted in the dog’s jaw and the other end of the tube was put in a measuring glass.

Then, in the second phase of the experiment, the dog was deprived of food and was kept hungry. Again, the dog was placed in a harness with one end of the tube in the jaw and the other end of the glass jar. Now a bell was sounded and then meat powder (food) was served. The dog was allowed to eat it. This exercise was repeated for a few days. After a number of trials, a test trial was introduced in which the set up was the same except for the presentation of food.

In the first phase, the dog was secreting saliva in response to the Unconditioned Stimuli (US). But after conditioning, salivation started to occur in the presence of the sound of the bell (CS). Here, the bell becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and saliva secretion, a Conditioned Response (CR). Here, it is obvious that the learning situation in classical conditioning is one of the S-S learning, in which one stimulus (i.e. bell sound) becomes a signal of another stimulus (i.e. food).

So one stimulus signifies the possible occurrence of another stimulus. Examples of classical conditioning are many. Suppose someone has finished lunch and was satisfied with his food. But suddenly he saw some sweet dish served on the adjoining table. Then the secretion of saliva in his mouth became automatic. He felt like eating it. This is a conditioned response (CR).

Stages of Condition	big Operations
(a) Before	Sound of Bell -Alertness (No specific response)
(b) During	Sound of the Bell (CS) + Food (US) – Salivation (UCR)
(c) After	Sound of the Bell – Salivation (CS) (CR)

Determinants of Classical Conditioning:
Practically, the acquisition of a response occurs very quickly and strongly in classical conditioning. But how it occurs depends upon several factors. Some of the major factors influencing learning a CR are enumerated below.

Time relations between Stimuli:
Basically, there are four types of classical conditioning procedures. These procedures are based on the time relations between the onset of conditioned (CS) and, unconditioned stimuli (US). The first three are called ‘Forward Conditioning’ procedures and the fourth one is called the ‘Backward conditioning’ procedure.

The basic experimental arrangements of these procedures are as follows When the onset of CS and US are concurrent, it is called simultaneous conditioning. In delayed conditioning, the onset of CS precedes the onset of the US. The CS ends before the end of the US. In trace conditioning, the onset and end of the CS precede the onset of the US with some blank time between the two.

In backward conditioning, the US precedes the onset of CS. Now it is obvious that the delayed conditioning procedure is the most directive way of acquiring a CR. Again, simultaneous and trace conditioning procedures require a greater number of acquisition trials in comparison to the delayed conditioning procedure. But the acquisition of response under a backward conditioning procedure is very rare.

Type of Unconditioned Stimuli:
I.P. Pavlov used two types of unconditioned stimuli in classical conditioning – appetitive and aversive. Appetitive unconditioned stimuli automatically elicit approach responses, such as eating, drinking, caressing, etc. But the aversive US is painful, and harmful and elicits avoidance and escape responses. Examples are noise, bitter taste, electric shock, painful injecting, etc.

The observation indicated that appetitive classical conditioning is slower and requires a greater number of acquisition trials. But depending on the intensity of the aversive US, aversive classical conditioning can be established in one or two trials.

The intensity of Conditioned Stimuli:
The intensity of CS influences the course of both appetitive and aversive classical conditioning. It observed that more intense conditioned stimuli are more effective in accelerating the acquisition of conditioned responses. In other words, the more intense the CS, the fewer the number of acquisition trials required for conditioning.

Basic Process in Classical Conditioning Parlov’s classical conditioning is an extremely simple form of learning. Truly speaking, it is regarded as the building block of all forms of learning from simple to more complex. The basic processes involved in Pavlovian conditioning are enumerated below.

Acquisition:
In the classical conditioning experiment, the paired presentation of CS and UCS is called a trial. The period in which the organism learns the association between the CS and UCS is the acquisition phase. As the trials continue, the CS becomes gradually stronger to elicit the CR. Presenting UCS with CS during the acquisition phase is a critical operation in classical conditioning.

Here the UCS serves as a reinforcer because it reinforces the connection. Again, the trials on which UCS occurs are called reinforced trials and the trials on which the UCS is omitted are called unreinforced trials. At the beginning trials of the acquisition phase, the strength of CR increases rapidly.

The rate of acquisition during the reinforced trials depends on several factors. The important factors are the time – interval between the CS and the UCS. the intensity of the CS. the intensity of the UCS and the reliability of the CS in predicting the onset of UCS. As the reinforced trials continue, the strength of CR increases but not as rapidly as it used to be in the beginning trials.

Extinction:
When the CS is repeated without UCS then the CR gradually weakens and finally disappears. The disappearance of the CR due to non reinforcement is called extinction or experimental extinction. In the classical conditioning experiments, if a bell is presented time and again without food (reinforcement).

the amount of salivation gradually decreases and finally disappears. In short, when the reinforcement is withdrawn, the CR fails to appear. But extinction is not forgetting. The CR is only temporarily suppressed and after a brief rest period, a part of CR appears.

Spontaneous Recovery:
According to Pavlov, complete or permanent extinction of conditioned response is not possible. The reappearance of an extinguished CR after a Rest period is known as spontaneous recovery. Here the CR is partially recovered after a Rest period. hr classical conditioning experiment, after the salivation response, was given a rest period for thirty minutes.

After this span of rest, the bell was presented without food (UCS), following it. Then the salivation to bell suddenly reappeared. Very often, the response is successively extinguished when it reappears, then the spontaneous recovery diminishes. As a result, the CR fails to be shown even following the rest period. This is known as permanent extinction.

Stimulus Generalization:
In conditioning, generalization occurs to a certain class of stimuli rather than to a specific stimulus. In short, it is a tendency for the CR to be aroused by a similar stimulus.

In Pavlovian conditioning, the dog was conditioned to salivate to a specific tone. Then the CR is generalized to a second tone similar in characteristics to the first tone. As a result, a new procedure began. The first tone (CS) and the second tone (new stimulus) were presented on alternate trials. The first tone was followed by food (reinforcement) and the second was never followed by food (no reinforcement).

Consequently, the CR to the first tone was maintained and the generalized response to the second tone invited extinction. The dog learned to salivate to the first tone and to withhold salivate to the second tone. Finally, the dog was able to discriminate between the two stimuli because of differential reinforcement.

Like generalization, discrimination has also an adaptive significance, too much generalization is over-responsive, whereas, too much discrimination is over-selective. In a sophisticated manner, conditioning is a process in which discrimination ultimately wins over-generalization. Salivation to light by frequently associating it will bell but without presenting the food is called second-order conditioning.

Question 13.
Define operant conditioning?
Answer:
There are two main forms of simple learning. One is Classical and the other is Instrumental, Instrumental conditioning is also known as operant Conditioning. You can take a simple example here to describe instrumental behavior. When a dog responds to the commands of its master to get some biscuits, the dog has learned an instrumental response. The dog is rewarded for a particular response.

In nutshell, the dog’s response was instrumental in fetching a sought-after reward. That is why it is called instrumental conditioning. This type of conditioning was first investigated by B.F. Skinner. He studied conditioning of voluntary responses found when an organism operates on the environment. He called them operants. Operants are that behavior or responses, which are emitted by animals and human beings voluntarily and are under their control.

Here the very term ‘Operant’ is used because any organism operates on the environment. Skinner conducted His experiments on rats and pigeons in specially designed boxes, known as Skinner boxes. A skinner box usually contains a mechanism for delivering a consequence whenever the animal in the box makes a readily identifiable response that the experimenter has decided to reinforce or punish.

In experiments that involve rewards, the delivery mechanism is often a small lever or bar on the side of the box. Whenever the animal inside presses it, the response is rewarded (B.F. Skinner, 1938,1956). In his experiment, Skinner put a hungry rat in the chamber, which was so built that the rat could move inside but could not come out. In the chamber, there was a lever, which was connected to a good container kept on the plate placed close to the lever.

The hungry rat accidentally pressed the lever while moving around and pawing the walls (exploratory behavior). The hungry rat ate the food and in the next trial, after a while, the exploratory behavior again starts. As the trials increase, the rat takes lesser and lesser time to press the lever for food. However, conditioning is complete when the rat pressed the lever immediately after it is placed in the chamber.

It is obvious that lever pressing is an operant response and getting food is its consequence. In this situation, the response is instrumental in getting the food. That is why this type of learning is also called instrumental conditioning. Examples of instrumental conditioning are around in our everyday life. Flumen beings leam shortcuts to attain desired goals through instrumental conditioning. Through this process, children learn to be polite and say please to get favors from their parents and others.

Here the response is changed according to the need and the demand of the individual. The response is made and determined by the organism himself. This is the most distinguishing feature of operant behavior. The organism is capable of making varied types of responses according to the demand of the environment.

Recently biofeedback technique is being used in instrumental conditioning which informs the individual about his unknown physiological function. But if is still unknown whether biofeedback provides direct control over involuntary responses or whether this control is mediated by voluntary processes.

Determinants of Operant Conditioning:
No doubt, operant or instrumental conditioning is a form of learning in which behavior is learned, maintained, or changed through its consequences. Such consequences are known as reinforcers. A reinforcer is defined as any stimulus or event, which increases the probability of the occurrence of a (desired) response. In other words, the stimulus event which increases the probability that behavior will reoccur is called a reinforcer (Or reward).

The impact or consequence generated by a reinforcer is called reinforcement. By contrast, a publisher is a stimulus event that decreases the probability that the behavior will reoccur. The impact of punisher punishment. Punishment is more likely to be confused with negative refreshment since both involve an aversive stimulus that the individual likes to avoid or escape from Always remember that the negative refreshment increases the response probability whereas punishment decreases the response probability.

On the whole, positive and negative reinforcements are procedures that increase or strengthen behaviors. An organism obtains reinforcement in two ways by obtaining a pleasant stimulus and by avoiding a painful stimulus. There are two types of reinforcement – Positive and Negative. In positive reinforcement, the probability of a response increases, because it is followed by a pleasant stimulus. In negative reinforcement, the response probability also increases, because the response removes an unpleasant stimulus.

Schedules of Reinforcement:
The reinforcement schedule refers to the arrangement delivery of reinforcement during conditioning trials. Each schedule reinforcement influences the course of conditioning in its own way. In our life instances, reinforcement comes on and goes off unpredictably. In many instances, reinforcements are delivered according to rules. For example, we receive a salary every month according to the rules. When the reinforcement is continuous, every occurrence of behavior is reinforced.

This simplest form of reinforcement delivery is termed a “continuous reinforcement schedule If the pigeon receives a food pellet every time it presses the tire lever, it is on a continuous reinforcement schedule. The other type is partial reinforcement (intermittent reinforcement). In partial reinforcement, the response is not rewarded every time it occurs. This type of reinforcement is conducive to maintaining learned behaviors. Once a response is learned under this schedule, it takes a longer span of time to be extinguished.

Four types of partial reinforcement schedules are:

• Fixed-interval
• Variable-interval
• Fixed ratio and
• Variable-ratio.

In the fixed-interval schedule, the organism is rewarded for the first response occurring after a fixed interval of time. Students increase their study hours as the examination approaches. The pigeon is rewarded for the first lever-pressing response occurring after one minute interval.

In a variable-interval schedule, the organism is rewarded after a variable amount of time has elapsed. The hungry rat gets the food pallet after 2 minutes, the next one after 5 minutes, the third one after 3 minutes, and so on. 1 Here, the organism responds at a steady rate in the variable interval schedule as reinforcement may come any time. Gambling behavior is the best example here.

Schedules of Partial Reinforcement	Time Interval (Interval)	No. of Responses(Ratio)
Predictable	Fixed-Interval (low response) rate after each  reinforcement	Fixed-Ratio (high) response rate with brief pauses after each reinforcement
Unpredictable                 (Variable)	Variable-Interval Steady response rate	Variable-Ratio (high and steady response rate)

Question 14.
What is cognitive learning? Describe insightful learning and its stages or features?
Answer:
The process of acquiring knowledge about the environment which has an internal mental representation is called cognition. But learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency. The two terms are put together to generate the term ‘cognitive learning.
Two forms of cognitive learning:

• Insightful learning.
• Observational learning.

We first discussed the:
Insightful Learning:
I. P. Pavlov, S.L. thorndike and B.F. Skinner was all behaviorist. Obviously, they have ignored the study of learning based on reason and intelligence thinks when it learns. The chimpanzee evaluates the information in the learning situation and learns to reach a goal by developing insight. Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1968) arrived at Tenerife, the small island of the West Coast of Africa, to take charge of an institute for the study of the anthropoid apes, he was a German psychologist.

He was forced to stay on the island during World War-I. He engaged himself in an intensive study of how chimpanzees perceive, think, and learn. The results were translated into English in 1925 with the little ‘The Mentality of Apes’. Kohler used five types of problems to study how Chimpanzees solve complex problems. The two most fascinating and important problems were the ‘stick’ problem and the ‘box’ problem. Both these problems involved insightful solutions.

Besides chimpanzees, he also used dogs, hens, and little girls as subjects in his experiments. Kohler placed a hungry chimpanzee named Sultan inside a cage in the ‘stick problem. A bunch of bananas was kept outside the cage beyond the direct reach of the Chimpanzee. Two hollow bamboo sticks were kept inside the cage. One of them is very short and the other one is long. Since the sticks were hollow, one stick could be pushed into one end of the other to form a longer stick.

The bananas were kept at such a distance that neither of these sticks alone would be sufficiently long enough to reach the banana. But the Chimpanzee could get the banana if the two sticks were joined. The goal of the Sultan was to fetch the banana since he was hungry. Initially, he has shown all types of reactions that, generally, a Chimpanzee shows inside a cage. First, he used one of the sticks to draw the banana towards him but did not succeed. Then he tried the other sticks but in vain.

After some unsuccessful attempts, Sultan gave up the idea of getting food and sat in one corner of the cage. Then, after a short span of rest, he started playing with the sticks. He pushed one stick out as far as it could go and then pushed the first stick with the other until the first touched the banana. He started playing with the sticks again and accidentally one of the sticks went into the hollow end of the other. A sudden insight dawned upon Sultan and he solved the problem mentally.

Then he used two sticks to form longer sticks and with the help of this long stick, he pulled the banana inside the cage. When he faced the same problem on the next day, he solved it immediately. In another situation, Kohler demonstrated insightful learning in the ‘box’ problem. Here a bunch of bananas was kept on the tire ceiling of a cage, which Sultan could not reach. There were some empty boxes inside the cage. After some trials and errors, the animal could be able to snatch bananas by stacking several boxes.

Stages of Insightful Learning:
Here, the organism needs to reach a goal by solving a problem. The subject (learner) makes inspections, surveys, and examinations of the problem and the stimulus field. The ‘incubation period’ begins after an initial period of trial and error, all overt activities are withdrawn at this stage. The organism sits silently and thinks over the problem. Suddenly the organism develops insight into the problem after the incubation period.

The subject (learner) makes an attempt to make practical verification of his idea or insight about the problem. Once the subject achieves insight and solves the problem, the organism repeats the same method of solution without any hesitation. The organism attends to the relevant aspects and ignores the irrelevant ones when it attempts to solve similar problems in the future.

Common features of Insightful Learning:
Very often, the question arises – what does Kohler mean by ‘insight’ According to him, the common features of insightful learning are as follows The experimental situation is very important in insightful learning. The organism must be able to perceive the relationship among all relevant parts of the problem before insight can occur.

In this type of learning, the organism reacts to the whole situation, not to its component parts. Perceiving the relationship between the means and goal is very important in insightful learning. He also restructures the perceptual field during experimentation. Insight is followed by a period of trial and error behavior. During this span, the organism does not exhibit blind and random attacks as shown by Thomndike’s cat.

On the contrary, he tests behavioral hypotheses in the form of accepting some and rejecting others. The insight solution comes all of a sudden. Once the insight is reached, the organism shows a high degree of retention and transfer to similar problems. There is a correlation between insight and the capacity of the organism. This capacity depends upon age, experience, and individual differences.

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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 1 What is Psychology? Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 1 What is Psychology? Long Answer Questions

Long Answer Essay Type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the nature and scope of psychology.
Answer:
Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behaviour. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including relating to an individual’s daily life and the treatment of mental illness. Psychology differs from the other social sciences anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology in that psychology seeks to explain the mental processes and behaviour of individuals.

Whereas biology and neuroscience study the biological or neural processes and how they relate to the mental effects they subjectively produce, psychology is a priority concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behaviour on a systemic. subfield neuropsychology studies the actual neural process while biological psychology studies the biological bases of behaviour and mental states.

Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behaviour mind and thought and the subconscious neurological bases of behaviour psychology also refer to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals’ daily lives and the study of mental illness.

It is largely concerned with humans, although the behaviour and mental process of animals can also be part of psychology research, either as a subject in its own might i.e. animal cognition and ethology, or somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison (including comparative psychology).

Scope:
Psychology is a scientific study that relies on conspiracism, the use of experimentation, evidence and observation to draw conclusions. It is not based on common sense, reasoning or logic alone. There are two general grouping of psychologists: research psychologists and applied psychologists. Research Psychologists experiment and gather observations to improve understanding of the nature of the mind and behaviour.

Applied psychologists take these observations and leave the lab to deal with everyday problems. In order to obtain responses from individuals a number of psychological tools or instruments are used psychology has various methodological ways or approaches to understand and explain psychological phenomena.

Question 2.
How is psychology a science?
Answer:
Wundt gave psychology a scientific status by opening the first psychological laboratory at Leipzig. Thus, psychology as a science has its beginning in the psychological institute at Leipzig and it went through several phases to reach the status of current psychology. Critics from different quarters, however, questioned the scientific status of psychology.

They asked, “Is psychology a science line physics chemistry ?” Even people make sarcastic remarks when we describe psychology as a science. Science is a systematic body of knowledge gathered by careful observation and measurement of events. The things and objects are systematized mostly by classifying them into various categories.

The general laws and principles are established which describe and predict the events as clearly as possible. Science seeks to explain the phenomena within its scope. The explanation is the ultimate aim of science. Psychology deals with oriental processes and activities of the organism in relation to its environment. It deals with experience and behaviour. Psychology seeks to explain the law of mind.

The aim of psychology precisely is to describe, understand, predict and control conditions and situations both in the world around him and within himself. As indicated earlier, it is mainly the scientific procedure adopted for the study of psychology that gave it a scientific status. Science uses methods like observation experiments, manes comparison and classification to investigate and collect data.

Psychology uses both observation and experimentation; which are scientific processes. The scientific procedure, according to mum (1950) “involves making systematic rather than aimless observations, being impersonal in one’s search for truth, seeking information to test rather than to prove ideas already had making it possible for others to repeat one’s observations under essentially the same conditions and to confirm or modify them.”

Science, in other words, uses experimental methods for the purpose of investigation. Instead of mere observation, certain conditions or variables of the object of study are changed (independent variables) and the effect of these changes on the subject matter of study is noted. Science starts with some assumptions or hypotheses and postulates about its subject matter.

Psychology as a science usually starts an experiment with some assumptions or hypotheses. In a scientific procedure like the experimental method, all variables are controlled except the independent variable of science should be quantitative. In other words, results obtained from a scientific study should be quantified or measured. Psychology uses statistical methods for the analysis of results.

Question 3.
Examine the contributions of Wundt and Titchener to Experimental Psychology?
Answer:
William Wundt (1832-1920) opened the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, German. Thus he took the first step in making psychology a science. He gave the first touch by assembling the parts together formulated by the earlier investigations. It is, therefore, rightly called the father and founder of modem experimental psychology.

The psychological institute at Leipzig thus started programmes of making psychology an independent science. Though prior to Wundt the attitude towards scientific psychology was growing in the minds of various investigators. Wundt alone gave it an independent status by separating psychology from philosophy and giving up speculation and armchair observation in favour of scientific methods of study.

Wundt, a German physiologist took a lot of interest in the subjective and personal experiences of the organism, a response to sensory Stimulation. After publishing “fundamental of psychological psychology (1871)”. Wundt opened his psychological institute at Leipzig.

A large number of students from all over the world came to Wundt’s institute to conduct research on scientific psychology under his able guidance. Wundt defined psychology as the science of immediate experience with consciousness being the main subject matter, which simply means the science of consciousness.

E.B. Titchener:
Titchener, the English psychologist who went to Leipzig to work under Wundt, propounded the structural school of psychology. Like Wundt, he was also determined to establish psychology as a pure and perfect science. Thus, he established a laboratory at Cornell, in America, to develop a structural school of psychology.

He based his work and research on the pattern of Wundt. He was a staunch believer in the experimental approach towards the study of mental science. He published a number of books on psychology and thus helped in the enrichment of psychology as a science. In fact, it is Titchener who owes the credit for establishing Wundt’s concept of psychology in the U.S.A.

Titchener defined psychology as the science of conscious experience which is dependent upon the experiencing person. He developed a monistic approach towards psychology with the view that all sciences have more or less the same content, which refers to some aspect of the human experience. Only the approach is different.

Mind according to him is the sum total of human experience and the subject-matter of psychology is conscious experience. Titchener was a very devoted worker. He sincerely tried to develop fully the concepts of psychology put forward by Wundt. The above two psychologists’ contributions are discussed.

Question 4.
Discuss briefly the different branches of psychology?
Answer:
Modem psychologists have developed certain conceptual approaches to the understanding of psychology keeping in view the current needs. Zimbardo and Member (1997) have identified six broad conceptual models which are normally used in the study of human behaviour.
They are:

• Biological
• Behaviouristic
• Cognitive
• humanistic
• Psycho-dynamic and
• Evolutionary.

We will discuss below the first three models widely used by psychologists.

Biological Approach:
The biological approach is basically interested in the functioning of genes, the nervous system, the brain and the endocrine glands to trace the causes human behaviour. Zimbardo (1997) views that the biological approach makes four assumptions. Psychological and social phenomena can be understood in terms of biochemical processes.

Complex behaviours can be understood by analyzing them into smaller and more specific units. All behaviour or behavioural potential is determined by physical structures and hereditary processes. Experience can modify behaviour by changing these underlying biological structures and processes.

a conglomeration of these two sciences has led to the development of a biological approach to psychology. The biological approach also includes the Biophysical; or Neuroscience approach. Which attempts to find out the physiological or biological changes that take place in the nervous system. brain, glands and chores when we learn, perceive, think, emote, became angry, hungry see a movie, dream or engage in daydreams.

Behaviouristic Approach:
Structuralism was too mentalistic because it attempted to deal with mental processes. In the early twentieth century, some scholars pioneered an approach in America popularly known as Behaviourism which placed importance or the overt behaviour of organisms. The propounder of behaviourism was Y.B. Watson.

He and his associates reduced psychological understanding to a simple ABC formula:

• first, identify the antecedent (triggering) stimulus conditions, that elicit behaviour,
• secondly, measure changes in observable behaviour and friendly,
• record the consequences that the behaviour has on the environment.

All these three, ABC elements, antecedent conditions, behaviours and consequences or change must be objectively observable. Watson viewed drat mental events could not be studied scientifically and that psychology must look not within the individual for the causes of behaviour, but outside the individual at the environment and the observable stimuli that lead to behavioural responses.

Another learning theorist, B.F. Shinner restricted the domain of psychology to the study of how behaviour and environment operate on and affect each other. Modem scientific psychology has however accepted to quite an extent the behaviouristic approach of Watson, particularly those aspects of behaviour that are carefully and objectively measured by contemporary.

psychology because of its scientific orientation still consists of overt behaviour. According to Baron (1999) “Behaviouristic approach to psychology has stood the test of time and continues to remain as an important approach to modem psychology”.

Cognitive Approach:
The behaviouristic approach seems somewhat limited because it excludes mental processes. Cognitive psychology stands as a direct challenge to the limited view of behaviourism that scientific psychology is only the study of the overt behaviour of the organism. The cognitive model is a very broad one encircling consciousness, attending perceiving or knowing, thinking, problem-solving, even numbering etc.

Cognition means knowing or knowledge modem psychologists hold that emphasis on human thought, perception, knowledge and all the processes of cognitive functioning centre around the heart of psychology.

Question 5.
State the subject matter of psychology. How is it related to biology and medicine?
Answer:
The subject matter of psychology includes air branches and all aspects of psychology, particularly those which deal with human behaviour, internal and external experiences and various mental processes. The mental processes include physiologist bases behaviour, sensation, attention, perception learning, memory process, thinking reasoning and creativity, personality, intelligence and emotional and motivational processes etc.

Among the above, learning is the core of psychology and its central subject matter. Humans’ adjustment to a tired environment is impossible without learning and the ability to learn and remember things. Psychologists study human behaviour as used as a mental process exploring the thinking process, ability creativity and reasoning capacity.

Cognitive psychologists, therefore, put emphasis on the cognitive behaviour of the organism as an important subject matter of psychology. I Human being is an intelligent person. His cognitive ability or intelligence determines his mental activities to a great extent and hence the complete without the study of intelligence or cognitive behaviour the subject matter of psychology subject matter related to Biology and medicine.

Biology :
Biology is life science. It studies the life of plants and animals which includes the study of the growth and development of living beings and how they reproduce and continue to exist. The scope of biology is very wide in the sense that it is concerned with the study of genetics physiology, zoology, neurology embryology etc. Since psychology has an intimate relationship with physiology, animal psychology and neurology, it is logically related to biology.

Animal experiments truly speaking, have enriched our knowledge in understanding human behaviour. Animals are of then used in research and experiments in psychology, for instance, Pavlov experimented on dogs, Thomdive on cats, Kohler on chimpanzees, Lashley on rats and Skinner on pigeons. The laws and principles of learning drawn from these studies have provided valuable chees to the psychology of learning and motivation.

Medicine:
Medical science deals with both physical and mental disorders. This knowledge is a must for psychologists because both deal with the human organism, medicine, however, is more concerned with physical disease and psychology with mental disease. Since mind and body can not be separated from, each other and are interrelated, one influencing the Other, medicine and psychology are just like the coils of a rope, interwoven and interrelated.

Just as it is essential for doctors to know about human psychology and behaviour patterns it is equally necessary for psychologists to have knowledge of physical diseases and the various physiological organs and their functions. Both psychologists and medical men take each other’s help in the conduction of research on human beings.

Question 6.
Discuss the observational methods and their advantages?
Answer:
The methods which a particular branch of knowledge uses, determine its scientific nature. Psychology as already indicated is described as a social science. In order to clarify the fact that psychology is a science. It is necessary to examine the methods used in psychology to study the behaviour of the organism. Methods in psychology refer to the ways or procedures to study behaviour, both inner and outer.

Methods are also used to analyse, predict and control behaviour in a given situation. Thus psychology like any other science subject uses observation and experimental methods. The introspective method comes under the observational method unique in psychology and not used in any other science for the purpose of investigation. That is why Morgan and King have said that psychology is both Science and Arts.

Observational Method:
Psychologists have attempted to divide observational methods into various categories which are given below.

Subjective observation (Introspection):
Self-observation is popularly known as introspection. It is a unique method used in psychology, which is not found in any other science. Titchener developed the introspective method. Wundt also suggested as a method of studying conscious experience. According to Titchener, psychology must deal with the inner states of consciousness in order to find out its structure. As already pointed out introspection means slef-observation or ‘to look within.

In the case of introspection, the person observes his own feelings and experiences at a given tinie and reports the same to the investigator. By self-observation, only the experiencing person says what he is feeling or experiencing. To introspect means to attend to one’s own experiences. If a person is having a headache or toothache, only he can report it.

If one is thinking of somebody it is he who can make it overt. Thus the person himself can give an account of his experiences. That is why it is called self-observation. But, the inner mental activities can be made public by the experiencing person. Whatever one is feeling experiencing or thinking, he can only – give a report of same.

Here the job of the psychologist is to encourage the person under observation to look within and observe his own thoughts feelings, and experiences and report the same psychologist. Introspection as self-observation. But every self-observation is not introspection. Self-observation of one’s mental activities only refers to introspection.

Advantages:
Psychology is the study of behaviour and experiences. Behaviour is studied by observation technique. In fact, there is no other method by which private and personal experience can be studied except the method of introspection. Introspection is an easy, simple and traditional method. Many psychologists gathered lots of valuable information, particularly in the field of sensation with the help of the introspection method.

When the other scientific and objective methods fail to serve the purpose, introspection solves the problem. Specific principles are followed for the use of other scientific methods; no rules are to be followed for observing one’s own feelings and experiences. Introspection can be applied at any time and at any place. Further, no laboratory or test materials are necessary for introspection.

Introspection provides direct and first-hand knowledge to the person about one’s mental state. The data obtained by the introspective method can be compared with the data obtained by the observation method, later on, both the subjective and objective data can be synthesized. Attributes of sensation can be known through introspection.

A number of impressions and experiences about the tactual, auditory, gustatory and factory sensations can be known by introspection. Similarly experiences about like and dislikes applying the self-observation method. The subject’s response to a stimulus is revealed through introspection. How he registers the stimulus and his reaction to stimulation can only be known by introspection.

Question 7.
Define observation methods used in psychology?
Answer:
The observation methods are defined below:

• Naturalistic observation
• Participant observation
• Non-participant observation

Naturalistic observation:
Naturalistic observation is made in an environment which is uncontrolled and unrestricted but natural. It is incidental and unplanned. The attitude of the teachers towards their students can be observed in classroom situations where the observer plays a passive role. Piaget’s studies on the cognitive development of children were frequently preceded by naturalistic observation which he called the clinical method.

Advantages
This method does not require the cooperation of the subject. The ‘ S ’ is completely kept ignorant that he is being observed. The artificiality of the laboratory is completely absent here.

Disadvantages
Data collected by the naturalistic method are different to reproduction, standardisation and quantity. It violates the standards of specificity, quantitativeness and standardisation of the observational procedure.

Participant Observation:
When application of the experimental method and use of the naturalistic method may not be feasible the method of participant observation comes into the picture. In this method, the observer actually takes part of participating with the ‘O’ in a particular act and simultaneously observes his behaviour. For example, while studying the play activity of children, the observer also plays with them, and the child never knows that he is observing him.

Advantages
For studying cases on a large scale, when experimental methods are not practically possible, this method is used to sort out various problems of the employees, in industries and organisations and in a classroom situation.

Disadvantages
In addition to the disadvantages and limitations of the observational methods, the additional disadvantage of this method is that once the subjects start suspecting the participant observer’s motive and the situation they may become furious considering him a spy.

Non-participant Observation:
As the name implies it is the opposite of participant observation. In this method, the observer does not participate in the activities of the subject being studied but he tries to observe the behaviour from an observable distance through a One-way vision screen.

Question 8.
What is the case history method? Define its limitations?
Answer:
Psychology has adopted the use of a number of investigative methods for the understanding and analysis of human behaviour. Case history is one of these methods which is being used particularly by clinical psychologists for the diagnosis and treatment of behaviour disorders. Otherwise known as the life history or case study method. It involves making observations for a considerable period of time to trace the cause and development of a particular behaviour pattern.

This method actually has been borrowed from medicine and it has got special implications t in the study of problem children and in the study of problem children and in the treatment of abnormality. It is a two-way process in which the investigator uses tests, checklists questionnaires like the survey technique.

Under case study method :

• the day book method,
• clinical method.
• Biographical method

are includes case history is a very comprehensive and useful method. But it requires specialised skills for the collection of information. The main purpose of the case study method is diagnosis and prognosis. In other words, it aims at finding the cases underlying human behaviour as well as making recommendations about rectifying the present behaviour.

Limitations:
It is held by some that the case study method is highly subjective. Unless trained and competent investigators conduct the interview collect case history, it may lead to erratic and erroneous findings. However, the subjective nature of the case history method can be reduced by using a particular format of a case study which can provide guidelines to the person collecting the information.

He can thus have the scope to add or to subtract very little and this can ensure objectivity and reduce subjectivity to a minimum. Some have argued that case study is retrospective in nature. It is based on the contemplation of an event after it has occurred. Thus many valuable experiences from that standpoint of psychological analysis are forgotten, disturbed or actively.

Question 9.
Discuss the characteristics of the experimental methods in psychology?
Answer:
According to Ruch (1970) “The most highly developed, formalised and accurate of all scientific methods is the experimental method”. It is the most reliable of all the methods used in psychology. In 1879 Wundt started the first psychological laboratory at Leipzig and since then most psychological data are collected through well-designed and scientifically conducted experiments.

The experimental method is a procedure in which certain hypotheses framed on the basis of previous findings are tested by systematically varying certain conditions and controlling some other conditions. In other words, it is observation used in pre-arranged conditions. When the behaviour of a person is not studied under natural conditions, or in the field, but under artificially controlled conditions in the laboratory it is called an experiment.

The E should use the proper method for the presentation of the stimulus and should see that he gets the necessary cooperation from this. He must have a procedure for collecting data and testing the hypothesis. Proper instructions to the “S” must begin before starting experiment. The verbal and introspective report of the subject should be taken to interpret and verify the obtained findings.

Characteristics of the experimental method:
Variable Slid Conditions:
The experimental method involves certain variables. A variable is a factor which varies or changes in the experiment. A variable is any aspect of a condition that can vary or any quantity that can change in a valve.

Independent Variable :
The independent variable is the factor which is manipulated or changed in an experimental design. It is the factor whose effects are being studied on the result.

Dependent Variables:
It is also called the response variable. According to such, “The dependent variable in an experiment is the factor which the experimenter predicts will change in some way as a result of changing the independent variable.

Relevant Variable:
The relevant variables are those variables which are kept constant throughout the experiment except the independent variable. For example, in the experiment on memory for meaningful words and nonsense materials except for the nature of the material all other factors are kept constant in both conditions.

Question 10.
Show the significance of survey and statistical methods in psychology.
Answer:
Survey While attempting to understand the dynamics of human behaviour one may come across certain problems which are difficult to study by observations experiments or case history methods. Political attitudes, consumer preference, attitudes towards family planning, dowry, marriage, and divorce, women’s liberation, health care, etc. Are studied by survey method. The survey method used questionnaires, interviews, rating scales, checklists, etc. to obtain information about the problem of the study.

In other words, the survey method is a procedure of connecting certain information from the population by carefully prepared questionnaires. The information is obtained from a scientifically selected sample which represents the view of the entire population. For social surveys, the sample must be randomly selected and it must be large enough to represent the population.

Currently, the survey method has extended from mere administration of questionnaires and tests and interviews to a Telephone ‘survey’. survey by postal questionnaires, etc. This is done for quick collection of data. Although the personal interview technique is more popular and extensively used in survey methods, it is very costly and time-consuming. A report is necessary at the first place.

Statistical Method:
Psychologists have borrowed the statistical method from mathematics as they felt that it is indispensable for psychological research. The design and interpretation of any data obtained by psychological research are incomplete without statistical analysis. To determine the average performance of a group or a person in a test or tests, the application of statistics is a must.

Similarly to find out the difference and relationships in the performance, intelligence score, anxiety, aptitude, and prejudice of two groups or members of groups, say, boys and girls, rural and urban children, of different age groups, the psychologists have to take the help of statistical procedures. Mum, therefore, comments “statistical analysis is an application of mathematics which enables the psychologist to arrange his findings so that he can discover their significant trends and relationships.”

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Psychology Unit 3 Learning Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Type Questions

Question 1.
Experiments on remembering and forgetting were started for the first time by ______?
(a) Ailgard
(b) McGeoch
(c) Guthrie
(d) Ebbinghaus
Answer:
(b) McGeoch

Question 2.
Ebbinghaus’s method of measuring memory is called?
(a) Qualitative method
(b) Quantitative method
(c) Exact method
(d) All the above
Answer:
(c) Exact method

Question 3.
Ebbinghaus used the ______ method for the measurement of memory?
(a) Recall
(b) Recognition
(c) Relearning
(d) Reconstruction
Answer:
(a) Recall

Question 4.
The first verbal materials used for measuring memory case?
(a) Meaningful words
(b) Story
(c) Diagram
(d) Nonsense syllables
Answer:
(d) Nonsense syllables

Question 5.
Forgetting pictures with the passage of line can be due to?
(a) Proactive inhibition
(b) Retroactive inhibition
(c) decay through discuss
(d) All the above
Answer:
(d) All the above

Question 6.
Memory is measured in the laboratory by the instrument named?
(a) Tachistoscope
(b) Memory drum
(c) Aesthesio meter index
Answer:
(b) Memory drum

Question 7.
Pleasant and interesting materials are better remembered than?
(a) Nonsense syllables
(b) Meaningful words
(c) Unpleasant materials
Answer:
(c) Unpleasant materials

Question 8.
Both the recall and recognition methods can be measured?
(a) Learning
(b) Perception
(c) Memory
(d) Imagination
Answer:
(c) Memory

Question 9.
Memory is the mental power by which past experiences are?
(a) relearned
(b) retained
(c) recalled
(d) recalled and recognized
Answer:
(b) retained

Question 10.
The degree of retention depends upon the?
(a) Meaningfulness of the material
(b) Degree of learning
(c) Noninterference and judicious rest
(d) None of them
Answer:
(d) None of them

Question 11.
Zeigamik effect is evident in the continuous tension over a task that is _________?
(a) Unpleasant and incomplete
(b) Pleasant and unfinished
(c) Pleasant and completed
(d) None of them
Answer:
(a) Unpleasant and incomplete

Question 12.
Ebbinghaus was a ________ psychologist.
(a) American
(b) British
(c) German
(d) Swiss
(e) None of these
Answer:
(c)German

Question 13.
Amount of retention does not depend on one of the following?
(a) Meaningfulness
(b) Amount ofintereference during original learning and retention interval
(c) Amount of practice
(d) Emotional factors affecting learning
(e) Interest in learning
(f) Defects in motor capacity
Answer:
f) Defects in motor capacity

Question 14.
Ebbinghaus conducted memory experiments on?
(a) rats
(b)dogs
(c) monkeys
(d) human beings
(e) himself
Answer:
(c) monkeys

Question 15.
For the first time, Ebbinghaus conducted an experiment on memory using?
(a) Meaningful words
(b) Nonsense syllables
(c) drawings
(d) all these
Answer:
(b) Nonsense syllables

Question 16.
Do nonsense syllables consist of ______?
(a) two consonants and one vowel
(b) three consonants
(c) one consonant and two vowel
(d) all the above
Answer:
(a) two consonants and one vowel

Question 17.
Does a trigram consist of one vowel and two consonants?
(a) three consonants
(b) three vowels
(c) all the above
Answer:
(b) three vowels

Question 18.
Does a nonsense syllable consist of _____?
(a) three letters
(b) four letters
(c) five letters
Answer:
(a) three letters

Question 19.
When materials memorized afterward stand in the way of recall of materials memorized earlier, it is called?
(a) Proactive inhibition
(b) retroactive inhibition
(c) retrograde amnesia
(d) proactive facilitation
Answer:
(b) retroactive inhibition

Question 20.
When materials memorized afterward are interfered with by the materials learned earlier it is called?
(a) retroactive inhibition
(b) proactive inhibition
(c) simple inhibition
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(b) proactive inhibition

Question 21.
That method which shows earlier learning not discovered by other usual methods in?
(a) whole learning
(b) distributed learning
(c) recall
(d) saving recognition
Answer:
(c) recall

Question 22.
Distortion in day-to-day learning along with forgetting is called?
(a) trace theory
(b) motivated forgetting theory
(c) qualitative change theory
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) qualitative change theory

Question 23.
Which of the following psychologists can be associated with the psychoanalytic theory of forgetting?
(a) Ebbinghaus
(b) McGeoch
(c) Ereud
(d) Bartlett
Answer:
(c) Ereud

Question 24.
Which of the following psychologists can be associated with the theory of constructive changes in memory?
(a) Meltzer
(b) Ebbinghaus
(c) Sears
(d) Bbartlett
Answer:
(d) Bartlett

Question 25.
The use of nonsense syllables in the Laboratory was first introduced by?
(a) William James
(b) Osgood
(c) Ebbinghaus
(d) Muller
Answer:
(c) Ebbinghaus

Question 26.
The curve of forgetting was developed?
(a) Thorndike
(b) Kohler
(c) Ebbinghaus
(d) McGeoch
Answer:
(c) Ebbinghaus

Question 27.
When new learning is disturbed by old learning it is called _________?
(a) Proactive inhibition
(b) Retroactive inhibition
(c) Conditioned inhibition
(d) disinhibition
Answer:
(a) Proactive inhibition

Question 28.
Recognition thresholds are higher for _______ words?
(a) Taboo
(b) Neutral
(c) Pleasant
(d) All the above
Answer:
(c) Pleasant

Question 29.
That sense modality through which learning produces better retention is ________?
(a) Visual
(b) Auditory
(c) Olfactory
(d) Kinesthetic
Answer:
(a) Visual

Question 30.
Retention in comparison to learning is a?
(a) Passive process
(b) Active process
(c) Moderately passive and moderately active
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Passive process

Question 31.
Forgetting is at first rapid but gradually the rate of forgetting becomes?
(a) Speedy
(b) Slow
(c) Moderate
Answer:
(b)Slow

Question 32.
The basic law that tine rate of forgetting is rapid in the beginning and then slows down with the passage of time holds good, for?
(a) Nonsense Syl labels alone
(b) Meaningful words alone
(c) Digits alone
(d) All types of materials
Answer:
(d) All types of materials

Question 33.
Ebbinghaus mostly used methods to study remembering and forgetting?
(a) Recall method
(b) Recognition method
(c) Saving method
(d) All the above
Answer:
(a) Recall method

Question 34.
The recall is of types?
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
Answer:
(a) Two

Question 35.
Forgetting due to sudden shock and emotional blocking is called?
(a) Primary forgetting
(b) Secondary forgetting
(c) Retrograde amnetia
(d) All the above
Answer:
(c) Retrograde amnetia

Question 36.
The easiest method of measuring retention or memory is _______ method?
(a) Recall
(b) Recognition
(c) Saving
(d) Reconstruction
Answer:
(b) Recognition

Question 37.
When two items or stimuli appear similar to each other percentage of recognition is from when they are dissimilar?
(a) more
(b) less
(c) moderate
Answer:
(b) less

Question 38.
The relearning method is also known as?
(a) Reconstruction method
(b) Anticipation
(c) Prompting method
(d) Saving method
Answer:
(a) Reconstruction method

Question 39.
Do digits have a better memory span than?
(a) Nonsense syllables
(b) Meaningful words
(c) Trigrams
Answer:
(a) Nonsense syllables

Question 40.
There is usually no increase in memory span after the age of?
(a) 4-5 years
(b) 6-8 years
(c) 12-15 years
Answer:
(c) 12-15 years

Question 41.
Do meaningful and rhythmic materials have an effect on retention?
(a) beneficial
(b) harmful
(c) neutral
(d) all of the above.
Answer:
(a) beneficial

Question 42.
Remembering is greatly aided by?
(a) disassociation
(b) association.
(c) negative transfer
(d) zero transfer
Answer:
(b) association.

Question 43.
Words are quickly less than nonsense syllables because of their value?
(a) associative
(b) transfer value
(c) meaningfulness
(d) none of these
Answer:
(a) associative

Question 44.
Not the retention interval as such, but what happens during the retention interval is very important for?
(a) remembering
(b) reminiscence
(c) disuse
Answer:
(a) remembering

Question 45.
When the two stimuli and responses are identical in original learning and interpolated activity there occurs?
(a) maximum inhibition
(b) maximum facilitation
(c) no visible effect
Answer:
(b) maximum facilitation

Question 46.
Interpolated activity nearer to the original learning and subsequent recall the influence of retroactive inhibition?
(a) heightens
(b) decreases
(c) no influence
(d) non of the these
Answer:
(a) heightens

Question 47.
When the retention interval is free from activity, there is almost no loss of retention. This has been held by?
(a) Muller and Pilzecker
(b) MimaniandDallenbach
(c) McGeoch and Underwood
Answer:
(b)MimaniandDallenbach

Question 48.
To study whether cockroaches can remember what they have learned an experiment was conducted by?
(a) Underwood
(b) McGeoch
(c) Hunter
(d) Duncan
Answer:
(c) Hunter

Question 49.
Minami and Dallenbach have got empirical support for the fact that when the retention interval is free from activity there is almost no?
(a) learning
(b) retention
(c) forgetting
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) forgetting

Question 50
also, occurs when the new learning is disturbed by old learning?
(a) proactive inhibition
(b) retroactive inhibition
(c) retrograde amnesia
Answer:
(a) proactive inhibition

Question 51.
The decrement in the retention of a task as a consequence of other learning coming prior to the learning of the task is known as?
(a) Associative interferences
(b) Retroaction
(c) Proactive inhibition
Answer:
(c) Proactive inhibition

Question 53.
When the degree of prior learning increases, proactive ve inhibition?
(a) decreases
(b) increases
(c) remains constant
(d) none of these
Answer:
(b) increases

Question 54.
According to point of view, forgetting is due to the repression of the learned material?
(a) Freudian
(b) Gestalt
(c) Neo Freudians
(d) All these
Answer:
(a) Freudian

Question 55.
The mechanism of repression explains many men in everyday life?
(a) Learning
(b) retention
(c) forgetting
(d) all these
Answer:
(c) forgetting

Question 56.
The unacceptable shocking, antisocial, unpleasant, and ego-dissatisfying experiences are pressed back into the deep chamber of the unconscious by the mechanism of?
(a) Suppression
(b) Repression
(c) Dissociation
(d) All these
Answer:
(b) Repression

Question 57.
Pleasant experiences are recalled better than unpleasant ones. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 58.
The repressed urges are recalled back through hypnosis, dream analysis, and psychoanalysis. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 59.
Emotion-provoking situations immediately before or immediately after learning, have got no obliterating effect on memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 60.
Retroactive inhibition is the cause of forgetting?
(a) one of the
(b) only
(c) important
Answer:
(a) one of the

Question 61.
Memory traces fade either due to biological factors or external factors like Retroactive inhibition. This has been held by?
(a) Freudians
(b) Gestalts
(c) Trace Psychologists
Answer:
(b) Gestalts

Question 62.
Sometimes retention curves show a period of increased retention immediately after the practice is stopped. This concept is known as?
(a) long term memory
(b) short term memory
(c) reminiscence
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) reminiscence

Question 63.
In the earlier stage reminiscence was called?
(a) Ballard-William Phenomena
(b) Mimani-Dallenbach Phenomena
(c) Skagg-Robinson Hypothesis
(d) McGeoch-Irrion Hypothesis
Answer:
(a) Ballard-William Phenomena

Question 64.
The phenomenon of reminiscence while studying verbal discrimination learning was found by?
(a) McClelland
(b) McGeoch
(c) Hunter
(d) all these
Answer:
(a) McClelland

Question 65.
The classic experiment on short-term memory was conducted by?
(a) English and Well-borne
(b) McGeoch and Irrion
(c) Peterson and Peterson
Answer:
(c) Peterson and Peterson

Question 66.
Words processed at a deeper level are better retained than processed at a superficial level. These is the findings of the study conducted by?
(a) Nonnen and Rumehert
(b) CraikandTullving
(c) Muller and Pilzecker
Answer:
(b) CraikandTullving

Question 67.
The interference theory was propounded by?
(a) Muller and Pilzecker
(b) Melton and Irriwin
(c) McGeoch and McDonald
Answer:
(a) Muller and Pilzecker

Question 68.
The theory of forgetting advanced by Ebbinghaus is known as?
(a) Memory Trace theory
(b) Disuse theory
(c) 1ntcrfcrcncc theory
(d) None of the these
Answer:
(b) Disuse theory

Question 69.
Optimum retention occurs when the interpolated learning is introduced in the middle of a long retention interval. This view has been advocated by the?
(a) memory trace theory
(b) disuse theory
(c) interference theory
Answer:
(c) interference theory

Question 70.
Trace theory of forgetting has been advanced by?
(a) Behaviourists
(b) Gestalts
(c) Freudians
(d) All these
Answer:
(b) Gestalts

Question 71.
When the ego is threatened by certain situations, in order to defend itself, the ego represses them?
(a) Bartlett
(b) Freudians
(c) Gestalts
Answer:
(b) Freudians

Question 72.
came forward with his qualitative approach to remembering?
(a) Freud
(b) Ebbinghaus
(c) Bartlett
(d) Irwin
Answer:
(c) Bartlett

Question 73.
The method of repeated reproduction is also known as the method of?
(a) Social Reproduction
(b) Successive reproduction
(c) Associative reproduction
Answer:
(b) Successive reproduction

Question 74.
Pleasant materials are quickly remembered and retained for a long time compared to unpleasant materials keeping other factors constant. This is obvious from the experiment of?
(a) McGeoch and irrion
(b) Skaggs and Robinson
(c) Jersild and Meltzer
Answer:
(c) Jersild and Meltzer

Question 75.
The view that perceptual motor skills are retained relatively well over a considerable period of time than verbal materials has been supported by?
(a) Irrion
(b) Hamilton
(c) Katona
(d) Ebbinghaus
Answer:
(c) Katona

Question 76.
A principle of learning that is involved in training is?
(a) a period of no learning
(b) a period of instruction
(c) a period of boredom
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) a period of instruction

Question 77.
The approach to the study of the biology of learning is?
(a) the capacity approach
(b) the research approach
(c) the structural approach
(d) the functional approach
Answer:
(d) the functional approach

Question 78.
The first person to conduct experiments of trial and error learning was?
(a) Pavlov
(b) Kohler
(c) Titchener
(d) Thorndike
Answer:
(d) the functional approach

Question 79.
The first person to conduct- experiments in classical conditioning was?
(a) Watson
(b) Bechtervev
(c) Pavlov
(d) James
Answer:
(c) Pavlov

Question 80.
The school first conducted experiments on insightful learning is?
(a) Gestalt
(b) Functional
(c) Structural
(d) Psychoanalysis
Answer:
(c) Structural

Question 81.
Operant conditioning is also known as?
(a) Escape conditioning
(b) Backward conditioning
(c) Avoidance conditioning
(d) Instrumental conditioning
Answer:
(d) Instrumental conditioning

Question 82.
A stimulus that reinforces behavior, which terminates it is called?
(a) conflict
(b) reflex
(c) positive stimulus
(d) negative reinforcer
(e) Unconditional stimulus
Answer:
(c) positive stimulus

Question 83.
The process b.y which a C.R. can be weakened and finally eliminated is known as?
(a) Spontaneous recovery
(b) Deconditioning
(c) Experimental Neuroses
(d) Experimental Extinction
Answer:
(b) Deconditioning

Question 84.
A response may be more resistant to experimental extinction if reinforcement in conditioning trial has been?
(a) periodic
(b) continuous
(c) never provided
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(a) periodic

Question 85.
The process through which a CR is elicited by a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus it is called?
(a) Stimulus generalisation
(b) Response generalisation
(c) Differentiation
(d) Internal Inhibition
Answer:
(a) Stimulus generalization

Question 86.
The ability of the organism to respond to the reinforcing stimulus and not to the neutral or noil reinforcing one is called?
(a) Stimulus generalization
(b) Stimulus discrimination
(c) Response discrimination
Answer:
(c) Response discrimination

Question 87.
Operant conditioning is usually studied in the laboratory using a?
(a) Problem box
(b) Maze
(c) Skinner box
(d) Activity case
Answer:
(c) Skinner box

Question 88.
When the experimentally extinguished response reappears again after a period it is called?
(a) Hxperimental neuroses
(b) Spontaneous recovery
(c) Internal inhabitation
Answer:
(b) Spontaneous recovery

Question 89.
Spontaneous recovery will grow weaker and weaker if no reinforcement is provided after?
(a) The U.S.
(b) C.S.
(c) C.R
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(b) C.S.

Question 90.
Once conditioning is firmly established for further conditioning the C.S. can be used as?
(a) Unconditioned Reflex
(b) Unconditioned stimulus
(c) Unconditioned Response
Answer:
(b) Unconditioned stimulus

Question 91.
Negative conditioning is also known as?
(a) forward conditioning
(b) Backward conditioning
(c) Reconditioning
Answer:
(b) Backward conditioning

Question 92.
Experiments on withdrawal conditioning were first conducted by Russian physiologist?
(a) Freud
(b) Pavlov
(c) Bechterev
(d) Watson
Answer:
(c) Bechterev

Question 93.
If differentiation is pushed too far the organism fails to discriminate between two stimuli becomes very nonadoptive and develops?
(a) Negative attitude
(b) Withdrawal symptoms
(c) Experimental Neuroses
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Experimental Neuroses

Question 94.
Many of our bad habits of day to day life can be removed by?
(a) Positive conditioning
(b) Classical conditioning
(c) Negative conditioning
(d) Generalisation
Answer:
(c) Negative conditioning

Question 95.
Irrelevant fear is removed by?
(a) Conditioning
(b) Negative conditioning
(c) Spontaneous recovery
(d) Backward conditioning
Answer:
(b) Negative conditioning

Question 96.
The concept of experimental neuroses which threw light on various aspects of abnormal behaviour has been studied in depth by?
(a) llilgard
(b) Meyer
(c) Pavlov
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Meyer

Question 97.
has remarked that establishment conditioning is not simply a matter of diverting nerve impulses from one channel to another?
(a) Tolman
(b) Hilgard
(c) Hull
(d) Bechterev
Answer:
(d) B echterev

Question 98.
has remarked that the whole situation under which conditioning is established is a specific one and we can hardly establish it in actual life?
(a) Koffka
(b) Sears
(c) Janguill
(d) Hull
Answer:
(b) Sears

Question 99.
Differentiation develops out of?
(a) Extinction
(b) Generalisation
(c) lighter order conditioning
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Generalisation

Question 100.
When the stimulus becomes too small for the organism to discriminate nervous breakdown?
(a) Obvious
(b) Reduced
(c) Extinguished
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Obvious

Question 101.
Internal inhibition is a kind of negative learning not to salivate and can be applied to the curve of?
(a) Learning
(b) Retention
(c) Forgetting
Answer:
(c) Forgetting

Question 102.
Pavlov for the first time conducted experiments on conditioning?
(a) Classical
(b) Operant
(c) Instrumental
Answer:
(a) Classical

Question 103.
In conditioning U.S. is always presented after the C.S.?
(a) Classical
(b) Operant
(c) Backward
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Classical

Question 104.
Pavlov was the founder of the most important theory of learning called?
(a) Conditioning
(b) Classical conditioning
(c) Instrumental conditioning
Answer:
(b) Classical conditioning

Question 105.
Pavlov was a?
(a) Physiologist
(b) Psychologist
(c) Neurologist
(d) Biologist
Answer:
(a) Physiologist

Question 106.
Bechterev was a coworker of?
(a) Hilgard
(b) Sears
(c) Meyers
(d) Pavlov
Answer:
(d) Pavlov

Question 107.
Wertheimer is famous as the founder of?
(a) Behaviourism
(b) Associationism
(c) First laboratory in Psychology
(b) Associationism
Answer:
(b)Associationism

Question 108.
Watson is remembered for his contribution to?
(a) Learning
(b) Associationism
(c) Thinking
(d) Structuralism
Answer:
(a) Learning

Question 109.
Thorndike is remembered for his famous contribution to?
(a) Insightful learning
(b) Conditioning
(c) Trial and Error
(b) Conditioning
Answer:
(c) Trial and Error

Question 110.
The Gestalt school of psychology is well known for its?
(a) Conditioning theory of learning
(b) Trial and error theory of learning
(c) insight theory of learning
(d) All the above
Answer:
(c) insight theory of learning

Question 111.
It is easier to conduct experiments on learning in the laboratory taking?
(a) Human subject
(b) Animal subjects
(c) Insects
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Animal subjects

Question 112.
More and more learning experiments have been conducted with the help of?
(a) cats
(b) dogs
(c) rats
(d) human beings
Answer:
(c) rats

Question 113.
Learning is a kind of behavior?
(a) Change
(b) Continuation
(c) Extension
(d) Inhibition
Answer:
(a) Change

Question 114.
Learning is a sort of modification of behavior is the light of?
(a) Present experience
(b) Past experience
(c) Future experience
Answer:
(b) Past experience

Question 115.
All modification of behavior is not?
(a) Performance
(b) Learning
(c) Thinking
(d) Activity
Answer:
(b) Learning

Question 116.
Law of the exercise was introduced by?
(a) I Iilgard
(b) Thorndike
(c) I lull
(d) Tolman
Answer:
(b) Thorndike

Question 117.
The Law of effect was advanced by?
(a) Freud
(b) William James
(c) Gvthrie
(d) Thorndike
Answer:
(d) Thorndike

Question 118.
Learning is an association between a stimulus and?
(a) Response
(b) Present experience
(c) Past Experience
(d) Behaviour
Answer:
(a) Response

Question 119.
Learning and performance are?
(a) Same
(b) Different
(c) None of these
Answer:
(b) Different.

Question 120.
Learning is a modified behavior that is mostly the outcome of?
(a) Intimation
(b) Inheritance
(c) Effort
(d) Practice
Answer:
(d) Practice

Question 121.
The experiment on Chimpanzee Sultan was conducted by Kohler and Kottke to demonstrate?
(a) Trial and Error I.earning
(b) Insightful Learning
(c) Stimulus-Response Learning
(d) Instrumental Conditioning Learning
Answer:
(b) Insightful Learning

Question 122.
Gestalt is a – word?
(a) German
(b) English
(c) French
(d) American
(e) None of these
Answer:
(d) American

Question 123.
developed a theory of whole part position in learning and perception?
(a) Structuralists
(b) Functionalists
(c) Behaviourists
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Structuralists

Question 124.
Insightful learning is mostly limited to?
(a) Higher Animals
(b) Lower Animals
(c) Insects
Answer:
(a) Higher Animals

Question 125.
Insightful learning is basically learning by?
(a) Intelligence
(b) Practice
(c) Conditioning
(d) imitation
Answer:
(b) Practice

Question 126.
Learning is a type of acquisition of new behavior which is relative?
(a) Temporary
(b) Permanent
(c) Sudden
(d) Quick
Answer:
(a) Temporary

Question 127.
Knowledge of result is?
(a) Advantageous to learning
(b) Adverse to learning
(c) Stops learning
(d) Retards learning
Answer:
(a) Advantageous to learning

Question 128.
Knowledge of the result is a type of?
(a) Positive reinforcement
(b) Negative reinforcement
(c) Reinforcement
(d) Secondary reinforcement
Answer:
(a) Positive reinforcement

Question 129.
Strong punishment?
(a) Retards learning
(b) Promotes learning
(c) Creates fear psychoses
(d) has no effect on learning
Answer:
(a) Retards learning

Question 130.
Watson viewed conditioning as the only method to?
(a) Learn
(b) Remember
(c) Imitate
(d) Unlearn
Answer:
(d) Unlearn

Question 131.
The Law of effect was introduced by?
(a) Pavlov
(b) Bechterev
(c) Kohler
(d) Thorndike
Answer:
(c) Kohler

Question 132.
Similarity, contrast, and contiguity are the laws of?
(a) Association
(b) Learning
(c) Action
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(b) Learning

Question 133.
Law of belongingness, readiness, and contiguity are laws of?
(a) Perception
(b) Learning
(c) Action
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Action

Question 134.
One who can drive a fiat car can also drive a Maruti car without difficulty. The above phenomenon is due to?
(a) Overlearning
(b) Relearning
(c) Transfer of training
Answer:
(a) Overlearning

Question 135.
A material is learned quickly because of the use of?
(a) Economical methods of learning
(b) Emotion
(c) Thinking
(d) Imagination
Answer:
(b) Emotion

Question 136.
Practice in the right hand interferes with learning in the left hand. This is due to the?
(a) Unilateral transfer
(b) Negative transfer
(c) Zero transfer
Answer:
(c) Zero transfer

Question 137.
When learning of one material does not facilitate or interfere with learning of another material, it is called?
(a) Negative transfer
(b) Bilateral transfer
(c) Zero transfer
Answer:
(c) Zero transfer

Question 138.
Habit interference is also known as _________?
(a) Unilateral transfer of training
(b) Bilateral transfer of training
(c) Negative transfer of learning
Answer:
(c) Negative transfer of learning

Question 139.
When the acquisition of a skill in one situation inhibits the acquisition of a skill in the subsequent situation it is called?
(a) Zero transfer
(b) positive transfer
(c) Negative transfer
Answer:
(a) Zero transfer

Question 140.
The bilateral transfer is also called _______?
(a) Cross education
(b) Associative education
(c) Acquisition of education
Answer:
(b) Associative education

Question 141.
Zero transfer is also known as _______?
(a) Negative transfer
(b) Neutral transfer
(c) Unilateral transfer
Answer:
(b) Neutral transfer

Question 142.
The theory of transfer of training was introduced for the first time by ________?
(a) Ililgard
(b) Hull
(c) James
(d) Thorndike
Answer:
(c) James

Question 143.
Does positive transfer greatly depend upon the presence of identical elements between the original and subsequent?
(a) Perception
(b) Attention
(c) Learning
Answer:
(b) Attention

Question 144.
There are types of transfer of training?
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
Answer:
(b) Three

Question 145.
A student who more often than not performs better in a simple learning situations belongs to the group have?
(a) High Anxiety
(b) No anxiety
(c) Middle-level anxiety
(d) low anxiety
Answer:
(d) low anxiety

Question 146.
Amount of learning depends upon?
(a) Meaningfulness
(b) Association
(c) Repetition
(d) Motivation
(e) All the above
Answer:
(d) Motivation

Question 147.
The amount of acquisition in verbal learning does not depend on one of the following?
(a) Meaningfulness of the material
(b) similarity
(c) Low Anxiety
(d) Defects in muscles
Answer:
(d) Defects in muscles

Question 148.
Does learning take place through _______?
(a) Problem-solving along
(b) Practice alone
(c) Conditioning alone
(d) All the three
Answer:
(d) All the three

Question 149.
When an organism learns something by observing stimulus in the environment and makes the response accordingly, it is?
(a) Discrimination learning.
(b) Problem-solving learning
(c) Signal learning
(d) Stimulus-response learning
(e) All the above
Answer:
(a) Discrimination learning.

Question 150.
An infant can develop an acquisition fear of a stimulus except for loud noise through?
(a) Conditioning learning
(b) Insightful learning
(c) Unconditioning
(d) All the above
Answer:
(d) All the above

Question 151.
Does much learning take place through _________?
(a) Problem-solving alone
(b) Imitation alonge
(c) All the above
Answer:
(b) Imitation alonge

Question 152.
In classical conditioning, the stimuli are presented in the following order?
(a) C.S. and US at the same time
(b) C.S. first C.S. again
(c) C.S. first US next
(d) CS first CS again
Answer:
(c)C.S. first US next

Question 153.
In instrumental conditioning, the reward or reinforcement depends upon the animals?
(a) Activity
(b) Response
(c) Correct response
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Correct response

Question 154.
Instrument conditioning is a happy union of classical conditioning and the law of _______?
(a) Exercise
(b) Contiguity
(c) Effect
(d) Association
Answer:
(c) Effect

Question 155.
B.F. Skinner, was a psychologist?
(a) German
(b) British
(c) American
(d) Swiss
Answer:
(d) Swiss

Question 156.
The procedure by which the withdrawal of reinforcement decreases gradually the occurrence of an acquired response is known as ___?
(a) Intentional reinforcement
(b) Secondary reinforcement
(c) Inhibition
(d) Extinction
Answer:
(d) Extinction

Question 157.
The process by which the desire to check a response becomes stronger and stronger is called?
(a) Extinction
(b) Withdrawal
(c) Negative conditioning
(d) Internal inhibition
Answer:
(c) Negative conditioning

Question 158.
The process by which the experimentally extinguished response reappears again after a period is called?
(a) Conditioned response
(b) Unconditioned response
(c) Spontaneous recovery
(d) Generalised response
Answer:
(c) Spontaneous recovery

Question 159.
The procedure by which a firmly established conditioning is further used as an unconditional stimulus for the establishment of further conditioning is called?
(a) Low-order conditioning
(b) Spontaneous recovery
(c) Higher-order conditioning
Answer:
(a) Low-order conditioning

Question 160.
The process through which a person learns not to make a response to a particular stimulus and make a response to another stimulus is called?
(a) Differentiation
(b) Generalisation
(c) Positive transfer
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Differentiation

Question 161.
When some 1 variety in content, technique and principle is found in two different learning materials transfer of training takes place?
(a) Positive transfer
(b) Negative transfer
(c) Zero transfer
Answer:
(c) Zero transfer

Question 162.
When a previous experience too much obstructs learning in a new situation, obviously there is?
(a) Zero transfer
(b) High positive transfer
(c) High negative transfer
(d) Low negative transfer
Answer:
(b) High positive transfer

Question 163.
In the conditioning technique introduced by Pavlov?
(a) Both stimulus and response change
(b) The same response is made to a different stimulus
(c) To the same stimulus a different response is made
(d) None of the above.
Answer:
(b) The same response is made to a different stimulus

Question 164.
When a particular response becomes in turn a stimulus for a further response this stimulus is called _____?
(a) Unconditioned stimulus
(b) Conditioned stimulus
(c) Dependent stimulus
Answer:
(b) Conditioned stimulus

Question 165.
In a situation where one is conditioned to show fear to while rabbit and this makes him show fear to any type of white animal like a white cat, or white dog, it is called?
(a) Discrimination
(b) Generalisation
(c) Substitution
(d) Distortion
Answer:
(a) Discrimination

Question 166.
A response is weakened through punishment and strengthened through ________?
(a) Reward
(b) Response
(c) Emotion
Answer:
(c) Emotion

Question 167.
The organization and coordination of different sequential habit patterns and acquisitions are called?
(a) A response
(b) A reflex
(c) A skill
(d) An act
Answer:
(a) A response

Question 168.
The concept among the following that is most kin to negative transfer is ________?
(a) Similarity
(b) Habit strength
(c) Massed practice
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Similarity

Question 169.
Generalization is the most important factor in ________?
(a) Positive transfer
(b) Negative transfer
(c) Habit strength
(d) Part and the whole learning
Answer:
(d) Part and the whole learning

Question 170.
strength Over learning occurs because of _______?
(a) Practice
(b) Speed
(c) Resistance to forgetting
(d) Allofthesee
(e) None of these
Answer:
(b) Speed

Question 171.
When one behaves differently in a slightly different situation it is called?
(a) Stimulus genralisation
(b) Stimulus discrimination
(c) Response discrimination
Answer:
(b) Stimulus discrimination

Question 172.
In withdrawal learning the ‘O’ learns to withdraw from ________?
(a) Positive Reinforcement
(b) Negative reinforcement
(c) Full avoidance of any reinforcement
Answer:
(b) Negative reinforcement

Question 173.
Any learning based on maturation and understanding is more or less?
(a) Permanent
(b) Temporary
(c) Efficient
(d) Inefficient
Answer:
(c) Efficient

Question 174.
Which of the following psychologists can be remembered for their contribution to learning theory?
(a) Titchener
(b) Anna Freud
(c) IIull
(d) Ebbinghaus
Answer:
(c)IIull

Question 175.
Better recall after a period of no practice is called?
(a) Retention
(b) Reconstruction
(c) Reminiscence
(d) Recall
Answer:
(c) Reminiscence

Question 176.
Punishing a child for his misbehavior is _______?
(a) Ineffective behavior reinforcement
(b) Positive reinforcement
(c) Negative social reinforcement
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) Negative social reinforcement

Question 177.
Which one of the following procedures is used in verbal learning?
(a) Paired associate learning
(b) Serial learning
(c) Cognitive learning
(d) Free recall
Answer:
(a) Paired associate learning

Question 178.
Learning is the outcome of _______?
(a) Practice
(b) Imitation
(c) Inheritance
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Imitation

Question 179.
Mi n or Drawing apparatus is used in ________?
(a) Verbal learning
(b) Sensory motor learning
(c) Serial learning
Answer:
(b) Sensory motor learning

Question 180.
Classical conditioning is associated with ________?
(a) Bechterev
(b) Pavlov
(c) Koffka
(d) Skinner
Answer:
(a) Bechterev

Question 181.
The gradual decrease in errors in a typing test is attributed to _______?
(a) Trial and error learning
(b) Memory
(c) Intelligence
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Intelligence

Question 182.
Any change in behavior through physiological growth is due to _____?
(a) Practice
(b) Leaming
(c) Maturation
(d) Environment
Answer:
(a) Practice

Question 183.
Avoidance learning is also called ________?
(a) Withdrawal learning
(b) Discrimination learning
(c) Forced learning
(d) Substitute learning
Answer:
(a) Withdrawal learning

Question 184.
Learning can not be possible without ________?
(a) Perception
(b) Imagination
(c) Emotion
Answer:
(c) Emotion

Question 185.
Learning cycling is a type of ________?
(a) Classical conditioning learning
(b) Insightful learning
(c) Trial and error learning
Answer:
(b) Insightful learning

Question 186.
Mirror drawing experiment is ________?
(a) Instrumental conditioning learning
(b) Trial and Error Learning
(c) Association learning ‘
Answer:
(b) Trial and Error Learning

Question 187.
Typing is a ________?
(a) Sensory learning
(b) Sensory motor learning
(c) Motor learning
(d) All the above
Answer:
(a) Sensory learning

Question 188.
Working out mathematical problems is ________?
(a) Problem-solving learning
(b) T & E-learning
(c) Conditioning learning
Answer:
(a) Problem-solving learning

Question 189.
The fear response is acquired through ______?
(a) Conditioning
(b) Trial and Error
(c) Insight
Answer:
(c) Insight

Question 190.
Repetition without motivation ________?
(a) Very much helps to learn
(b) Hinders learning
(c) Is not of much help
Answer:
(a) Very much helps to learn

True & False Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
The strength of recall is a measurement of creativity. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 2.
The memory trace of items entering short-term memory is liable to rapid decay. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Due to the mechanism of repression, a lot of forgetting related to personal matters takes place. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 4.
Efficient memory does not depend upon efficient learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 5.
Forgetting raises the probability of a wrong response. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 6.
The more similar the two materials are, the more the chance of confusion while recalling them. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 7.
Knowledge of results improves memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 8.
The incorrect responses are forgotten more quickly when it is pointed out that they are incorrect. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Ebbinghaus used meaningful materials for his experiments on memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 10.
Nonsense syllables were coined first by Irrion. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 11.
The curve of forgetting is based on the theory of Ebbinghaus. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 12.
Memory is always better for meaningful materials than for nonsense syllables. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 13.
Remembering depends upon learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 14.
Interference is minimum when the materials are extremely similar or dissimilar. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 15.
It is difficult to remember tilings in terms of theoretical concepts. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 16.
Examples and illustrations help in better remembering. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 17.
Forgetting is a decay of old impressions and associations because of atrophy through disuse. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 18.
There is a high degree of relationship between the R.I. and RI. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 19.
Newman found that forgetting is almost the same after the activity as memory before the activity. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 20.
The effects of retroactive inhibition are transitory in all amounts of interpolated learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 21.
The unpleasant, ego-dissatisfying materials are quickly forgotten because of repression. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 22.
Jenkins and Dallenbach conducted an experiment on the effect of sleep on retention. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 23.
During sleep there is a complete Psychological vacuum and forgetting is nil. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 24.
In the sleeping condition, some activity is present as the ‘ S ’ does not always go to sleep immediately after the learning is complete. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 25.
McGeoch for the first time studied the problem of reminiscence. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 26.
There exists some relationship between the Gestalt theory of forgetting and Bartlett’s constructive change theory of forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 27.
McClelland found the phenomenon of reminiscence while studying verbal discrimination learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 28.
During the retentional interval there is scope for rehearsal of the original learning, and reminiscence may occur. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 29.
In the case of nonsense syllables, verbatim and trigrams reminiscence is high. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 30.
Reminiscence may be noticed because of positive transfer. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 31.
In our daily life, we meet more short-term memory cases than long-term ones. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 32.
STM is more often experienced in nonverbal materials. (True /False)
Answer:
False

Question 33.
Ordinarily, the capacity of STM is limited to 6 to 7 items. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 34.
With organization of materials, the length of short-term memory becomes higher. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 35.
Short-term memory is also known as secondary memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 36.
Long term memory is also called primary memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 37.
LTM has limited storage capacity. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 38.
New information must undergo a period of consolidation to enter long-term storage. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 39.
Immediate and short-term memory supplies the code that we use to store materials in more lasting memory and later on to retrieve them. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 40.
The materials Of short-term memory are made ready for long-term memory through rehearsal. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 41.
Elaborate rehearsal is more effective for STM. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 42.
Words learned with meaning and association is better remembered than processed at a superficial level. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 43.
Nonsense materials are better remembered than digits. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 44.
Trigrams are better remembered than nonsense syllables. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 45.
For the first time, nonsense syllables were prepared by Bartlett. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 46.
A nonsense syllable consists of two vowels and one consonant. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 47.
In a trigram there is consonant. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 48.
Nonsense syllables have zero associative value. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 49.
Retention interval as such is not the cause of forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 50.
The interference theory of forgetting was propounded by Muller and Pilzecker. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 51.
Interference theory holds that forgetting takes place because of proactive inhibition and Retroactive inhibition. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 52.
Atrophy through disuse and the theory of disuse are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 53.
According to the interference theory, optimum retention occurs when interpolated learning is introduced in the middle of a long retention interval. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 54.
Interference explains most of our forgetting in day to day life. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question55.
Trace theory has been advanced by the behaviouristic school of psychology. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 56.
Gestalt have approached the study of memory from the side of perception. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 57.
According to Ebbinghaus our memory is more or less organized. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 58.
The unorganized and less structured materials have stable memory traces. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 59.
The unpleasant experiences associated with shame and guilt are forgotten because of the operation of repression. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 60.
The controversy between Bartlett and Ebbinghaus mainly arises due to the methods they use as models. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 61.
According to Ebbinghaus transformation is the chief characteristic of remembering. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 62.
Differences in transformation in remembering takes place because of the difference in the meaning of the materials. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 63.
Bartlett used three methods for measuring memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 64.
The method of repeated reproduction is also known as the method of successive reproduction. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 65.
The conditions necessary for efficient learning also determine efficient remembering. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 66.
An organized learning always produces better remembering as it leads to the development of patterns. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 67.
A need to learn is essential to make memory better and permanent. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 68.
Need is not essential for memory. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 69.
Practice is a better reinforcer than a need for remembering. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 70.
Pleasant materials are better remembered than unpleasant ones. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 71.
Under the prompting and anticipation method, paired associated learning and serial learning are performed. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 72.
Those factors which influence learning do not necessarily influence retention. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 73.
Different retention cur\ cs lut\ c by and large similar characteristics. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 74.
Ebbinghaus conducted a classic experiment to determine the rate of forgetting with the passage of time. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 75.
At first, forgetting is slow but as time passes, the rate of forgetting becomes rapid. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 76.
There is almost no loss in the number of materials after a good deal of interval. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 77.
Ebbing a conducted experiments on himself using nonsense syllables. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 78.
The experiments conducted by Ebbinghaus on the measurement of memory were based on qualitative methods. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 79.
The speed of forgetting is the same for all the materials. (True/ False)
Answer:
False

Question 80.
Retention curves on the whole indicate that forgetting is never complete. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 81.
The result of various studies shows that the rate of forgetting is slower with meaningful material. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 82.
Perceptual motor skills appear to be retained quite well in comparison to verbal skills. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 83.
Mirror Drawing learning is a type of perceptual-motor skill which is retained through practice. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 84.
Recognition is the easiest method of measuring retention. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 85.
As similarity between interpolated activity and original learning is reduced to a near identity, retention rises and then falls to a minimum again but with an increase in similarity, it never reaches the level obtained with maximum similarity. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 86.
The formula to calculate the percentage of savings is Xj 100. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 87.
The factors responsible for forgetting may be divided into
(a) the factors operating the time of learning
(b) the factors operating afterward. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 88.
Associated pairs of words are better remembered than unassociated pairs of words. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 89.
completed tasks are more rapidly forgotten than an incomplete one. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 90.
Isolated materials are forgotten more quickly than crowded materials. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 91.
Intra serial interference leads to more forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 92.
Learned helplessness affects the retrieval of unpleasant memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 93.
The disuse theory was challenged by Muller and Pilzecker. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 94.
Disuse and not the interpolated activity are the cause of forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 95.
The intensity of the interpolated activity causes more inhibition. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 96.
Maximum facilitation occurs when the learned materials are identical in the original learning and interpolated activity. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 97.
Any stimulus which is discriminated in a series by virtue of its quality is definitely favored in retention. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 98.
More forgetting occurs because of similarity in the method of learning during the original learning and retention interval. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 99.
Inhibition Is greater when the original learning and the interpolated learning are learned through the same sense modality than through different sensory modalities. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 100.
The longer the rest and relaxation between original learning and subsequent recall, the less is forgetting. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 101.
Proactive inhibition is the decrement in retention of a task as a result of other learning coming prior to the learning of the task on which the retention test is made. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 102.
Underwood has conducted quite a number of useful studies on proactive inhibition. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 103.
In the serial reproduction method, one person is involved while in the repeated reproduction method several persons are involved. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 104.
In our day to day life hardly any reproductive method of memory is found. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 105.
In immediate memory the processing capacity of the individual is limited. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 106.
Ebbinghaus method is called reproductive while Bartlett’s method is called constructive. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 107.
In part learning the material of learning is divided into different parts. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 108.
Iconic memory is an immediate sensory memory that lasts for a long period. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 109.
Deliberate use of reconditioning increases greatly immediate memory span. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 110.
Both echoic memory and iconic memory are examples of immediate sensory memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 111.
Grouping makes remembering easier. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 112.
The transfer of new information from short-term memory to long-term is promoted by processing it for meaning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 113.
Short-term memory holds verbal materials primarily in acoustic form. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 114.
Episodic memory is a memory for the temporarily dated autobiographical experiences. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 115.
Remembering one item in a category usually means that the majority of the other items in the category will come to mind. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 116.
Organization helps memory. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 117.
The ability to recognize an item seems to depend on a lesser degree of learning than the ability to reproduce an item actively. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 118.
Retention can not be measured by the speed with which an ‘ S ’ can relearn a task. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 119.
The method of relearning measures retention independently of the availability of specific responses. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 120.
The method of reconstruction is related to the method of saving but puts its main emphasis on the retention of serial position. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 121.
The method of reconstruction can be used only with materials that can be readily broken down into separate units. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 122.
The temporal characteristics of the responses of the subject in particular are sensitive indices of the degree of retention. (True /False)
Answer:
False

Question 123.
The most striking feature of the curve of forgetting Ebbinghaus is its decelerated drop. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 124.
The amount of retention increases indefinitely as a function of the degree of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 125
A whole, method of learning is always superior to the part method of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 126
The operant conditioning technique is not the same as the classical conditioning technique of Pavlov. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 127.
Aversive conditioning and classical conditioning are similar techniques in learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 128.
Thorndike made experiments on the conditioning method of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 129.
Interest is not a necessary determinant of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 130.
Intentional learning is always better than incidental learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 131.
Learning by insight simply means learning by habit. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 132.
Conditioning responses are nothing but a chain of habit patterns. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 133.
Insightful learning is gradual in nature. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 134.
Whole and part learning are equally beneficial. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 135.
Learning and Maturation are related concepts. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 136.
When we leam to ride a bicycle conditioning learning is involved. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 137.
Flilgard experimented on sultan to demonstrate insightful learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 138.
The Law of effect was introduced by Thorndike. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 139.
In trial-and-error learning emphasis is put on practice. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 140.
The Mirror Drawing apparatus is used to demonstrate insightful learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 141.
Maze learning is a type of trial-and-error learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 142.
Operant conditioning is otherwise known as instrumental conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 143.
Trial and error learning was introduced by Bechterev. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 144.
Leamingis are dependent upon practice.(True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 145
The Gestalt school for the first time conducted experiments on the laws of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 146.
Backward conditioning and escape conditioning are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 147.
Positive stimulus reinforces behavior while negative stimulus inhibits it. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 148.
The process by which a CR can be eliminated is known as unconditing. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 149.
Experimental extinction and experimental neuroses are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 150
The procedure through which a CR is excited by a stimulus that has similarity with the original stimulus is called response generalization. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 151.
A response may be more resistant to extinction if the reinforcement in the conditioning trial has been continuous. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 152.
Once conditioning is finally established the C.S. can be used as an unconditioned stimulus for further conditioning.(True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 153.
Negative conditioning is also known as backward conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 154.
Pavlov was a swiss physiologist. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 155.
The Gestalt School of Psychology mainly aims at finding the whole-part relationship. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 156.
Nail biting habits can be eliminated by trial and error method. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 157.
the concept of experimental neuroses has been studied intensively by Hilgard. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 158.
Delay in reinforcement stands in the way of strengthing S-R connections and habits. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 159.
There is a high positive relationship between immediate reward and amount of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 160.
Rein forcement is the motivating force behind all eating. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 161.
Thorndike’s concept of spread of effect provides the reinforcement theorists strong support. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 162.
In learning, through the error can be zero time can never the zero. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 163.
In all learning curves, there need not necessarily be a plateau. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 164.
Perception of the relationship between different parts of the visual field and the goal plays a significant role in learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 165.
Learning by insight takes a single attempt to solve a problem. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 166.
Learning and performance are the same. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 167.
Kohler and Koffka conducted an experiment on chimpanzees Sultan to demonstrate learning by conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 168.
Gestalt is a German word.(True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 169.
The behaviorist school of psychology developed a theory of whole part position in learning and perception. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 170.
The unconditioned stimulus is always presented after the conditioned stimulus to classical conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 171.
Ebbinghaus is remembered for his contribution to learning psychology. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 172.
Learning is a process that starts from the delivery table. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 173.
When the stimulus becomes too small for the organism to discriminate a nervous breakdown is obvious. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 174.
Operant conditioning is usually studied in a laboratory using a Skinner box. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 175.
Behavior therapy is based on operant conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 176.
Spontaneous recovery will grow weaker and weaker if no reinforcement is provided. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 177.
Many of our bad habits can be removed by trial and error method. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 178.
Any learning based on maturation is more or less temporary. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 179.
Overlearning occurs because of practice. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 180.
Trial and Error learning is demonstrated experimentally in the laboratory by Tachistoscope. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 181.
In withdrawal learning the ‘ O’ learns to withdraw from negative reinforcement. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 182.
Titchener is remembered for his contribution to learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 183.
Punishing a child for his misbehavior is negative social reinforcement. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 184.
Cycling is a sensory-motor learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 185.
Typing is sensory learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 186.
Transfer of learning from the right hand to the right leg is called unilateral transfer of training. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 187.
Fear for dogs is acquired through trial and error, and learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 188.
Repetition without motivation is not of much help to improve learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 189.
Generalization and discrimination are opposite concepts.(True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 190.
Discrimination develops out of generalization. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 191.
Spontaneous recovery has lots of similarities with reminiscence. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 192.
The similarity in content, technique, and principle leads to zero transfer. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 193.
Spread up effect is an extension of the law of exercise. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 194.
Learning establishes a new relationship between the stimulus and the response. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 195.
Learning is defined as the modification of behavior. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 196.
Reinforcement is indispensable for learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 197.
Behavioral changes induced by drugs, brain injury, and maturation are not considered to involve learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 198.
Maturation occurs before birth as well as afterward while learning occurs after birth. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 199.
E.L. Thorndike was German Psychologist. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 200.
Animals mostly do not leam by reasoning but by trial and error. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 201.
In the conditioning technique as the number of trials increases, unnecessary irrelevant and random activities reduce. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 202
After 1933 law of effect was included by Thomidke along with the law of exercise. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 203.
Law “of readiness refers to the physical or psychological preparedness of a person to attend to a stimulus. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 204.
The Law of readiness has three parts. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 205.
Law ofçxcrcisc comprises the law of use and law of disuse. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 206.
The Law of effect is the cardinal principle of Thorndike’s theory of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 207.
The spread of effect was discovered by Guthrie. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 208.
In classical conditioning, reinforcement is used in a restricted sense. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 209.
Before ‘insight’ can occur the learner should be able to see the relationship among all the parts of the problem. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 210.
In insightful learning, integrating and reintegrating part processes into a new total pattern is observed. (True/ False)
Answer:
True

Question 211.
When the solution comes after trying the elements present in the learning field, it is known as foresight. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 212.
When the solution to the problem occurs in the first attempt without actually trying the situation, it is called hindsight. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 213.
The non-reinforcement theorists are the advocates of latent learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 214.
The whole part phenomenon of learning and perception was developed by the Gestalt school of Psychology. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 215.
There are two types of transfer of training. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 216.
Low anxiety is necessary for efficient learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 217.
When a previous experience obstructs learning in a new situation it is called a positive transfer of training. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 218.
Insightful learning was advocated by Pavlov. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 219.
In insightful learning solution to the problem comes gradually. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 220.
For human learning, the first verbal material used was meaningful words. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 221.
Pavlov s studies on conditioning come under instrumental conditioning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 222.
When we intentionally attend to something it is called habitual attention. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 223.
One of the most important characteristics of learning is change. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 224.
Learning is most effective if the learner is interested in participating in the learning experience. (True /False)
Answer:
True

Question 225.
Each and every learning direction is not necessary. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 226.
All learning can be possible by the conditioned response. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 227.
Watson believed that environmental influences have a secondary role in learning. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 228.
In learning past experience is not necessary. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 229.
Kohler developed insightful learning techniques. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 230.
Trial and error is the simplest form of learning. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 231.
Pavlov was a Russian Psychologist. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 232.
Extinction means an increase in the probability of response. (True/False)
Answer:
True

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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 2 Fundamentals of Educational Psychology Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education Unit 2 Fundamentals of Educational Psychology Questions and Answers

Very Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Give the meaning of growth.
Answer:
Growth refers to the physical sense. Growth refers to an increase in height, weight, and size. It is measurable as quantitative.

Question 2.
What is development?
Answer:
Development is in a mental sense. It is both physical and mental aspects.

Question 3.
Give three natures of educational psychology.
Answer:
The nature of educational psychology is as follows:

• Educational psychology deals with two facts related to educational situations.
• It helps the process of learning like memorising, perceiving, recalling, reasoning and intelligence.
• It discovers new methods and approaches in the field of education.

Question 4.
Give three objectives of educational psychology.
Answer:
The three objectives are :

• It helps create a positive attitude towards learning.
• It helps to provide correct methods of teaching to the pupils:
• It helps to study the learner and his environment.

Question 5.
Discuss three features of educational psychology
Answer:
Educational psychology is the application of psychology in the field of education. It is the study of human behaviour. It deals with the problems of education.

Question 6.
Give three distinctions of growth and development.
Answer:
Growth refers to change in aspects of the body but development implies the organisation as a whole. Growth does not continue throughout life but development is a continuous process, from womb to tomb. Growth is structural and development is functional.

Question 7.
Give three scopes of educational psychology.
Answer:
To give knowledge of the nature of the child. To present principles and techniques of learning and teaching. To give knowledge of the growth and development of the children.

Question 8.
Explain any three principles of development.
Answer:

• The development follows a pattern, a regular step-by-step process.
• Development in intelligence correlated to physical development.
• All changes in the body are due to growth and development.

Question 9.
Give three factors that determine growth and development.
Answer:
Maturation and learning affect growth and development. Heredity and environment always affect growth and development. Environmental factors like school, family, culture, S.E.S, and nutrition always affect growth and development.

Question 10.
Give three behaviours during the childhood stage.
Answer:

• Friendship: Adolescents choose and make friends.
• Leadership: Leadership is an important aspect of this stage of behaviour.
• A boy-girl relationship is developed.

Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain how education and psychology are related.
Answer:
Education is the modification of behaviour whereas psychology is the science of behaviour. Education helps in the physical, moral, and spiritual development of man and psychology helps in such growth. Education is a lifelong process. By psychology, there is developmental knowledge and experience in different stages of growth. Framing the aims of educational psychology helps. In the case of a child’s internal and external responses and mental analysis, psychology helps

Question 2.
How educational psychology is an applied science?
Answer:
Educational psychology is an applied science in the sense that various psychological principles are being widely applied to the field of education. The principle of individual differences of learning by doing the self-discipline of personality, adjustment, guidance and counselling finds favour in all educational situations. The various laws of learning have made the teaching-learning process in the classroom economical and effective.

Question 3.
Discuss the aims of educational psychology.
Answer:
The aims of educational psychology are as follows:

• To give insight to the teacher about the nature of the child.
• Enlightening the teacher with the growth and development of the child
• Imparting knowledge about principles out of methods of learning.
• Studying the control of emotions and their educational implications.

Question 4.
Forming differences between growth and development?
Answer:
Though the terms growth and development are synonymous still there is a great distinction between the two. Growth refers to change in a particular aspect or aspect of the body whereas development implies the organisation as a whole. Growth does not continue throughout life. It stops at maturation but development is a continuous process which goes from womb to tomb.

Growth is structural and development is functional. Growth is quantitative which is measurable but development is qualitative which can not be measured but is assessed. The changes brought about by growth can be measured directly whereas changes brought about by development are difficult to be measured directly. Both growth and development are affected by heredity and environment.

Question 5.
Give, the nature of educational psychology.
Answer:
The nature of educational psychology is as follows:
Educational psychology deals with the facts related to educational situations. Educational psychology studies the behaviour of the child in teaching learning matters. Educational psychology becomes general rules, laws and techniques in order to achieve educational objectives. Educational psychology discovers the method and approaches in the field of education. Educational psychology develops a scientific outlook.

Question 6.
Give the scope of educational psychology.
Answer:
The following is the scope of educational psychology:
To give knowledge of the nature of the child. To give an understanding of the nature, aims and purposes of education. To present principles and techniques of learning and teaching. To give training in methods of measuring abilities and achievement in school subjects.
to give knowledge of the growth and development of the children.

Question 7.
How is educational psychology helpful to a teacher?
Answer:
Educational psychology is helpful to a teacher and a learner in many ways. To study the most effective ways to teach, specific materials to different children. To place the learner in the best possible learning situation, independent study, large or small group instructions with one or several teachers for a given course. To estimate the optional level wage at which the subject matter should be presented. To determine what courage material is appropriate to the needs, characteristics and goals of each teamer.

Question 8.
Define in short educational psychology?
Answer:
Educational psychology is a combination of two different words- education and psychology. Education is aimed at the modification of behaviour whereas psychology is the science of behaviour. Psychology is an applied science related to the principles and techniques of psychology to solve all the problems in education to achieve educational objectives.

Educational psychology is concerned with the child, the learning situation, the learning process and, the teacher. The teacher with the help of educational psychology becomes conscious of the content of the educational method of teaching, the nature of the child and the frame curriculum. He studies the characteristics of the child as well.

Question 9.
Write at least five contributions to educational psychology.
Answer:
Educational psychology influences the aims of education and studies the developmental characteristics of the child. A survey of learning situations and different types of education centres is opened taking into account to individual differences. Psychology helps the teacher with new methods and techniques of teaching.

The pupils face a large number of problems at different stages of growth and development. The knowledge of psychology aids him so solve those problems. It helps in curriculum construction. It helps in evaluating learning outcomes. The psychological study helps in making provision for learning, the process for exceptional children.

Question 10.
What special behaviours are seen during the childhood stage?
Answer:
In the late childhood stage, some special features are seen in children.
Friendship:
Adolescents choose and make friends with others of some age group.

Social maturity:
As they become socially mature they develop a wide behavioural form of hard living, kindness, sympathy, emotional stability, cooperation and sacrifice.

Leadership:
Leadership is an important aspect of this stage of behaviour.

Boy-girl relationships:
The boy-girl relationship is developed. There are recreational interests.

Question 11.
Give five distinctions of growth and development.
Answer:

• Growth is structural arid development is functional
• Growth is quantitative in nature whereas development is both qualitative and quantitative.
• Growth refers to change in particular aspects of the body arid development implies the organisation of the whole body.
• Growth continues till maturation but development continues till death.
• Growth is additive in nature whereas development is both additive and subtractive.

Question 12.
What are the factors that determine that growth and development?
Answer:
The growth and. development is affected by the factors like maturation and learning and heredity and environment. The factors influence the development of physical, moral, social intellectual and emotional abilities. Heredity is quite inclusive and affects the sex hormones, twin birth, sex and chromosomal anomalies. The environment includes a large variety of actors such as family, school culture, socioeconomic status, nutrition etc.

Question 13.
Give the role of the environment in growth and development.
Answer:
The environment has a powerful effect on the growth and development 6f an organism. The same person may behave differently in a different environment. Moreover, different persons behave differently in the same environment. The environment which influences growth and development can be classified under two heads. Physical environment and social environment in the form of condition takes care of self-expression, play and exercise etc.

Question 14.
Give five objectives of educational psychology.
Answer:
Some specific objectives of educational, psychology art are as follows:
It helps in creating a positive attitude towards learning. It helps to provide correct methods of teaching to the pupils. It helps to study the principles and techniques of learning. It helps to study the learner and his environment. It helps to study individual differences.

Question 15.
Give the nature of educational psychology.
Answer:
The nature of educational psychology arc as follows:
Educational psychology deals with the facts related to educational situations. Educational psychology studies the behaviour of the child in teaching-learning situations. It helps the process of learning like memorizing, perceiving recalling, reasoning and intelligence. It studies the instincts and drives, habits and attitudes, emotions and sentiments and personality. It discovers new methods and approaches in the feels of education.

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is psychology? What is educational psychology? How it is derived? Give its meanings.
Answer:
Psychology i$ a mind’ and mental process. It is also that part of philosophy which studies the mind and mental process as a positive science. In the beginning, it was the part of philosophy known as mental philosophy. The word Psychology is derived from two greek words ‘psyche and Logos’ in which ‘Psyche’ means ‘soul’ and ‘logos’ means ‘to study’ or ‘science of’.

Therefore, Psychology means the science of the soul. Such a definition was put. forward by the Greek philosopher Plato and Aristotle. But such a definition of psychology was discarded, Soul is a metaphysical idea. It can neither be perceived nor imagined. The nature and function of the soul cannot be studied. Scientific methods like observation and experimentation in psychology.

On this ground, the definition that psychology is the science of the soul’ has been rejected. Psychologists like Descartes defined psychology as the ‘science of the mind’. It is also supported by Aristotle, But the word ‘mind’ is as vague and ambiguous as soul. The mind is not a, part of human anatomy. It is nothing but an assembly of ideas.

It stands for the private, personal and internal experience of a man like pleasures and pain, wishes and images, dreams arid desires. No two psychologists agree on the such definition of mind. Moreover, that definition of psychology had been rejected and discarded by other psychologists.

The psychologists like Descartes and Mc. Dougall could not agree with the mind’s definition of psychology. Sir William James put forward another definition of ‘psychology. “Psychology is the science of consciousness”. But the mental life is not only conscious but also there are unconscious and sub-conscious mental levels.

These conscious and subconscious mental levels also affect and influence the behaviour of men and animals in various ways without our knowledge and consciousness. Our conscious mental, functions cannot be fully explained without the help of unconscious and sub-conscious mental processes. Consciousness constitutes only a part of our mental life and it does riot include animal, behaviour.

Therefore, psychology is the science of consciousness is an incomplete definition which it is discarded and rejected by modem psychologists. Again, psychology has also been defined as the ‘science of experience’. This is out and out a subjective definition as it does not take Into consideration outward or external behaviour into account.

Experience is what a man feels internally during any activity. Psychology deals with both inward and outward activities, experiences and behaviours, So the definition is also incomplete. J.B. Watson, the American psychologist, and the founder of the school of behaviourism put forward the latest definition of psychology, “Psychology is the science of behaviour”.

Behaviour means actions and activities. J .B. Watson and other behaviourists wanted to make psychology an objective science and so they rejected experience as the subject matter of psychology. Psychology is a positive science of behaviour with two scientific methods – objective observation and experiment.

Meaning of Educational Psychology:-
Psychology is applied in the field of education with principles and techniques to the development of educational practices and solutions to educational problems like wastage and stagnation, and dropouts. So educational psychology is the science of engineering concerned with the application of psychological principles, the practical problems in the field of education.

Other Definitions of Educational Psychology:
To support the definition of psychology put forward by J.B.Watson, some other modem psychologists advanced some other supporting definitions, as follows:-

• Me Dougall- “Psychology is the positive science of human conduct and behaviour”.
• Woodworth- “Psychology is the science of the activities of the individual in relation to the environment”.
• Skinner – Educational psychology – deals with the behaviour of human beings in educational situations.
• Tro – Educational psychology is the study of the psychological aspect of educational situations.
• Pillsbury – “Psychology is the science of human behaviour”.
• Nunn – “Psychology is the positive science of experience and behaviour”.

Question 2.
What are the aims and objectives of educational psychology? Give its nature.
Answer:
The aims and objectives of educational psychology are as follows- Educational psychologists assist a teacher to give an insight into the nature of the child. To enlighten the teacher with the growth and development of the child, the developmental process. It helps the teacher in finding ways and means of social adjustment for the child.

A study of the psychological method of investigation is used in the field of educational psychology. It helps to control the emotions of the child and their emotional development. It imparts knowledge about the principles and methods of learning. It helps to understand the social problems of the children.

It helps to plan the education of children to their age, ability and aptitude. Imparting knowledge to the teacher about the latest problem in education, the latest development in the field of education, the field of child psychology and various methods of teaching.

Helping the teaching in solving the problems that may arise in the classroom.
Nature of Educational Psychology:

Positive science:
Educational psychology is a positive science but not a normative science like logic and ethics. It always deals with the facts that are happening. It studies the laws of children’s nature as they are or as they operate. It has nothing to do with “ought to be”. It has scientific investigation and application.

It is an applied science:
Educational psychology is an applied science. It constitutes the application of psychological principles and techniques in the development of educational practices and programmes and in the study of educational problems. It acts as an applied science.

As a social science:
Educational psychology acts as a social science because educational findings are applicable to all individuals. As a social science, it studies the behaviour of human beings in all activities. It also studies both the social individual and the interaction.

A practical science:
Educational psychology is practical in nature because the educator makes use of the knowledge of, the educational psychology of each and every walk of teaching and learning situations.

A growing and developing science:
Educational psychology is a growing and developing science new facts and principles also come about from human nature and behaviour a number of researches in the field of education. So educational psychology as a science is ever-growing and developing.

An academic discipline:
Educational psychology is an academic discipline. It is a science which is focussing on human behaviour and its result can be generalised into the principles theories.

Question 3.
Discuss the scope of Educational Psychology.
Answer:
The word ‘Scope’ means the range extent and limitations of the study of what is to be included in the study of a particular subject of the subject matter. The scope of educational psychology is very vast, and wide because it studies human behaviour under various conditions from birth to death.

The scope of educational psychology centres around” the learner- developmental characteristics, individual differences, intelligence, personality and mental health of the teacher and students. It deals with the learning process, motivation in learning, and factors affecting learning and the evaluation of learning performances, in conducting research on educational problems.

Some of the scopes of educational psychology are as follows:
Human behaviour:
It studies human behaviour in all educational situations in the various stages of growth and development, and the characteristics of each stage are included in the study of educational psychology.

Growth and development:
Educational psychology is a psychological process study, the growth and development of a child. How a child passes through the various stages of growth like infancy, childhood and puberty and what the characteristics of each stage can be included in the study of educational psychology.

Learning process:
Educational psychology as-a a psychological process it studies the laws of learning. Learning is a major phenomenon in education. It studies how learning can take place most effectively and economically.

Heredity and Environment:
To what extent do heredity and environment contribute towards the growth of individuals and how knowledge can be made used for bringing about the optimum development of the child, It studies the heredity and environment of the child for better learning achievement.

Intelligence:
The scope of educational psychology also includes the study of the nature of intelligence as well as its measurement. The teacher educator handles educational psychology to measure. The intelligence of the child.

Individual differences:
Every individual child differs from others in physical and mental aspects. The learning experience differs in the same manner. Educational psychology deals with the nature of learning, laws in learning, principles and theories of learning, remembering and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking and realising process, problem-solving, transfer of learning, and training ways and means of effective earning etc.

The learning situation:
Educational psychology deals with the environmental, factors and learning situations which come between the learner and the teacher. Topics like classroom climate and group dynamics, techniques and aids which facilitate learning situations, techniques and practices, guidance and counselling etc. which help in the smooth functioning of the teaching-learning process come under the scope of educational psychology.

Question 4.
How the knowledge of psychology is helpful to a teacher in the teaching-learning process? Explain. Discuss the application of educational psychology helpful in the teaching-learning process. Explain.
Answer:
Educational psychology is helpful to a teacher to guide the process of education and the knowledge of psychology helps the teacher to realise the objective of effective teaching and educating the pupils properly. The knowledge of psychology helps the teacher in the below following ways.

Understanding the child:
It has been recognised that the teacher can truly teach the child only when he possesses the knowledge of child psychology. The teacher must know how children think, what are their interests of various stages of development and how their energies can be utilised for educational purposes. All modifications in the technique of teaching are really the growing application of the knowledge of psychology in the process of teaching and learning.

To understand the developmental characteristics:
The human child passes through different stages of development as infancy, childhood and adolescence. Each stage has its unique characteristics. A teacher possessing knowledge of these characteristics can profitably apply them to properly educate his pupils.

To understand, individual differences:
No two individuals are alike even though maybe twins. We find individual differences in body structures, achievement, intelligence, personality, interests, and attitudes of children, A teacher must be responsible for determining such individual .differences. The teacher can adopt different methods of instruction, curricular and means of evolution for individual interests.

To develop knowledge of the learning process:
All education depends upon the learning of new responses and the capacity of a human child to learn new responses. Psychology analyses different aspects of the process of learning. It tells us that learning is impossible if the learner does not cooperate in the learning process. The problem of teaching then takes the form of a psychological problem. Incentives like illustrative aids in the classroom and general maxim of the teaching area all are based on sound psychological theory.

To understand the relative importance of heredity and environments :
The heredity and environment of the child determine his growth and development, his personality and his learning process, intelligence, interest and attitude. The body structure is determined by heredity whereas other factors like intelligence, personality interest and attitude are determined by the environment. So, teachers should create environments for the healthy development of their pupils.

Curriculum construction:
For constructing a balanced curriculum educational psychology is helpful to a teacher. The needs of the child, his developmental characteristics, interests, attitudes etc. are some of the essential factors that should be taken into consideration while framing the curriculum.

Planning methods of education:
Psychology is also helpful to a teacher planning methods of education in such a manner – that there is no problem with motivation. Modem methods of teaching like project methods help to achieve educational goals. Separate methods of instruction should be adopted for gifted or bright children, average children and slow learners. The knowledge of educational psychology equips the teacher with all these effective methods of teaching.

Research :
The knowledge of educational psychology helps teachers to develop and try out tools and devices for measuring various variables which affect the child’s behaviour. He can control, direct and predict the behaviour of students on the basis of action research in the classroom.

Question 5.
What do you mean by growth and development? Bring the difference between G and D.
Answer:
Growth and Development: Growth means it is in a physical Sense. When and after the birth of a human baby, we make a number of changes in-bodily parts gradually, which is seen in the increase in height, weight, and body size. Such changes in the structure of the body of the child are known as growth. Structural change is the result of rapid cell divisions in the body.

At different stages of growth, a number of physical changes take place in the child. Development implies changes in bodily functions. As the body grows there is gradual progress in the movements. The child starts to swing his hands and legs. He is able to sit wait and run to and throw many things. The child starts to walk, to think, to express emotions like laughter, anger mid fear.

Thus, all the changes in the functions of different parts of the body and mind are the features of this development. So development is a progressive series of functional changes in a child and such changes lead the child towards maturity. So development is in a mental sense, the mental powers, mental ability. There is the power of concept formation, thinking, reasoning and power judgement.

Difference between growth and development:-
Growth and development seem to be synonym terms but in a strict sense there is a gulf of difference between the two, as follows:

Growth implies quantitative changes in bodily structures. Such changes can be expressed in some quantitative terms like metres (height), and kilograms (weight). On the other hand, development is qualitative in nature. All aspects of development like the development of motor activities: language, thinking, and emotions cannot be expressed in numerical measures.

So growth is structural and quantitative in nature but development is functional and both qualitative and quantitative in nature. Growth refers to changes in particular aspects of the body but development implies the organisation of the body as a whole. Growth continues for a specific period called physical maturation. But development continues throughout life.

For example, after the age of 25, there is no growth but development continues till death. Growth is always additive in nature which means adds something to the structure of the body, So it proceeds in the forward direction only. But development is both additive and subtractive in nature and may add new features and eliminate some old features to improve the quality of body functions.

Question 6.
Explain the general principles of growth and development.
Answer:
Various studies and research have highlighted certain significant principles underlying the process of growth and development.

The development follows a pattern:
If we take any dimension of growth and development we will find a particular pattern of growth. In physical development, in the cephalo-caudal sequence, the development proceeds from the head to the upper parts of the body and grows earlier than the lower parts. At birth, the head is much large compared to the adult head. Similarly, the development of movements is earlier in the upper parts of the body. The child can raise his head first with better control before he can move his chest or hand or leg.

Development proceeds from general to specific:
The child first shows general responses and then he shows specific responses to specific stimuli. For example, the new bom baby moves his whole body. If one time instead of moving one part of it. He moves his whole hand to specify one object instead of using a finger. In the emotional field, he responds through only general responses like crying to denote joy, hunger, pain or fear.

Development is a continuous process:
Development maintains continuity at a slow and regular pace. It does not take place abruptly or by leaps and bounds. All dimensions of development continue to grow gradually until they reach their maximum. For example, a child cannot speak all of a sudden and he develops speech habits through continuous efforts.

Growth is not uniform:
Different aspects of growth develop at different rates. All parts of the body can never grow at the same rate. At birth, the head is larger, about one-fourth of the body in length, But the rate of growth slows down and hands and legs grow at a faster rate. The brain reaches its maximum size at about six. Likewise, memory develops faster than creative imagination.

Most traits are correlated:
Most of the traits of growth and development are correlated which means superior in other respect, he is also found superior in other respect. A child whose intelligence is above average is also so in health size, sociability and special aptitudes. But this is not always true. We find very lean and thin boys with high intelligence but not sociable.

Individual differences in growth and development:
There are Individual differences in growth and development. No two individuals grow and develop in the same way or at the same rate. Some grow taller, some dwarf, and some become adolescents very soon. Some others develop secondary sex characteristics very soon and some get early maturation. So there is the individual difference in physical and mental characteristics.

Development is predictable:
It is impossible to predict in advance what type of development a child will follow because the rate of development of a particular child remains fairly constant. The environmental factors determine the product of maturation. But mental development cannot be predicted with some degree of accuracy.

Development is a product of heredity and environment:
Both hereditary and environment determine the growth and development of a child. Heredity is responsible for physical growth and intellectual development, whereas the environment is responsible for the intellectual, social and temperamental development of the child. Likewise, parental care, nutrition, the climate in the home and school and society are also essential for a child’s sound development. So hereditary and environment both contribute effectively maximum growth of the child.

Question 7.
What is physical growth? Explain the physical characteristics of growth and development.
Answer:
In growth and development remarkable physical and physiological changes take place in boys and girls, Specially in adolescence period, there is rapid physical and physiological changes are seen.

Changes in height and weight:
In the infancy stage, there is rapid physical growth. The development of the body and nervous system is very fast. Almost all adolescent boys and girls show remarkable growth in height and weight. There is a rapid growth in girls from 10 to 14 years and in boys from 12 to 16 years. The mature height is attained from 13 to 20 years. Boys are in average taller than girls up to 11 years. From 12 to 15 years girls grow faster than boys. Boys are heavier than girls in all ages.

Changes in body proportion:
Human individuals differ not only in height and weight but also in body proportion as they grow. The different parts of the body mature more in one age while others attain maturity at earlier or later ages.

Changes in internal organs:
During the growth of child important changes occur in the internal organs such as the brain, muscles, skeleton and glands. The brain gradually matures with the nervous system. The skeleton becomes .longer day by day and the joints of the bone become also stronger. During the physical. growth there are glandular changes and the sex glands. The thyroid, Hymus, and pituitary also develop ill at maximum rates. The changes, in glands, affect the behaviour of adolescents, boys and girls and they also develop masculine and feminine qualities.

Change in voice:
There is a change in the voice of the boys and girls. During the stage of adolescence, the voice becomes course day by day and the voice of the adolescent girls becomes sweeter day by day.

Changes in physical activity strength:
In the childhood stage, the child remains engaged in play. He becomes physically strong. Adolescent boys and girls become physically active and they develop the ability, skill, strength and speed in doing any work or activity. Jn physical activity girls become more mature than boys. Boys are more muscular in strength. Then the girls always like adventure activities.

Growth of secondary sex qualities:
During adolescence, secondary sex characteristics are seen in both boys and girls. Hairs appear in different parts of the body and boys develop beards on their faces and menstruation starts in girls.

Development of sex:
During the stage of adolescence, both boys and girls are sexually mature. The genital organs in boys and the sex organs in girls increase. Both boys and girls develop an interest in the opposite sex and develop an interest in mutual intercourse or heterosexuality. For sex satisfaction, they practise masturbation, and both adolescent boys and girls achieve production capacity.

Question 8.
What is social development? What are the social characteristics seen in adolescents? Explain.
Answer:
Man is a social animal. As the child grows and psychologically matured he develops gradually some of the social behaviours. Social development means the attainment of the maturity of social relationships and helps the individual for adjustment to his environment.

As the child grows to adolescence he learns the social ways of the society like customs, traditions, miners and languages, and ways of living which change his tastes, interests, and attitudes. He may develop interaction from person to person, person to group and group to group.

The social characteristics seen among adolescent boys and girls are given below:
Friendship:
Adolescents tend to choose friends of their own age and temperament They develop friendships based on common interests, needs and goals.

Social consciousness:
Adolescent boys and girls become socially conscious and they develop social responsibilities duties, rights and responsibilities, and obligations. In attending social programmes, they develop group loyalties. Social service attitudes are developed with them.

Social maturity:
Adolescent boys and girls attain social maturity and they very soon develop the ability to adapt to changing situations. They become social and develop social potential ties like kindness, sympathy, tolerance, cooperation, dependability etc. They also learn sacrifice and wise judgement.

Leadership:
Leadership is an important aspect of social development in adolescence. The adolescent boys and girls participate in group activities and develop leadership qualities. They develop the qualities like patience, endurance, quality of domination, sincerity, hard-working, and responsibility. In schools and colleges, adolescents show their leadership in academic performances, games and sports, participating in college union elections, and organising debates, competitions, excursions and social service programmes.

Development of social, cultural, recreational, and vocational interests:
Social interests:
The adolescents develop an interest in attending different fairs, social functions, festivals etc. visiting religious places, running discussions on social problems and developing social awareness and interests.

Recreational interests:
The adolescents develop an interest in reading, cultural activities, attending movies, group games, and radio listening, and they also organise different hobbies like gardening, writing, photography, collection of stamps etc. which develop a recreational interest in them.

Development of social attitudes:
Social interaction determines the degree of adjustment of adolescents. Such social interaction is possible by observing different customs, organising cultural and religious ceremonies and marriage functions etc.

Question 9.
What is emotional growth? What are the emotional characteristics seen in adolescence? Explain.
Answer:
Emotion is a feeling, a state of mind, a state of being moved or stored up. So emotion involves feelings, impulses and physiological reactions. The feelings of emotions are anger, disgust, pleasure and fear. Emotions are accompanied by physiological changes including heart and stomach problems, heartbeat, breathing and blood pressure which affect hunger, rest, sleep etc.

Such emotions are reflected with over behaviour like throwing, smiling, staring at etc. The adolescence period is marked by heightened emotions like nailbiting, tension, conflicts, quarrels with parents and teachers, and siblings with classmates. Other emotions like absent-mindedness, shyness and negativism are seen.

Emotional characteristics during adolescence:
Complexity:
As the child grows from childhood to adolescence his emotions become complex. Various experiences come from the environment and to the complexity of emotional development. The adolescent hides his emotions and it is difficult to understand.

Emotional feelings widened:
At adolescence, adolescents start making friends, forming groups with other taking leadership etc. and he is also emotionally attached to the group or person.

Development of tolerance:
Adolescents develop the tendency to bear and tolerate tensions, troubles, frustrations and failures in different social situations. They give emphasis to self-control and redirect their emotions in acceptable directions.

Capacity to share emotions:
The adolescents develop the ability to share with others and to love their neighbours, mates, fellow beings, and members of groups. Adolescents also derive pleasure from the achievement of their friends.

Love for freedom:
Adolescents develop a kind of inner freedom to feel, express act and behave independently which makes them rebellious and stubborn.

Tolerance of aloneness:
Adolescents at times prefer to stay alone in their homes and get pleasure from daydreaming and fantastic imagination by sitting alone for a long time.

Common emotions-during adolescence:
Love and affection :
During the period of childhood, love comes around as the object of interest but in adolescence, love is associated with relatives, peers and the opposite sex. During adolescence, love takes a sexual colour and adolescent boys and girls engage in conversations about sex and its problems.

Joy, pleasure and delight:
In adolescence period, adolescents feel joy when he is well adjusted and they also he get pleasure and delight from their achievements. He develops a feeling of superiority. He gets delighted when he gets successful in competitions, sports, debates and other such activities.

Worries and anxieties:
Worry is an imaginary fear which is caused by frequent thinking about a situation. Adolescents get worried about school work, examinations and tests, unreasonable homework, failure in competitions, and sex problems. Some other worries include lack of adjustment with parents, illness of parents and poverty of parents family problems and presence of stepmother.

Fear:
Fear is formed by the child from the environment which includes fear of animals and snakes, fear of electric appliances, huge machines, deep seas and rivers, high places, strange noise and darkness etc.

Anger:
Anger is the violent emotion expressed by adolescents due to the reasons like unfair treatment by teachers and parents, satirical remarks, encroachment of human rights, tasks beyond ability etc. Sometimes anger is seen in the failure of responsibility.

Question 10.
What is intellectual development? Give its characteristics.
Answer:
Intellectual development refers to cognitive, mental, memory, reasoning, understanding, intelligence, generalisation, interpretation, language ability, conceptual ability etc. These abilities are interrelated. Intellectual development is the mental development and overall development of all those above abilities.

Characteristics of intellectual development:
Development of time senses:
As the child grows he develops the ability to differentiate, between events that are now occurring and those which have occurred in the days gone by. He is in a position to locate events in the space where they are performed. As he advances in image his ability to react in terms of recollection from the past and anticipation of the future increases.

Increase in the power of attention:
The child has the ability to utilise past experiences but with the passage of time, he acquires an increasing ability to plan out remote goals and actions. For instance, in order to advise the remote goal through the examination a child may make or prepare time table plan to study.

Increasing ability to use symbols and signs:
With the increased ability to use signs and symbols, for example, the hungry child who would stop crying only when he was actually fed a later stage ceasing crying at the sight of a milk bottle a symbol for being fed.

Increase in the development of morality:
As a child advances in age, he learns to obey certain moral norms and starts thinking in terms of good and bad. In that way, the foundations of moral character are laid in the child.

Increase in curious questions:
As a child’s age increases the questions put by him to satisfy his curiosity are more definite as compared to those put by him prior to what is it? Who has done it? Why is it so?

Increase in creative impulses:
As the child grows in age he exhibits creative impulse in another world he engages himself in making on collecting things. He creates interest and social pleasure in solving puzzle problems. In this way, he develops the power of abstract thinking.

Increasing sensory development:
Sensory development occurs during the first month of the child. It learns to make effective use of the sense and experiences. Many topics of sensations such as hardness, pain, pleasure, and the sensation of smell and sound. As it advances in age it comes to have developed sensory equipment more accurately and sharpened the power of perception, the ability to compare various sensations. Logical thinking in place of vivid memory and the ability to generalise on the basis of experience.

Increase in language development:
The crying of a child at birth is an expression of the emotion of pain and pleasure. At the age of six months, its crying stands for its recognition of the new situation. By the time he is one year of age, he utters a few words- Aa, Ba, Maa, Daa etc. and at the age of two to three years it can repeat very short sentences spoken by elders.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 4 Process, Stratification and Change Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 4 Process, Stratification and Change Short Answer Questions

Short Type Questions and Answers

Question 1.
What do you mean by Social Process?
Answer:
Social interaction assumes a number of terms. These forms of social interaction are called social processes. Different sociologists have defined social processes in different ways. Social processes are many. However, it can be broadly categorised into two kinds:

• Associative
• Disassociative.

Question 2.
What is Associative Social Process?
Answer:
The associative social process always works for integration in society. These include cooperation, accommodation, assimilation, acceleration.

Question 3.
What is a Disassociative Social Process?
Answer:
The disassociative social process often works towards the disintegration of society. These include competition and conflict.

Question 4.
Define Co-operation?
Answer:
Merril and Eldredge say “Co-operation is a form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end”.

Question 5.
What is the main characteristic of cooperation?
Answer:

• Cooperation is a conscious process.
• Cooperation takes place between two or more individuals.
• Cooperation is a personal process.
• Cooperation is a continuous process.
• Cooperation is an associative process.

Question 6.
Write the names of several types of co-operation?
Answer:

• Direct co-operation
• Indirect co-operation
• Primary co-operation
• Secondary co-operation
• Tertiary co-operation

Question 7.
What is the competition?
Answer:
Competition is the most fundamental form of social struggle. It is a contest to obtain something which does not exist in a quantity sufficient to meet the demand that makes two or more individuals or groups struggle for some naturally desired ends.

Question 8.
Define competition?
Answer:
Park and Burgess says-that “Competition is an interaction without a social contract”.

Question 9.
What is the type of competition?
Answer:
Bernard mentions three broad types of competitions, such as:

• Social
• Economic and
• Political competition.

Other sociologists have spoken of cultural and racial competitions.

Question 10.
What is conflict?
Answer:
A conflict is an extreme form of disassociative process in which individuals and groups try to achieve their goals by eliminating other contestants.

Question 11.
Define various types of conflict?
Answer:
There are various types of conflict.

• Terminal conflict.
• Personal conflict.
• Episodic conflict.
• Racial conflict.
• Continuous conflict.

Question 12.
What is Political Conflict?
Answer:
Political conflict creates different political parties trying to achieve their self-interests. The main reason for political conflict is the power and money which they want to capture. The conflict between different political parties is an example of political conflict.

Question 13.
What is international conflict?
Answer:
International conflict occurs among the different nations of the world that are engaged in war. The conflict between India and Pakistan is an example of international conflict.

Question 14.
What ¡s Personal Conflict?
Answer:
Personal conflict occurs between two individuals on one personal level. It arises due to two individual classes with each other. The quarrel between two persons in a college for the post of principal is an example of personal conflict.

Question 15.
What is Racial Conflict?
Answer:
Racial conflict arises due to physical differences and cultural differences. This type of conflict is now found in South Africa between black people and white people.

Question 16.
What is Direct Cooperation?
Answer:
In direct cooperation, individuals do like things together playing and worshipping together.

Question 17.
What is Indirect Cooperation?
Answer:
Persons work individually for the attainment of a common goal called indirect cooperation.

Question 18.
What is Primary Cooperation?
Answer:
Where there is an identity of ends called primary cooperation. Each and every member work for the betterment of all primary co-operation is found in primary groups such as family, neighbourhood, friends, groups and children’s playground.

Question 19.
What is Secondary Cooperation?
Answer:
Secondary cooperation is directed towards achieving definite goals and collective interests. In secondary co-operation, members co-operate without knowing each other. This type of cooperation is found among the members of secondary groups such as economic, political and industrial organisations.

Question 20.
What is Automatic Cooperation?
Answer:
People cooperate with each other and live in a particular locality to achieve common goals unplanned and unnoticeable cooperation is called automatic cooperation.

Question 21
What is Tertiary cooperation?
Answer:
Aimed to meet a particular situation called tertiary cooperation. Two political parties may work together to defeat a third party although they have different ideologies.

Question 22.
What is Direct Cooperation?
Answer:
Cooperative with each other as a requirement of the organisation is called direct co-operation. This type of cooperation is found among the members of military organisations.

Question 23.
What is Automatic Cooperation?
Answer:
People cooperate with each other and living1 in a particular locality to achieve common goals unplanned and unnoticeable cooperation are called automatic Cooperation.

Question 24.
What is Contractual Cooperation?
Answer:
People co-operate with each other in a formal way according to some agreed terms and conditions called contractual co-operation.

Question 25.
What is Traditional Cooperation?
Answer:
People co-operate with each other to achieve some common goal is not prompted will call traditional cooperation. For example, Co-operate among the members of a joint family and members in a village community.

Question 26.
What is Economic Competition?
Answer:
Economic competition occurs due to producing distribution and consumption of goods. Both group and individual-level economic competition arise.

Question 27.
What is Social Competition?
Answer:
People compete to achieve higher status and positions called social competition. This type of competition is found in open societies.

Question 28.
What is Cultural Competition?
Answer:
Competition between two or more cultural groups is called cultural competition. Competition between Aryan and Dravidians. Hindus and Muslims examples of cultural competition.

Question 29.
What is Racial Competition?
Answer:
Competition between the different races of the world to establish racial superiority is called racial competition. Example – In South Africa competition between white and black people.

Question 30.
What is Political Competition?
Answer:
The desire of capturing power by the political party is called political competition.

Question 31.
What is stratification?
Answer:
Stratification is simply a process of interaction of differentiation whereby some people come to rank higher than others.

Question 32.
Definition of Social Stratification?
Answer:
Raymond W. Murry says that “Social stratification is a horizontal division of society into high and lower social limits”.

Question 33.
Mention characteristics of social stratification?
Answer:
According to M.M. Tumin the main characteristics of stratification is:

• It is universal.
• It is ancient.
• It is social.
• It is consequential.
• It is in diverse forms.

Question 34.
Define the origin of the word caste?
Answer:
The term caste is derived from the Spanish also Portuguese word meaning breed, or lineage. The Portuguese used the term caste first to denote the division in the Indian Caste System.

Question 35.
Define the origin of the Caste System?
Answer:
The caste stratification of the Indian Society has/had its origin in the chaturanga system. According to the chaturanga doctrine, the Hindu Society was divided into four main games namely the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas and the Shudras.

Question 36.
What is Caste System unique to India?
Answer:
The caste system as a form of social stratification is peculiar to India. The caste is an inseparable aspect of Indian Society. It is peculiarly Indian in origin and development.

Question 37.
Define the Universality of Social Stratification?
Answer:
Social stratification is obiquitious. In all societies, there is social differentiation of the population by age, sex and personal characteristics.

Question 38.
What is the meaning of Social Stratification?
Answer:
All societies arrange their members in terms of superiority interiority and equality. The vertical scale of evaluation this places people in strata or layers is called social stratification.

Question 39.
What is Social Change?
Answer:
Social change means a change in the social structure of society or in other words social change means a significant change in social relationships. Social changes include those changes in society which are sufficiently durable and which influence a majority of people.

Question 40.
Mention four characteristics of social change?
Answer:

• Social change is universal.
• Social change is continuous.
• Social change is associated with time.
• Social change is caused by multiple factors.

Question 41.
Mention the cause of social change?
Answer:
A number of factors are responsible for social change such as:

• Cultural
• Physical
• Biological
• Technological factors.

Question 42.
What is Endogenous Social Change?
Answer:
Endogenous social change refers to change from within the society. For example The birth of trade unions and communalism are some examples of endogenous social change.

Question 43.
What is Exogenous Social Change?
Answer:
Change comes from outside called exogenous change. Wars and conquest and western technology are the best examples of exogenous social change.

Question 44.
What is Planned Social Change?
Answer:
Planning in our society brings about changes field of social and economic development. Such as city planning and rural development. Planning in our country also caused significant and widespread changes in the fields of agriculture, industry and technology such changes are called planned social change.

Question 45.
Name of the main sociologists who support the technological factors?
Answer:
W.F. Ogbum and Karl Marx have supported technological factors.

Question 46.
Write short notes on any three factors of social change?
Answer:
Demographic Factors play an important role in bringing change in society. The size and composition of the population and the quality of the population bring a variety of changes in society. Cultural Factors bring changes in society. Cultural factors include values, attitudes, beliefs, ideologies, customs and traditions. Technological Factors bring changes in society. Technology refers to the use of animate power in production. Change in the technology of work produces changes in material conditions.

Question 47.
Write a short note on demographic factors of social change?
Answer:
Social change is caused by multiple factors out of which demographic, factors is the most important. Demography means the science of population. The size, composition and quality of the population produce a variety of changes in society. Differences in the density of the population also bring changes in society.

Question 48.
Write a short note on cultural factors of social change?
Answer:
Cultural factors greatly influence social changes and determine social change. Cultural factors include values, attitudes, beliefs, ideologies, customs and traditions. Any change in these factors brings changes in society. The relationship between society and culture is very close. Hence cultural change involves social change.

Question 49.
Write short notes on technological factors of social change?
Answer:
Among other factors of social change technological factor is important. By technology, we mean the use of inanimate power in production. Many sociologists recognised the role of technology in bringing social change. Karl Marx opines that change in technology brings changes in all areas of social life.

Question 50.
Write short notes on cultural lag?
Answer:
The concept of cultural lag was first used by W.F. Ogbum in his book social change. He classified culture into two types. Material, Non-material aspects of culture call for changes in the non-material aspect of culture. Non-material culture takes time to adjust to the changes taking place in the material aspect. As a result, a gap is created between the two which is known as cultural lag.

Question 51.
Write short notes on the effects of technology on family life?
Answer:
Technology brings changes in all areas of social life. Accordingly changes in technology results in changes in family life, its structure and functions:
Technology led to the breaking up of joint families and the formation of the nuclear family. Technology led to the liberation of women in different fields. Technology brought industrialization which brought women from home to factories and offices. Technology reduces the importance of family as an agent of social control.

Question 52.
Write short notes on the effects of technology on social life?
Answer:
Technology brings changes in all areas of social life. It affects our social life in the following ways:
Technology made social relationships formal and contractual and goal-oriented. It changed the old bases of stratification and introduced wealth and power to new determinants of social stratification. Technology led to the fall of community life individuals became more selfish.

Question 53.
Explain the Social process?
Answer:
The social process is the fundamental way in which men. interact and establish relationships. They are repetitive forms of behaviour which are commonly found in social life. These are forms of social interaction and characteristic ways in which interaction occurs.,

Question 54.
Distinguish between Social interaction and Social process?
Answer:
Social interaction is a process whereby men inter-penetrate into the minds of each other. But social processes are repetitive forms behaviour which is commonly hard in social life. Smiling with friends is an example of social interaction whereas cooperation is an example of an associative process.

Question 55.
Explain the dissociative Social process?
Answer:
Though there are many kinds of social processes they can be broadly divided into two kinds associative and dissociative social processes. The dissociative social process works -towards disintegration in society. Competition and conflict are examples and dissociative social processes.

Question 56.
Distinguish between the Associative and Dissociative process?
Answer:
Associative social process. works towards the integration of society whereas the dissociative social process works towards the disintegration of society. Co-operation accommodation and assimilation are examples of the associative social process whereas competition and conflict are examples of the dissociative social process.

Question 57.
Explain Co-operation?
Answer:
Co-operation is an associative social process. The term co-operation is derived from the two Latin words ‘Co’ meaning together and operate meaning to work. According to, co-operation means working together for a common goal. It is the continuous and common endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task or to reach a goal that is commonly cherished.

Question 58.
Distinguish between Direct and Indirect Co-operation?
Answer:
When co-operating individuals do like things it is called direct cooperation. But in indirect cooperation, people do different tasks towards a similar goal. In direct cooperation, members perform identical .functions whereas indirect co-operation is based on the principle of division of labour and specialisation. Playing together weaving cloth is an example of indirect cooperation.

Question 59.
Distinguish between Primary and Secondary Co-operation?
Answer:
In primary cooperation, there is the identity of ends whereas in secondary cooperation members cooperate without knowing each other. Primary cooperation is found among the members of the primary groups like family whereas secondary cooperation is found among members of secondary groups such as banks, offices etc. Mutual obligations are the bases of primary cooperation whereas the achievement of individual aims is the bases of secondary cooperation.

Question 60.
Explain Competition?
Answer:
Competition is a dissociative social process. Here, people strive to forget scarce goods. Park and Burgess opine that competition is an interaction without social contact. It is a struggle to possess rewards which are limited so that all cannot share.

Question 61.
Explain three characteristics of Competition?
Answer:
Competition is both an impersonal and personal activity. It is impersonal because it is directed towards a goal when it is face-to-face it is personal. Competition is always governed by norms. It never goes in an unrestricted manner. It hardly operates in an unrestricted manner. Competition is a never-ending and continuous social process. Competition is always going on among people to get their desired things.

Question 62.
Distinguish between Cooperation and Competition?
Answer:
Co-operation is an associative social process whereas competition is a dissociative social process. Co-operation means working together for a common goal whereas competition is interaction without social contact. Co-operation is a conscious process whereas competition is an unconscious process.

Question 63.
Distinguish between Cultural and Racial Competition?
Answer:
Cultural competition Recurs between two or more cultural groups, whereas racial competition occurs between two different races. Competition between Hindus and Muslims is an example of cultural competition whereas competition between white and black is an example of racial competition.

Question 64.
Explain Conflict?
Answer:
A conflict is an extreme form|of dissociative social process. Here individual it. groups try to achieve their goals by eliminating contestants. Defeat or destruction of the opponents to attain the goal is the main aim of conflict. It is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another.

Question 65.
Explain any three characteristics of Conflict?
Answer:
Conflict is a conscious activity because individuals or groups involved in conflict know that they are conflicting. Conflict is an intermittent social process. It does not take place continuously. It occurs suddenly and disappears after some. Conflict is universal in nature. It is found in all societies and at all stages of development.

Question 66.
Distinguish between Cooperation and Conflict?
Answer:
Co-operation is an associative social process whereas conflict is a dissociative social process. Co-operation means working together for a common goal whereas conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or others. Co-operation is continuous process but conflict is an intermittent process.

Question 67.
Distinguish between Competition and Conflict?
Answer:
Competition is dissociative. social process but conflict is an extreme form of dissociative social process. Competition is interaction without social contact whereas conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another. Competition is an unconscious process whereas conflict is a conscious process.

Question 68.
Distinguish between Latent and Manifest Conflict?
Answer:
The unexpressed and hidden conflict is known as manifest conflict. Hostile action is an example of latent conflict whereas war between India and Pakistan is an example of overt or manifest conflict.

Question 69.
Explain Social Stratification?
Answer:
Every society is divided into various groups and these groups enjoy different social statuses and privileges. This deviation of society is called social stratification. The term social stratification refers to the division of a population into strata, one on top of another, on the basis of possession of certain characteristics like inborn qualities material possessions and performance. It involves the distribution of unequal rights and privileges among the members of society.

Question 70.
Explain the Indian Stratification system?
Answer:
The system of stratification in India fails in a class itself. The advanced industrial societies of the west the characterised by the ‘open-class system’. The social structure of India on the other hand is dominated by the closed class that is the caste system. Any careful observer will find two types of class hierarchy in Indian social science, the traditional caste hierarchy which is articulated in religious terms and the modem hierarchy which is emergent.

Question 71.
What do you mean by a caste system?
Answer:
Caste is or was until recently almost universal in India. There are many castes among Muslims whose religion supposedly derives caste. Even among the Indians who have embraced Christianity caste distinctions still generally prevail. It is, however, the Hindu caste system that is unique among the system of social stratification.

Question 72.
Explain the concept of class.
Answer:
Another important element of social stratification is class. A social class is a category or group of persons having a definite status in society that permanently determines their relations to other groups. Social classes have been defined by various thinkers in different manners. The nation of objectivity of class existence is the main contribution of Karl Marx.

His emphasis is on the economic factors, power style of life, and property that determines the class status of individuals in society. Karl Marx defined the social classes by their relation to means of production (ownership or non-ownership). In a modem capitalist society, there are two principal classes the capitalist and the proletariat.

Question 73.
Distinguish between Social Stratification and Social Differentiation.
Answer:
Social stratification is however different from social differentiation. In social stratification, there is a hierarchy in which one class is above the other. On the other hand in social differentiation, there is no hierarchy e.g. male and female. In stratification organized group division is needed whereas in differentiation there is no such division of society.

Question 74.
What is Racial competition?
Answer:
Competition among the different races of the world to establish racial superiority’ is called racial competition. In South Africa competition between white and black people is the burning example of racial competition.

Question 75.
What is Cultural competition?
Answer:
Competition between two or more cultural groups is called cultural competition. Competition between Aryan and Dravidians. Hindus and Muslims Indians and Britishers can be cited as examples of cultural competition.

Question 76.
What is Political competition?
Answer:
The desire of capturing power by the political party is called political competition. This type of competition is even found at the international level like the Nations U.S.S.Rand U.S.A.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 1 Fundamental of Education Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education 1 Fundamental of Education Short Answer Questions

Very Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Give the nature of education.
Answer:
The nature of education is:

1. Education is growth,
2. Education is training,
3. Education is the continuous reconstruction of experience,
4. Education is life,
5. Education is a lifelong process,
6. Education is direction.

Question 2.
Explain the narrow meaning of education.
Answer:
Education is narrow in the sense it is limited by the four walls of the classroom. It has no external experience in it. The child learns from textbooks and has no outside experience.

Question 3.
Give the elements of formal agency.
Ans.
The elements of formal agencies are:

• it aims,
• curriculum,
• teaching methods,
• the teacher, and
• interaction of teacher and taught.

Question 4.
Give the elements of informal agency of education.
Answer:
The elements of informal agencies of education are-

• aims,
• curriculum,
• methods of teaching,
• teacher,
• communication of opinions etc.

Question 5.
Give the developmental work of education:
Answer:
The developmental works of education are-It aim at novelty. It aims at the development of man, society and state, its existence, progress, reformation and prosperity. It eradicates ignorance and blind beliefs.

Question 6.
Educational functional radio?
Answer:
The educational functions of radio are:

• improvement of language,
• development of culture and civilization,
• leisure time entertainment,
• spiritual and religious consciousness,

Question 7.
Three educational functions of school?
Answer:
The educational functions of the school are:

• character building,
• development of leadership,
• development of social efficiency,
• social reconstruction etc.

Question 8.
Give the educational role of the community.
Answer:
The educational role of the community is as follows:
It controls the learning centres. It finances the learning centres. Appointment of qualified teachers and supply of aids.

Question 9.
Give three aims and objectives of pre-primary education.
Answer:
To provide a healthy environment to the children. To promote a healthy, happy and regular life. To develop good health habits and habits like toilet habits, dressing, washing cleaning etc.

Question 10.
Give three aims of elementary education.
Answer:
To understand and practise desirable social relationships. To appreciate worthwhile activities. To develop a sound body and moral mental attitudes.

Question 11.
Education is the continuous reconstruction of experience.
Answer:
To John Dewey, the experience of all individuals involves the situation. So continuous reconstruction of experience gives a more socialized value. Through the process activities undergo changes.

Question 12.
Explain the democratic aim of education.
Answer:
Democratic government demands educated people. Education can generate and instil the qualities that democracy demands, The aim of the state is to achieve the highest moral value through education. Democratic aim aimed all-round development of personality.

Question 13.
Civic function.
Answer:
The child learns the first lesson of citizenship between the mother’s kiss and the father’s care. The child learns various civic virtues in the family. It develops the quality, of discipline, cooperation and tolerance.

Question 14.
Give three aims of Higher Secondary Education.
Answer:
Providing job training is an important function of vocational education. To develop an awareness of social problems. To lead them to participate in productive work. To inculcate a positive attitude of teamwork, the dignity of labour, cooperation etc.

Question 15.
Education and training.
Answer:
Education is meant for training the individual to discharge certain responsibilities. Primary education is meant for the acquisition of knowledge and skills. In preparation for teachers, there is a definite curriculum. So modem concept of education is training only.

Question 16.
Give three objectives of secondary education.
Answer:
To promote social virtues, intellectual development and practical skills of students. To develop literacy, artistic and cultural interests for expression. To inculcate the qualities necessary for living efficiently with one’s fellowmen.

Question 17.
Three characteristics of nonformal education.
Answer:

• It is deliberately organised and systematically complemented.
• It provides part-time instruction for non-enrolled children.
• It aimed to wipe out and eradicate illiteracy.
• It is organised outside the formal system of education
• It is diversified, flexible and open-ended.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by child-centred education?
Answer:
In child-centred education, more stress is given to students or children rather than to teachers. In this education, Children are considered the focal point of Education. In this education, a teacher should have better knowledge about children rather than other aspects. By this education, the innate potentialities of children can be expressed. This is known as child-centred education.

Question 2.
Explain the aim of child-centred education.
Answer:
Education should help the educand for complete living leading to balanced, harmonious, useful and natural life. The supreme aim of child-centred education is a generous and liberal cultivation of the innate endowment of the child. What is artificial is evil and what is natural is good.

Hence, the natural child should not receive education in the artificial society. His education should be negative on non-social by nature. It is a part of preventive education which protects the child from social evils. Education is not a preparation for life, but rather a preparation against the social condition in which the child lives.

Question 3.
What type of correlation should be adopted- in child-centred education? Explain.
Answer:
In child-centred education, the curriculum should be based on the needs, interests, abilities, aptitudes, developmental level and circumstances of the child. It should provide rich experiences to children for proper development. The child is to be prepared for life. The curriculum for handicapped children cannot be the same as for average students. In other words, it should revolve around the child because the child is the central factor in the curriculum.

Question 4.
Explain the methods which have suited to child-centred education.
Answer:
In child-centred education methods of education are child-centred. Some of the methods which are used in child-centred education are the kindergarten method, play-way method, Montessori method, project method, Dalton plan, learning by doing or experiential learning. by living. Method of individual instruction.

Various teaching devices like exposition and explanation, narration and description, stories and illustrations like maps, models, charts, pictures, diagrams, graphs and various other audio-visual aids ate used. Maxims of teaching like proceeding from known, to unknown simple to complex, concrete to abstract, empirical to rational and psychological to logical are followed.

Question 5.
Explain the role of the teacher in child-centred education.
Answer:
In the child-centred education process, the children are the keyboard and the teachers are with them very consciously. The curriculum in different stages like primary, higher primary and secondary are prepared to take into the age, intelligence, interest, attitude, Knowledge and need of the child.

The teacher does not impose any matter rather he inspires the child in which the child is more interested. The teacher presents the problem before the child and guides how the activities are done to achieve the goal. The teacher adopts the play way method and other suitable methods for imparting knowledge and evaluation.

Question 6.
Define character building aim of education.
Answer:
The one essential aim of education is character building. Education consists of the cultivation of certain human values and the development of attitudes and habits which constitute the character of a person. Gandhi gave top priority to character education. This meant that the purpose of education is to develop courage, strength and vitality. Education for the character is the need of the hour in India. Today various commissions of Indian education have laid down that building character is one of the most important aims of Indian education.

Question 7.
What are the aims of vocationalisation of education?
Answer:
Vocationalisation of education makes education economically self¬sufficient. It helps the child in his post-school adjustability and stimulates his observation and arouses his thoughts and feelings. Vocational education is the only hope for children with lower intelligence. It bridges the gulf between the elite class and the general masses. These are the main aims of the vocationalisation of education.

Question 8.
What do you mean by the social aim of education?
Answer:
The supporters of the social aim of education behave the society or the state alone as real and the individual is only a means and therefore, must always work for the. welfare and progress of the society on the state. They, therefore hold that an individual should be educated for the good of society. The interests of society are supreme and the position of the individual is always subordinate to that of the state.

The supporters of social aim cannot think of an individual living and developing in solution from society. As Raymont says, the isolated individual is a figment of the imagination. As long as human beings are civic in society, there will be some subordination of individuality to the public or social needs of society.

Question 9.
What do you mean by the Individual aim of education?
Answer:
The concept of individual development aim is based on the socio-political philosophy that social institutions such as the family, the church, the school and the state exist only four bettering and improving the lives of the individual. The individual is the end and social institutions are the means. Therefore, they justify their existence only if they are conducive to the promotion of individual welfare.

Society, the state and in fact all the social and political institutions exist and work for the welfare of the individual. Therefore, the aim of education should be the fullest possible development of the individual. The school as one of the social institutions for the educand offers an environment conducive to development. Education should aim at training the individual.

Question 10.
Write a synthesis, between the individual and social aims of education.
Answer:
Society and man are integrally connected. Just like the two sides of the same coin individual and society, the individual and social aims of education interact between society and the individual. The individual is an integral part of the vast society, thus for the round development of the individual all-around development of the whole human society and the world is badly needed. Society is formed by the individuals by the development and welfare of the individual and the welfare of the human society is possible.

Question 11.
What is Informal education?
Answer:
Informal education is that education which occurs automatically in the process of living. It continues as the child grows up. Informal education is just the opposite of formal education. The child in the individual learns -from out-of-school or college influences. He leams from his home and the community, where he spends most of his time. Informal education consists of activities Other than formal instruction. It is not planned at all. Good informal education plays a vital role. It prepares the child for formal education.

Question 12.
What do you mean by formal education?
Answer:
Nowadays the teaching-learning process is made functional through formal agencies of education. These agencies have their own rules and regulations, curriculum, aims, teachers, and periods which are previously fixed. According to those rules, the formal agencies of education are functioning. Besides this magic hall, libraries are included in the formal agency has great importance in modem social environments and situations.

Question 13.
What do you mean by ‘Non-formal education’?
Answer:
Non-formal education is formal education but is not given formally in set institutions like schools during fixed hours. There is a tremendous need for non-formal education in developing countries in India. On the one hand, it is needed to make illiterates literate and on the other, it is needed for those whose desire for education is insatiable but cannot afford it in formal institutions. The correspondence course is one example of non-formal education.

Question 14.
Distinguish between active and passive agencies of education.
Answer:
The active agencies of education are active and play a prominent role in imparting education. These agencies play their role through the interaction of persons involved in the educational process. The school is an active agent of education since the teachers and the pupils interact with each other. The family is an active agent of education as the parents and the children interact with each other.

Besides the school and the family, other active agencies are the church, state, the youth club etc. The passive agencies of education are those agencies which influence learners but are not themselves influenced in return. In their case, education is a one-way process. The educational radio, educational press, and the library are some of the important passive agencies of education.

Question 15.
What is the function of the school as a formal agency?
Answer:
School is the most important formal agency of education set up by the society or state. It is a well-established, organised and systematic organisation which imparts useful experience to the youngsters conservation and promotion of culture and civilization is one of the functions of the school. Besides, it builds the character of the learner and prepares the child to face the challenge of life. It evolves the leadership attitude of the child and gives gratification to his latent powers. The school acts as quite active agent in social control and social change.

Question 16.
Explain the functions of the family.
Answer:
The functions of the family are as follows:
The family helps in maintaining the physical health of the child. The character of the child is built in the family. It plays role in the intellectual development of the child. The child is acquainted with the family vocations to earn living.  It helps in the free expression of die child. The family plays an indispensable role in the development of the interests of the child.

Question 17.
Explain the objectives of non-formal education.
Answer:
Non-formal education has the following objectives:
Understanding the environment and conditions and arousing awareness of the need to make changes in it. Generating faith in science and technology knowledge and encouraging the individual to adopt their skills. Creating the capacity to learn by working and to increase one’s skills. Utilising acquired experiences in new situations. Performing the role of an agency for bringing the desired changes in history.

Question 18.
Discuss the role of radio as an agency of education.
Answer:
Radio is one of the passive agencies of education. Through this students can be able to read from great teachers and education. The students whose eyes are not capable to look are to get knowledge from this, we can get a lot of materials from the radio which is not present in our textbooks. Through radio, students can get knowledge about all over the world. Through radio, students can get an education at home without going to school.

Question 19.
Discuss the role of television as an agency of education.
Answer:
Television has brought a revolutionary change in the field of education. A student can get an education from great teachers and educators without going to school and taking anybody’s help. Through television, an educand can see the educators like him and also hears the answers given by them. If television teaching-learning processes are shown separately then students can not feel the necessity of school.

Question 20.
The role of cinema as an agency of education.
Answer:
Cinema is more important than drama. The role of cinema is as follows: It imparts education through attractive methods. The vast expanse of land, time, things incidents of inventions is produced with a few records. Education is imparted along with recreation.

Direct presentation of the smallest part of the body like blood circulation, blood bacteria etc is possible.  It imparts cheap education. It maintains us and adult education is imparted through it. The knowledge of the world, plant and animal kingdom is known from geographical situations.

Question 21.
Give the educational function of this state.
Answer:
The educational function of the state is as follows:

• Appointment of qualified teachers.
• Establishment of educational institutions.
• Training of ideal citizenship.
• To control educational institutions.
• Encourage research work.
• To bring reformation in education and set up commissions and committees.

Question 22.
Explain the educational functions of the home.
Answer:
The educational functions of the home include:

• Development of knowledge and
• cultural transmission and conservation.

Educational development is the role of the family. Literate parents affect the children and they become educated. Home helps in the mental development of the child. Secondly, cultural transmission is possible through interaction. The child learns about cultures from home and tries to conserve them. This is done generation-wise. One generation inherits culture from another generation.

Question 23.
Liberal aims of education.
Answer:
Plato condemned vocational education: Liberal education consists of studies that were fine and worthy of free man for liberal means free liberal education in Greece was meant for the self-suffering life of leisure to thinking for its own sake. Liberal education consisted of tools in the study of seven liberal arts, grammar, history and geography, rhetoric and astronomy. It is the study of classical literature.

Question 24.
Character building aim of education.
Answer:
The highest love for man is called morality. So man is considered as a moral being and has education consists in the cultivation of socially approved behaviour The man-making aspect of education reveals the idea of character formation. Every human being possesses this tendency, the higher intelligence known as morality, The Gurucul system of education emphasizes the character-building aim of education. Moral qualities like justice, sincerity, honesty, tolerance, self-control etc. make an individual socially efficient.

Question 25.
Complete living aims of education.
Answer:
The complete living aim of education includes- It should teach one. how to earn a living. It should prepare the pupils fOr social and socially political duties. Education should teach the art of self-preservation. It should ensure survival by imparting knowledge about bearing and hearing children. It should equip one for the enjoyment of the retirement of culture art literature and the like.

Question 26.
Citizenship Aim of education.
Answer:
Education is to prepare the individual for the different roles he has to perform in life. In a democratic society, the political role is to be played as important. As a citizen an individual has certain rights, education for citizenship should train him to discharge his duties and make him conscious of his rights. Education for citizenship results only in training to work out the political machinery and democracy such as the election of responsible executives to worry about public business legislation through discussions and debates.

Question 27.
Educational characteristics of Non- formal education.
Answer:
It is organised outside the formal system of education. It is deliberately organised and systematically implemented. It is life long process. It is diversified j flexible and open-ended. It provides part-time in the situation of non-filled children. To wipe out and eradicate illiteracy.

Question 28.
Aims and objectives of pre-primary education.
Answer:
To provide a healthy environment to the children. To promote a healthy, happy and regular life. To provide continuous medical supervision. To assist in the formation of healthy and good habits. To develop desirable social attitudes and habits with children. To develop an aesthetic sense of all children.

Question 29.
Aims of elementary education.
Answer:
To Understand and practise desirable social relationships. To cultivate, habits of critical thinking. To develop round body and moral mental attitudes. To develop basic skills and independence. To develop social responsibility and cooperation to improve social institutions. To develop all the constructive talents.

Question 30.
Education is a social process.
Answer:
Education as a social process continues from birth to death. Behaviour is modified interaction from person to person, and wish group. Social interaction brings desirable social, and economic value to education. The social processes as bipolar and tri-polar processes interact with the environment and a better experience is gathered by the child.

Question 31.
What are the merits of radio as a mass media?
Answer:
Radio is one of the mass media systems of education useful in the following ways

• It gives information about the happening of the world, from any comer of the world.
• Through Vidyalaya programmes, the school subjects are taught by experts.
• It facilitates learning the outside campus.
• It arises interest in tearing.
• What cannot be understood in the classroom can be felt and understood through radio programmes.

Question 32.
Give the important role of education of TV as a mass media system.
Answer:
In modem times TV- has become an important audiovisual and the mass roles played by it are as follows- Different school subjects are taught through TV programmes. TV programmes are educative and informative, giving various information about the world like science, plays interviews, business matters, music and documentary films.

When we see experiments on TV screens through tale lessons, interest arouses, it develops an interest to study science. TV programmes arises the feeling of national integration1 and international understanding among the students.

Question 33.
What is the function of school as an agency of education?
Answer:
The school as the most important formula agency of education -$s a well-organized education centre that imparts the following functions- It provides useful, experiences for youngsters. It promotes and conserves -our culture and civilization. It builds the character of the learner. It develops the quality of leadership, tolerance, and cooperation. It helps to develop the latent powers of the pupil. It acts as the social control and social change and develops the child with social qualities.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 4 Process, Stratification and Change Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 4 Process, Stratification and Change Long Answer Questions

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What do you understand by the term Social Stratification? What are its different forms? What is its social functional utility? Or, Write a short note on Social Stratification?
Answer:
In every society, there is caste and class difference. In some cases, these are more rigid as compared with others. But the ‘class’ and ‘caste’ systems are everywhere deep-rooted. It is usually difficult to get rid of this system whether these are individually or collectively liked or disliked.

What is Stratification:
Gilbert has given a very simple definition of the term social stratification when he says that social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups or categories liked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordination. Thus it is based on the superiority and subordination relationship i.e. on the concept of inequality. Thus as long as social inequality continues to exist, there will be social stratification.

Moreover, even among the castes, and classes there are differences. Some people in the same caste and class consider themselves more prestigious than others. Since a classless and casteless society is merely a dream the castes and classes are bound to remain divided on the basis of prestige, social stratification is bound to continue.

Origin of Social Stratification :
How and when social stratification began or originated is a very important problem. Some think that stratification started when people began to amass wealth. Economically better people became a class among themselves and the poor formed a separate class. Some others believe that stratification started when the nation of victor and defeated came into being. The former formed a separate and later another separate class.

Some even say that stratification came with the coming of occupations. Those who were engaged in good and rewarding professions formed a separate class compared with those who were engaged in dirty and unrewarding vocations. But so far nothing can be said about the exact origin of social stratification. All that can be said is that all these factors at different stages and with the passage of time brought stratification in the society, till the present stage came.

Forms of Stratification:
In societies, stratification can be economic, political, religious and social. Economically stratified groups can be the owners and the workers i.e, the rich and the poor. Then political stratification can be on the basis of the rulers and the ruled or those who are governors on the one hand and governed on the other. In feudal society, stratification was on the basis of property. On the one hand. were feudal lords whereas the others were the slaves who served them.

The stratification was on the basis of estates as well. Those who owned estate formed a separate class from those who did not own it. Caste also became a form of stratification. The people belonging to a higher caste considered themselves a separate class as compared with those who did not belong to that caste. Religion was also responsible for the bringing of social stratification. The orthodox formed a separate class against the unorthodox. Thus stratification is of different forms and kinds.

The necessity of Social Stratification :
Social stratification has its own advantages some such beings :
Stratification provides a sense of competition and thus all try to go up and find a higher place in society. It makes people responsible for the nature of the work that they are doing. It is also essential] for locating the status of a person in society.

Without stratification, it will be difficult to locate people with the degree of their wisdom, initiative and knowledge. It needed to give recognition to those who are able and capable so that the ability is not clubbed together with the inefficient. It helps in deciding the roles and functions of each category of person lowing in society.

Social Stratification in India:
In India, there is social, economic and political stratification. In the social field, India is both class and caste-ridden. The country’s caste system is known all over the world over various classes. Similarly, in India, there is economic stratification. Society is divided between the rich and the poor and the distinction as well as the gap between the two is very wide.

It is also increasing and day by day the rich are growing richer and the poor poorer. In the political field also there is wide stratification. Since independence practically only one family is ruling over India. A class of people is politically more conscious than the rest of the nation. Only those who can afford election expenses can contest the elections whereas the others are destined to be ruled.

Social Stratification and Social Differentiation:
Social stratification is however different from social differentiation. In social stratification, there is a hierarchy in which one class is above the other. On the other hand, in social differentiation, there is no hierarchy e.g. male and female. In stratification organised group division is needed whereas in differentiation there is no such division of society.

Question 2.
Briefly discuss some of the important characteristics of Social Stratification. Or, Explain the basic principle of Social Stratification. Can industrialisation replace the caste system with a class system in India?
Answer:
There is no society without social stratification, only the degree varies. Some of the important characteristics of social stratification are:
It is not Uniform:
Social stratification is not uniform in all societies. It varies from one society to the other. In fact, it cannot be uniform because social problems and institutions are not the same all over. As long as social problems will continue to vary stratification will not be uniform.

It helps in the valuation, of social structure :
Each society has some social structure. Whether such a structure is good or bad can be evaluated by knowing the number of classes and sub-classes in the society, occupation prestige and income of each class, gap in the thinking mixing and income of each class etc.

It is influenced by Technology :
In every society rigidity or flexibility of the system is influenced by organisation and industrialisation. Social stratification in India considerably been influenced by both those factors which are gradually but steadily sweeping India.

It is influenced by Governmental policies:
It is usually believed that the government should not interfere in the social structure of a society and as such social stratification should not be influenced by governmental actions. But in actual practice, social stratification is deeply influenced by the government’s economic, political and social policies and programmes. The present policies of the government of India e.g. in respect of backwards classes, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are bound to influence social stratification in India.

The struggle is its inherent characteristic :
Social stratification means that society is divided into various classes and as the such struggle is its inherent characteristic. It implies that the people belonging to lower classes try to come up whereas those belonging to higher classes do not allow the lower classes to join the upper classes. Similarly, people belonging to low classes try to improve their economic social and political conditions.

Implies division of labour :
Social stratification also implies the division of labour each class is expected to perform a particular type of work and accomplish that to the entire stratification of the society. Thus the division of labour is another important characteristic of society. How far the people are in a position to leave their occupation i.e. what is the extent of occupational mobility indicates the rigidity of the system.

Replacement case by class :
Now a very important question which arises is whether the caste system can be replaced by the class system due to industrialisation. In Indian society, industrialisation has no doubt given a great setback to the caste system. In the factories, industrial areas and townships, it is impossible to maintain caste rigidity. The people of different castes mix freely with each other. Not only this; but they also eat drink and play together children of different castes play in the same parks and study in the same school.

Upper caste people work under the so-called low caste people and feel proud in inviting them to their marriage and other ceremonies. In fact, there is hardly an occasion when caste is a distinction that can be maintained. But in India caste system is very much deep-rooted. It is an age-old institution. The people particularly the orthodox and those living in the rural areas. Can hardly think of Indian society without a caste system. In fact, in some cases, the caste system is becoming more deep-rooted.

It is a well-known fact that in India at the time of elections caste plays a very big, if not decisive role. Therefore, it is really difficult to think that in India class is likely to replace caste in spite of the fact that the country is being industrialised. It is only wishful thinking that in the distant future when the country gets industrialised class system will replace the caste system. But so far there is no such hope.

Question 3.
What is the social process? Explain the associative in details?
Answer:
Man lives in a society which is based on dynamic relationships. This relationship is constantly changing. Man tries to establish contacts and makes adjustments and co-operates with other members of society. All these things result in social interaction. Two forces always working in society and these forces bring about organization and disorganization of society.

All these factors are responsible for various types of processes, known as social processes or social interactions. According to Dawson and Getty, “Social interaction is a process whereby men inter-penetrate the mind of each other”.

Associative Processes :
The associative processes of social interaction are a positive type of interaction. They are also called as ‘integrative interactions’ and always work for the integration and benefit of society. This type of interaction brings progress and stability to society. These include cooperation, accommodation and assimilation. Therefore, cooperation, accommodation and assimilation are principally known as the associative processes of social interaction.

which are elaborately discussed below:
Co-operation:
Co-operation is the first fundamental and associative posses of social interaction. The word co-operation has been derived from the two Latin words ‘Co’ means ‘together’ and operate meaning ‘to work’. Hence cooperation means working together for the achievement of a common goal to goals.

Definition of Co-operation:
According to Fairchild, “Co-operation is the process by which individuals or groups combine their efforts, in a more or less organised way, for the attainment of common objectives”. A. W. Green says “Co-operation is the continuous and common endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task of reach a goal that is commonly cherished”.

Characteristics of Co-operation:

• Co-operation is one type of social interaction which takes place between two or more individuals.
• Cooperation is a conscious process.
• Cooperation is an associative process.
• Co-operation is a personal process.
• Cooperation is a continuous process.
• Cooperation is a universal process.

Role and Importance of Co-operation :
Cooperation is indispensable for both society and individuals. It creates a direct relationship between individual and individual, group and group and individual. It contracts the behaviour of individuals, it maintains balance in society through the checking of the disassociative process. Co-operation is essential for the socialization process of individuals it fulfils all the fundamental needs of human beings it brings social, cultural, political and economic development in society.

Assimilation :
Assimilation is the third associative process of social interaction. It occurs at the end of the accommodation process. An assimilation is a form of social adjustment. The process by which individuals or groups to came to share the same sentiment and goals is known as assimilation.

Definition of Assimilation:
According to Biesanz and Biesanz, “Assimilation is the social process whereby individuals and groups come to share the same sentiments, feelings and goals”. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff say “Assimilation is the process whereby individuals or groups once dis-similar become, similar and identified in their interest and outlook”.

Characteristics of Assimilation:

• Assimilation is an associative process of social interaction.
• Assimilation is closely related to accommodation.
• Assimilation is a universal process.
• Assimilation is a slow and gradual process.
• Assimilation is a conscious process.
• Assimilation- is a cultural and physiological process.

Role and Importance of Assimilation:
Assimilation creates friendly and cordial relationships between individuals and groups. It maintains unity and integrity in society. It plays a very important role in the development of human personality. Assimilation brings fundamental changes in the ancient culture, customs and traditions. It helps individuals and groups to adjust to new situations.

Accommodation:
Accommodation is another associative process of social interaction. Sometimes new conditions and circumstances arise in society. These conflicts are called accommodation, in other words, accommodation is a social adjustment. Definitions of Accommodation According to Maclver and Page “The term accommodation refers particularly to the process.

which man attains a sense of harmony with his environment”. Gillin and Gillin have defined accommodation as given below. “Accommodation is the process by which competing and conflicting individuals and groups adjust their relationship to each other in order to overcome the difficulties generally, arise in competition, contravention or conflict”.

Characteristics of Accommodation:

• Accommodation is an associative process of social interaction.
• It is a conscious activity.
• Accommodation is a universal process.
• Accommodation is a continuous process.
• Accommodation is a mixture of love and hatred.

Role and Importance of Accommodation:
Accommodation maintains peace and security the society. Accommodation checks conflicts, competition and contradiction. Accommodation helps people to adjust to the new condition of society. Accommodation prepares the way for assimilation. Accommodation resolves conflicts. Accommodation brings unity and integrity to society.

Question 4.
Discuss the dissociative social processes with suitable examples. Or, Describe the dissociative processes of social interaction?
Answer:
The dissociative processes of social interaction are a negative type of interaction. It is also known as a disintegrative interaction and always works for the disintegration of society. This type of interaction hinders the whole progress and development of society. Competition and conflict come under this category. Hence, competition and conflict are basically known as the two dissociative processes of social interaction.

Competition:
Competition is the most fundamental form of social struggle.

Definition of Competition:
According to Sutherland, Woodward and Maxwell, “Competition is an impersonal, unconscious, continuous struggle between individuals or groups for satisfaction which because of their limited supply all may not have Maclver has defined it by saying that “Competition is the simultaneous offer of like or of alternative economic sources to the same potential purchaser”. Competition is a contest to obtain something which does not exist in a quantity sufficient to meet the demand.

Characteristics of Competition:
Competition is an impersonal activity. It is not directed against any individual or group in particular. Competition is an unconscious struggle. In competition, the competitors do not know each other. Competition continuous process. It never comes to an end. Competition most universal process. It is found in every place and at all times. Competition is a means so filling one desire and aspirations. Competition is different from rivalry.

Forms of Competition:
The competition takes four main forms – economic, cultural, social and racial and political competition

Economic Competition:
It is found in production exchange and distribution as well as consumption in the field of economic activities.

Cultural Competition :
Taking the history, of any country, it can be seen that there was a great difference in the cultures of the natives and the invaders.

Social Competition:
To get high status in society everybody seems to engage in competitive activity.

Racily Competition :
In South Africa, there is intense competition between the black and the white races.

Political Competition:
In all countries, competition is obvious between the various political parties and even between the different members of the same political party to obtain political power. In the international circle, there is always diplomatic competition between different nations.

Importance of Competitions:
Competition plays an important role in the life of people, society and groups. It increases efficiency. In all cases competition for status and rise in the ladder of social importance, there is amazing progress and development of individuals and social competition between individuals and groups aims largely towards the objective of preserving or improving their respective status rather than survival.

However advantageous the competition may be it should not be left uncontrolled because then its disadvantages will overcome advantages and the result will be harmful to society Bogards is correct in saying that competition logically develops into conflict.

Conflict:
Competition gradually changes into rivalry which in turn, changes into conflict. Definition of Conflict:
Kingsley Davis observes “It is thus a modified form of struggle. According to Gillin and Gillin, ‘ ‘Conflict is the social process which individuals or groups seek their ends. by directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat or violence”.

Characteristics of Conflict:

• Conflict is a conscious action, it is deliberate Intex to oppose.
• Conflict is a personal activity.
• Conflict lack continuity.
• Conflict is universal.
• Conflict is an emotional process.

Important of Conflict:

• Conflict often brings about social unity and oneness among the people.
• Conflict defines issues.
• Conflict institutions social change.
• Conflict destroys the lives and properties of individuals.
• Conflict increases bitterness.
• Conflict leads to destruction and bloodshed.
• Conflict may lead to group tension.
• Conflict disturbs the normal channels of cooperation accommodation and assimilation.

Question 5.
What is social interaction? Discuss Cooperation and conflict as two different forms of social interaction. Or, Show that cooperation and conflict go together?
Answer:
Society is both necessary and natural for man. Man can not live in isolation. People always like to live in groups. As members of these groups, they act and behave in certain manners. The behaviour of an individual is affected by the behaviour of others. This mutual interaction or activity is the essence of social life.

Definition of social interaction:
“Social interaction consists of those mutual influences that individuals and groups have on one another in their attempts to solve problems and in their striving towards goals”. “Social interaction is a process by which men inter-penetrate the minds of each other”. Cooperation and conflict are universal elements in social life. They occur among animals as well as among human beings and they after come together.

As in the physical world where there are forces of attraction and repulsion simultaneously, operative and determinant of the position of bodies in space. So in the social world, there is a combination of cooperation and conflict revealed in the operations of men and groups. They resemble in this respect the equivalent of linked emotions of love and note. Psychologists have shown how these emotions may exist in the same individual.

A child may have his mother for the satisfaction and pleasures she provides, yet dislike her too because of the discipline, she imposes. In the same way cooperation and conflict often go together. According to Cooley, conflict and cooperation are not separable things but phases of one process which always involve something of both. Even in the most friendly relations and in the most intimate associations, there is some point where interests diverge or where attitudes are not in accord.

They can not cooperate beyond that point and conflict is inevitable. The closest cooperation”, for example, within the family does not prevent the occurrence of quarrels. Cooley writes “It seems that there. must always be an element of conflict in our relations with others as well as one of mutual aid, the whole plan of life calls for it; our very physiognomy reflects it and love and strife sit side by side upon the brow of man”. “Conflict of some sort is the life of society and progress emerges from a struggle.

In which each individual, class or institution seeks to realize its own ideal of good. The intensity of this struggle varies with the vigour of the people and its caseation if conceivable would be death”. Cooperation is a condition of conflict. Internal harmony and external conflicts are opposite sides of the same shield. It is difficult to eliminate conflict altogether from society.

Question 6.
Define social change and discuss its nature?
Answer:
According to S. Koening, “Social change refers to the modifications which occur in the life patterns of the people”. According to Lundberg “Social change refers to any modifications in established patterns of inter-human relationship and standard of conduct”. According to M.D. Johnson, “Social change may be defined as modification in ways of doing and thinking of people”.

Nature of Social Change:
Social change occurs in all societies. No society remains completely static. Society exists in a universe of dynamic influences. The population changes, technologies expand, material equipment changes ideologies and values change. The speed and extent of these changes may differ from society to society. Some change rapidly others change slowly. It is difficult to make any prediction about the exact forms of social change.

There is no inherent law of social change according to which it would assume definite forms. We may say that on account of the social reform movement untouchability will be abolished but we can not predict the exact form that social relationships will assume in future. A society’s pattern of living is a dynamic ‘ system of many related parts.

Therefore, change in one of these parts usually reacts on others and those on additional ones until they bring a change in the whole mode of life of many people. For example, industrialisation has destroyed the domestic system of production. The destruction of the domestic system of production brought women from their homes to the factory and offices.

The employment of women meant their independence from the bondage of men. It brought a change in their attitude and ideas. It meant a new social life for women. It consequently affected every part of family life. It is thought that a factor like changes in technology economic development or climatic conditions causes social change. This is called monistic theory which seeks to interpret social change in terms of one single factor.

But the monistic theory does not provide an adequate explanation of the complex phenomena of social change. As a matter of fact, social change may trigger a change but it is always associated with other factors that make the triggering possible. Social changes may be broadly categorised as modifications or replacements. It may be a modification of physical goods or social relationships. For instance, the form of our breakfast food has changed.

Though we eat the same basic materials which we ate earlier wheat and eggs, com but their form is changed. Ready to eat come Places bread, the omelette is substituted for the form in which these same materials we consumed in yesteryear. There may also be modifications of social relationships. The old authoritarian family has become a small equalitarian family. The one-room school has become a centralised school.

Our ideas about women’s rights & joint family, religion, government and co-education stand modified today. Social change does not refer to the change in the life of an individual or the life patterns of several individuals. It is a change which occurs in the life of the entire community. Its influence can be felt in a community form.

Social change is social and not individual. While social change occurs in all societies its speed is not uniform in every society. In societies, it occurs so slowly that it is not often noticed by those who live in them. Social changes in urban areas are faster than in rural areas. The speed of social changes is not uniform in each age or period in the same society.

In modem times the speed of social change is faster today than before 1947. Change is the law of nature. Social change is also natural. It may occur either in the natural course or as a result of planned efforts. Our needs keep on changing. For changing needs social change becomes a necessity.

Question 7.
Examines the role of cultural factors in social change?
Answer:
It is not an accepted fact that cultural factors do play a vital role in social change. This can very well be studied under the following heads.

The impact of social values, norms, faiths, etc. on the social structure and social change :
Social norms, values, beliefs etc. are parts of the culture. ‘They do not only determine an influence on the behaviour of the members of the society, but they also change them according to the new developments. These cultural factors give birth to technological factors and also determine their directions.

Social factors provide direction to the technological factors:
The cultural factors study the tone of thinking in the society whatsoever the material progress is made in the society is carried out in the direction in which the thinking of the people goes.

Cultural factors create new situations and new situations result in social change:
Because of cultural factors, new situations are created. In this respect, Max Weber’s interpretation of religion or his sociology of religion presents a categorical explanation of this point. According to him, Protestantism grew out of the primary stage of capitalism and its new values and norms created a new situation and also brought about new changes.

According to Max Weber, the social structure and cultural norms or values or religious norms are very much interlinked. These religious norms are very important. In fact, they form the basic form of cultural patterns. Through this principle and interpretation of region, Max Weber has very categorically proved that cultural factors which include religious factors also play a very wide role in social change.

Question 8.
What is social change? Examine the role of technology in social change?
Answer:
By social change, we mean change in the social structure of the society or in order words social change means a significant change in social relationships & Social changes include those changes in society which are sufficiently durable and which influence a majority of people.

According to Jones, “Social change is a term used to describe variations, in or modification of any aspects of social process, social patterns, interrelations or social organisations”. In According to Maclver and Page, “Our directed concern as sociologists is with social relationships. It is the change in this relationship which alone we shall regard as social change”.

The role of Technology in social change :
Technological growth and industrialisation:
The introduction of machines in the industry has resulted in some fundamental changes in the social structure of society. The invention of machines has led to the creation of huge factories which employ thousands of people and where most of the work performed automatically. Industrialisation and the birth of gigantic factories led to urbanisation and this city came into existence. Again the processes of urbanisation and industrialisation transformed the structure of society.

The social organisation divided itself into classes such as capitalists and labourers between which a fierce conflict raged. To promote class interests lockouts strikes processions become the stocks in trade. Industrialisation destroyed the domestic system of production bringing women from the home to the factory and the office differentiating their tasks distinguishing their earnings. The burden of work in the family which falls on the women has been decreased, by the increasing use of mechanical appliances.

Development of new agricultural techniques and social change :
An important factor in technology is the development of new techniques in agriculture. Due to the development of new techniques in agriculture muscle power has been replaced by machine power. Agricultural production is increased due to the use of new chemical manures. The quality is also improved by the use of superior seeds. Hence the increase in agricultural production also improved the standard of living of the people.

Advancement of means of communication transport and social change:
The introduction of machinery in the industry led to the development of large-scale production which necessitated communication between traders situated far apart. In this connection, many benefits were reaped through postal service, telegraph, telephone etc. Newspaper, television, radio etc. helped to bring news from the comer of the world right into the household. The development of the cycle, motor, rail, ship and aeroplane made transportation of communities much easier.

Technology and new values:
The new values have come up as growth of technological development as such. A new philosophy of life came into being. Technological factors change men’s values thoughts habits and finally bring change in culture as a whole success is measured in monetary terms. Quantity is preferred to quality. The desire for immediate results is intense men have come more pragmatic in their out locks. In this way, technological factor brings many changes in society.

Question 9.
Describe the major factors of social change with examples. Or, What is social change and discuss its factors?
Answer:
Social change is the change in society. Society is a web of social relationships. Hence social change is a change in social relationships. Maclver and Page, writing in this context, have observed correctly, “It is the change in these which alone we shall regard as social change is a change in social relationships. Social relationships include social processes, social patterns and social interactions.

These include the mutual activities and relations of the various parts of society. In the words of Johnes, “social change is a term used to describe variations or modifications of any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interactions, or social organisations”. Thus social change is a change in the social organisation. It is in this sense that Davis has written that “By social change is mean only such alterations as secure in social organisations.

the structure and functions of society”. Social change can be observed in every society. The fact of social change can be verified by glancing at the history of society. Man is a dynamic being. Hence society can not remain static. It undergoes constant social change. Sometimes, the change is slow and at the other time, it may be very rapid.

Factors of Social Change:
Some thinkers regard diffusion to be the main factor of social change while some other writers consider invention in a similar capacity. Actually, both diffusion and invention have a hand in the change which sets social relationships. Roughly, the main causes of social change are the following:

Cultural Factors:
The main cause of social change, in the opinion of Max Weber, is the cultural factor. According to him, changes in culture are accompanied by social changes. Max Weber has proved his theory through a comparative study of religious and economic institutions. Actually, no one can deny that changes and variations in culture inevitably influence social relationships.

Technological Factors :
Technological factors have a tremendous influence on social change. Technology changes society by changing over environments which we in turn adopt. This change is usually in a material environment and the adjustment we make to the changes often modifies customs and social institutions. Society is undergoing change as a result of the development and invention of electric, steam and petrol-driven machines for production.

the means of transport and communication and various mechanical appliances in everyday life. Even institutions like family and marriage have not remained immune to the effect of these developments. The apparent effects of technological advances are labour organisations and the division of labour. Socialization, high speed of life, increase in production, etc. In the modem age, technological factors are among the predominant causes of social change.

Biological Factors:
Biological factors have some indirect influence on social change. Among the biological factors are Population, and heredity. The qualitative aspect of the population is based upon powerful and great men and their birth is dependent to a large extent upon heredity and mutation. Hence, biological factors play a part in social change to that extent. In addition to this, the biological principles of natural selection and the struggle for survival are constantly producing alternation in society.

Population Factors :
Change in the quality and size of the population has an effect on social organisations as well as customs and traditions, institutions, associations etc. Increase and decrease in population, a change in the ratio of men and women, young and old, have an effective relationship. A decrease or increase in the population has an immediate effect on economic institutions and associations. The ratio of men to women in a society affects marriage, family and the condition of women in society. In the same way, the birth and death rates etc. also influence social change.

Environmental Factors :
Geographers have emphasized the impact of the geographical environment on human society. Huntington has given so far as to assert that an alternation in the climate is the sole cause of the evolution and devolution of civilizations and cultures. Even if these claims of the geographers are to be discarded, it cannot be denied that floods, earthquakes, excessive rain, drought, change of season etc. have significant effects on social relationships and these are modified by such natural occurrences.

Psychological Factors :
Most sociologists regard psychological factors as important elements in social change. The cause of social changes is the psychology of man himself. Man is, by nature, a lover of change. He is always trying to discover new things in every sphere of his life and is always anxious for noble experiences. As a result of this tendency, the modes, traditions, customs, etc. of every human society are perpetually undergoing changes.

Question 10.
Discuss the Demographic factors of social change?
Answer:
Population and its impact on social change:
Population plays vital in social change if the population of a country is far ahead of the available resources, the country suppers economic difficulties and poverty. The division of labour which is an important factor of social change is also governed by the population. Normally a society which has less population has more uniformity and increases in population bring about diversity.

In fact, population-like geographical factors play a vital part in social change. Thinkers and economists like Malthus, Sanders etc. have propounded their theories which law down that population plays a vital role in social change. Malthusian theory of population and its impact on social change Malthus has propounded a theory of population which mainly deals with the increase of population, ways to check it, and methods for feeding it.

But along with this theory, this theory also puts forward the effects that population has on social change, Malthus has said that as a result of an increase in population which grows in a natural manner, within 25 years the population which if of a country, due to rise. geometrical proportion shall become double it. On the other hand, the resources and means of livelihood do not rise in geometrical proportion, they rise in mathematical proportion so the rise in population leaves the growth of resources far behind.

This disbalance creates a lot of problems for society. Unless there is a balance between the resources and the population, the society shall have to face a lot of problems. That is why Malthus has pleaded for use of checks for the rise in population. He has said that the population is not checks nature by it Creates certain situation that reduces the population. Due to dis-balance the resources and the population, several problems like hunger, poverty and unemployment etc.

grow they bring about several changes. Malthusian theory suffers from various weaknesses. It fails to recognize the contribution of scientific and technological factors to the growth in resources. Apart from it, the problems of want, hunger unemployment etc. are not the natural colliery to rise in population in many countries where there is proper balancing between the population and the resources but the country suffers from these problems.

Apart from it, this theory fails to recognize the importance of economic factors in checking the population. As a result of the rise in the standard of living, people reduce the number of issues and so the growth of the population is automatically checked. In spite of the weakness of the Malthusian theory, income rates above, the fact can not be denied that population has an impact on social change. Solder and his theory of rise in population and its impact on social change.

This is the theory which is quite different from Malthusian theory. According to this theory, with every new generation, the power of fecundates of the population goes down. By this theory, he tries to prove that with the rise in the social standard, the power of people to produce children and to increase in population goes down. In this manner they try to drive that there is a close relationship between social change and the rise and fall of the density of the population.

Malthus says that with every generation the power of producing children goes down. This theory is not accepted by the modem thinkers but the basic underline idea of the theory that the population is linked with social change is established. Demographic or population factors of social change Having studied these two theories which are even today looked on with respect in regard to a study of population, we can now safely rate the factors that bring about social change.

These factors are as follows.
Effect of excess population on society and the developments in society :
As a result of an excess population, several changes and development take place in society. It creates problems of food, employment education, provision for good need necessities development the responsibility lies on the excess population. Because of this excess population, the benefits of development and the new resources are not fairly utilised and used.

Effect of birth rate and death rate on Social change and social developments :
If due to the rise of the birth rate, the population of a country goes up, society is faced with several problems, similarly if due to a rise in the death rate the number of working hands goes down in a society when society is not able to make ful use of its resources. People are able to take full advantage of the resources of scientific and technological development only when there is balanced birth and death rate.

Composition of population and social change:
By composition of the population, it is meant the composition of various groups, sex etc. in a society if in a society the number of old people is more than the young, the society shall not be able to make progress, On the other hand, in a society, there are very few old persons, that society shall not be able to take full advantage of the women and children, the problems of feeding them brings about various social complications developments and the changes. In other words, it means the composition of the population has an impact on social change.

Population, immigration and emigration:
if the population of a country goes up. At rapid speed and people are faced with various economic problems they migrate form one country to another this creates problems for the society from which migrate and in countries like Australia people of other countries are welcomed while in countries like India it is not possible to welcome addition to the population.

People of countries like Australia want manpower to utilise their resources while countries like India want their populations so balanced that there is close coordination between the population and the resources. All these points go to prove that population and social changes are very much interrelated rise or decline in population has an impact on society and brings about several developments and changes.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 1 Fundamental of Education Long Answer Questions Part-1.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Foundations of Education 1 Fundamental of Education Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Questions with Answers

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of education with its definitions.
Answer:
Education is life and life is education. Education is an integral part of human life and it is the basic condition for the development of the whole man. It is a human activity which helps in the prosperity of human beings. Education brings a difference between man and animal, literate and illiterate. Without education, man would be like an animal.

Education is a process, an activity which continues throughout life. From a sociological point of view, education is a lifelong process which starts at the birth of the individual and ends with his death. Education has different meanings interpreted differently by different persons, and professions of life. For example, a parent may consider education as a positive force to enable the child to prepare for life or to earn a name and fame in society.

A teacher considers education for the Newman, a new society and a new nation. To a student education is nothing but the acquisition of knowledge skills and attitudes and passing in the examination to achieve degrees or diplomas. To an Artist, education as a way to love and enjoy the beauty and an Artisan considers education as a means to master a skill.

To a statesman, education is a means to train ideal citizens. So in society, parents, teachers, administrators, engineers, doctors, policemen and other professionals consider education differently. So education has no definite unitary meaning. The learning of socially approved behaviour is the most widely accepted definition of education.

Derivative Meaning of Education:
Education is explained as the art of leading out in which “E” means: out of” and “Duco” means. “I lead”. So education is to draw out: It helps in the intellectual, moral, physical and innate powers and development of man and the child. Education is derived from three Latin terms “Educare”, “Educere” and “Educatum”, The term “Educere” means “to bring up”, “To raise” and “To levate”.

To term “Educare” means “to lead out”, “to draw out”, “to nourish”, and “to flourish” and the third term “Educatum” means “to educate” or train”. So education helps in the social, intellectual, physical, moral, emotional and spiritual development of man. It is the process of innate powers, and development. Both Eastern and Western thinkers have given their opinions differently on the term education with its functions.

Education to Eastern philosophers:

(1)	Rig Veda	To Rig Veda “Education is something in this earth that makes one self-reliant and selfless”.
(2)	Bhagavad Gita	“Nothing is purifying in this world than education”.
(3)	Upanishad	“Education is for liberation”.
(4)	Kautilya	“Education means training for the country, society and love for the nation”.
(5)	Tagore	Education helps in the solution of all our problems.
(6)	Aurovindo	Education is a process whereby one can love for the divine, for the country, for himself and for others.
(7)	Gandhiji	“By Education”, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child, with body, mind and spirit”.
(8)	Swami Vivekananda	“Education means the manifestation of the divine perfection”.
(9)	Gopabandhu	“The knowledge gained in the training centre is education”.

Education to Western Thinkers:

(1)	Plato	“Education is a capacity to feel pleasure and pain in the right moment
(2)	Aristotle	“Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body”.
(3)	Pcstalozzi	“Education is natural, harmonious and progressive development of man’s innate powers.”
(4)	Froebel	“It is the process by which” the child makes internal-external”
(5)	Socrates	“Education is a process which brings out universal validity which is latent in minds of everyone”.
(6)	John Dewey	“Education is the process of continuous reconstruction of experiences”.
(7)	John Ross	“Education aims at a personality development and spiritual consciousness of man”.
(8)	Herbert Spencer	“Education is complete living”.

Narrow Meaning of Education:
In a narrow sense, education is linked with schooling and ends when the child leaves the educational centre. It emphasizes classroom teaching, linked within the four walls of the classroom and bookish knowledge. No external influence is there and no experience is there. There is no importance on external experience or knowledge, It is limited to four walls of the classroom only. It is a systematic pre-planned process.

Wider Meaning of Education:
In a broader sense, education helps with growing and development of the child. A child’s life is filled with external experiences. The child gets a chance to mix with the outside world. Along with curricular activities, co-curricular social activities, attitudes, and social qualities develop. The character is modified, and the behaviour is changing. Constant interaction with the environment results in the modification of human behaviour. In a wider sense, education is life and life is education.

Question 2.
Discuss Education as a process a social process.
Answer:
Education is a process which continues throughout life from birth to death. Brown considers that education is a consciously controlled process whereby changes in behaviour are produced in the person and through the process within the group. Here, a consciously controlled process is meant for external control.

This means that through the educational process the changes in the behaviour of the person are brought about not only by the internal forces but by the external forces which are latent in the environment like getting when a child learns any activity on his dress, eating food with his own hands etc. The environment and the child’s close relations are the key figures in the learning process.

The educational process is a social process from a specific point of view. The innate powers of the child get motivated due to the social environment and the child begins to learn a change in his behaviour. This, in fact, is education. There are many aspects of social interaction that make for more effective participation in the total process of social interaction whether in terms of social, economic, health or any other socially desirable value in education.

In this way, education is a process which occurs by itself, due to social interaction and social motivation. The process is helpful in the progress of society and encourages social institutions. From an educational sociology point of view in the study of social relations. In the past, the process of education was bipolar. There was a direct interaction between the teacher and the teacher and textual knowledge is gained.

But with the interaction of teacher, taught and environment social interaction is possible and greater experienced learning takes place. In tri-polar process of education is experience gained by social process from the environment: So education is a social process. This is also a social interaction process. In all social changes and social cohesion, social mobility is the result of social interaction. There are a large number of social factors which bring social change such as technological factors. So education is a social process and the child educates himself within the social environment.

Question 3.
Discuss the social aims of education.
(or)
How far it is applicable to the social development of man? Explain.
Answer:
The aims of education are social and individual. Individual aims of education are aimed at individual development. The educational aims tend to lay stress on the growth of social values, and social attitudes of men, and individuals.

Society Education :
Education is an integral part of society which takes place in the interaction of individuals with groups and entire cultures. It brings a change in the behaviour of man. Education through its social process or instructions tries to modify society and the behaviour of the individual and society. Education and society are interrelated. The chief aim of education is to socialize men.

Education as a Social Process:
Man is a social being who dwells in society, and grows in society. The growing and thinking for a vast complex of interaction and relations. Right education helps the child to adjust himself to the social environment. Through education the child is able to develop reasoning in social relations and cultivates social awareness, social virtues and social sensitiveness, The social reconstruction takes place in the adjustment, Through education society can formulate its own purpose and organise its means and resources.

School as a Society in Miniature:
The school can be considered a society in miniature. Varied experiences are to be provided for the child so that in his own way he is prepared to live. Activities leading to his child’s emotional, aesthetic, intellectual and physical development must find an equal emphasis with the school.

Continuous Reconstruction of Experiences:
To John Dewey, education is the continuous reconstruction of experiences, It is the development of all those capacities in the individuals which will enable them to control their environment and pupils has possibilities. It helps in the transmission of experiences. The experience of an individual involves a situational context, that is not spatial and temporal but continual. So continuous reconstructions of experience give a more socialized value. Every generation inherits experiences from the last generation’s participation in changing situations. So activities also undergo changes accordingly.

Merits of Social Aims:
Society or state is essentially needed for the individual without a state peace, security tranquillity, and justice can not be maintained Thus, individuals should be prepared to maintain society’s state even at cost of their life. When an individual child comes from his/ her mother’s word he/she comes with certain raw instincts.

But it is through the magic of the social environment that he develops into a normal social human being. That’s why the social aim of education should be emphasized. Raymont says, “An isolated individual is a figment of imagination. Hence, individuals make society stable and well-organised. Culture and civilization are intimately related to each other.

They are bom and developed in society. It is the responsibility of every citizen to serve society to develop both. The extreme social aim of education neglects the individual’s freedom and it develops narrow nationalism, The extreme social aims of education neglect the individual’s freedom and the individual are neglected.

Question 4.
Explain the individual aims of education. Too many individual aims of education are not desirable Why? Explain.
Answer:
In a narrow sense the individual aim is known as self-expression and in a broader sense education should develop in the individuality of a child, by individual aims of education we mean, not the individual development only but both the individual and society. Individual aims of education directly benefit the individual. The importance is given to an individual’s capacity to earn his livelihood, fulfilling his own and his family’s needs.

The second objective is the development of the individual. The individual can fulfil the complexities of life. Individual aims of education have their own merits and limitations. Firstly, the individual instincts and inherent tendencies. Every child differs from every other in respect of Colour, a form of interest, mental abilities, intelligence, thinking etc. The aim of education is to develop each child in conformity with his special abilities.

The success of life depends upon the development of this kind. It is believed that education must seek to develop individual abilities and education becomes child-centred. Progressivists supported the individual aims of education. According to T.P. Nunn, the progress of the world is rooted in the development and progress of the individual personality. The individuals have contributed to their special abilities.

Nothing good enters into the human world except in and through the free activities of individual men and women and so the aim of education is to develop individual men and women. To Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel and T.P. Nunn, individuality is the ideal of life. Democrats supported the importance of individual aims of education. Democracy gives stresses the freedom of the individual.

Democracy aims at providing the greatest freedom and equality to all individuals and the state should make special arrangements for the education of the backward, orphans and physically handicapped. Individual aims of education are not free from criticism. Individual aims provide sufficient freedom to individuals as a result society is neglected.

Unrestricted freedom leads to indiscipline, conflict, and tension which promotes social disintegration. Individual aims of education neglect the moral values of children. It emphasizes the individual differences of the children. It is difficult to develop love, sympathy, sacrifice, service, cooperation, brotherhood and moral values among children. Due to much emphasis on individual aims society is neglected.

Question 5.
Discuss the vocational aims of education and its merits.
Answer:
The basic need of a man is food, clothing and shelter. If education does not enable us to provide these basic needs, the education of Oil industrialisation and mechanisation and emphasis is given to vocational education. Different commissions put stress on vocational education at secondary and higher secondary stages of education. Emphasis is given to vocational education which is known as the bread-and-butter aim of education.

It aimed at fulfilment of his basic needs. Hence, educationists emphasized, the vocational aim of education so that he would be able to solve economic problems without any difficulty. It is the economic self-sufficiency of a person. which makes him a worthy and contributing person. So education should prepare the child for future vocations. Now the vocational aim of education has become very essential.

Merits of Vocational Aims:-
The merits of vocational aims of education are as follows:
A person who is trained in vocation develops confidence, and self-assurance, He knows that he will not be a drag on society, and he feels that he is not a parasite or dependent on others. Vocational education not only benefits the individual but also leads society towards greater prosperity, and industrial advancement. Vocational education is very necessary for school-going children.

Such children lose, interest when made to perform academic tasks which are beyond their understanding, but they indicate a keen interest in making things and in acquiring manual and physical skills. Vocational schools and poly technique schools for such students have proved immense value in the educational systems all over the world. Vocational aim results in the creation of more doctors, engineers and technicians of high calibre who lead their country towards prosperity.

Question 6.
Discuss the democratic aims of education.
Answer:
The political system in a country is reflected in the educational system. It means democracy can never be successful without education. Whenever democracy becomes unsuccessful has been because of education. In a democracy, the government is composed of the elected representation of the people and if the people are uneducated they can never elect the right leaders we cannot hope for a good democracy to prevail.

Democratic government demands educated people. Education can generate and instil the qualities that democracy demands. The aim state is to achieve the highest moral level and this can be reached through education alone. Democracy aims at the round development of personality. The success of a democratic society also depends upon mature men and women.

A mature personality has gone through physical, mental, social, ethical and spiritual development. Hence education should aim at the development of all aspects of personality through various kinds of training. Education in a democracy must create a democratic personality. It discovers individual potentialities and enables them to realize and utilize the facilities provided to the individuals.

It must equip the individual with the power of judgement and scientific thinking. The Secondary Education Commission has remarked that democracy aims at developing some vocational skills in education. No nation can progress in the absence of economic development. The first and foremost duty of the state is to provide a system and means of education which imparts some vocational skills to education so that they can earn their livelihood as well as they can contribute to the nation’s economic prosperity.

The success of democracy depends largely upon the people’s awareness of their rights and duties and the extent to which people fulfil their responsibilities. Education aims at developing this ability in people. Democracy aims at inculcating the individual spirit of tolerance. The individual’s personality and emotional balance are needed. The important aim of education is to develop leadership.

The success of democracy depends on the capabilities of the leadership. In a decentralised government, there is a need for skilled leadership at different levels of administration. Democratic government run by the elected representatives of the people needs expert leadership for the development and progress in every sphere political, economic, social, scientific and cultural. Education should aim at evoking such leadership because without doing this, education cannot make any contribution to democracy.

Question 7.
Bring a synthesis between individual vs. Social aims of education.
Answer:
For better development of individuality and improvement of society, there is a need for a synthesis between the two ‘aims The individual aim if stressed greatly, will produce against, while the extreme emphasis on social aim will create suppressed personalities. Therefore the extreme form of either of them should be avoided.

If we examine both aims dispassionately, we shall find that neither the individual nor the society can exist without each other. Both individual and society are the two parts of a coin. Society is formed with the aggregate of individuals and individuals cannot exist without society. The individual is the product of society, while society finds its advancement in the development of the individual member.

It must be admitted that, the individual cannot develop in a vacuum. He is a social animal. In all walks of life, he is influenced by all who surround him. He can not escape the cultural influences of society. These influences shape the personality makeup of man. His potentialities are stimulated by environmental forces. Therefore, individuality cannot and should not be emphasized by neglecting general human ideals.

In the words of Sir- John Adams.”Individuality requires a social medium to grow, without Social contract we are not human.” Thus, both schools, of thought have made valuable contributions to the art and science of education. The school should try to develop the individuality of children through social contacts and social control, with maximum possible freedom for individuals.

Individuality is not a private possession but is the means through which real good can enter the world. The good of all is the good of each! So the real aim of education may be defined as the highest development of the individual as a member of society. Therefore, we may conclude by saying that the individual and the society may both be regarded as equally important neither of the two being absolutely independent of the other.

Instead of being regarded as isolated entities the individual and the society should be considered as functionally related to each other, the individual acting on the society and the society, re-acting on the individual. The personality of the individual has to be developed, but this cannot be done in. isolation. The individual personality is essentially a product of the interaction between the individual and society.

The claims of the individual as well as the society are equally important. The individual has the right to live on his own, according to one’s needs and desires fie, and must have the freedom to develop himself according to his potentialities and capacity. But his freedom must have its limits. Freedom cannot be allowed to degenerate in science because the right of freedom of everybody has to be protected.

It is here that society and the state should see that the freedom of every individual is safeguarded. But the state should not go beyond this. The state or the society should not curb the freedom of the individual to such an extent that his very growth and development is thwarted. On the other hand, the state should do everything possible to promote the happiness and welfare of each and every member of society.

Individuals should think it is their sacred duty to Work for the welfare and progress of the whole of society. Both the individual and society should work for a common objective. Both have their own sphere of action and work and they should not try to cross the boundaries of their own jurisdiction. In this way, their rate will be complementary to each other and the individual, as well as the society, will grow and develop simultaneously.

Question 8.
Discuss the scope of education.
Answer:
Scope refers to the extent, broad range, comprehensive and variety of learning experiences. So scope means, the extent of the study, range of view, outlook, application, effectiveness and operation. From this education should concern with the whole man. Education is life itself. Its scope is very wide as the whole world, as long as the history of mankind. The following subject matters included the scope of education.

Philosophy of Education:
The philosophy of education is one of the oldest disciplines. Plato devoted his attention to the- nature and content of education. Philosophy and education are related to flowers and fragrances. Philosophy determines all the aspects of education-nature of education, curriculum, method of teaching, nature of textbooks, nature of discipline, evaluations, role of the teacher, school/organisation etc. and education makes them practical. So philosophy and education are interrelated.

Educational Sociology:
To Prof Ottaway, Education can be studied from many different points of view. What is called the sociology of education? Education is an activity which goes on the society. Hence, its aims and methods depend on the nature of the society in which it functions. The sociology of education is the study of the relationship between education and society. It is a social study. Since the method is scientific, it is accepted as a branch of social science. This branch of education deals with the aims of education, methods of teaching, administration and supervision, and cultural and religious forces of the society in which they take place.

Educational Psychology:
The child is the central point of education. Education is organised according to the potentialities, developmental level, interests and aptitudes. Educational psychology helps in understanding the child, his nature, interests, abilities, attitudes, power of memory, thinking, imagination, learning habits and personality, learning process and conditions which influence the learning situation.

History of education:
The history of education also comes under the scope of education. By the help of this we understand the gradual development of education, during different periods of history. It also helps us to find a suitable system of education, for the changing needs of our society. It recalls of the past and consciousness for the present and future.

Comparative education:
Comparative education helps us to modify, reform, reorient and improve an educational system. It is the study of a cross-cultural comparison of the structure, operation methods and aims of achievement of various educational systems and practices of the different countries of the world.

Problems and issues of education:
Educational problems and issues are found in the methods of solving these problems. Some of the important problems like vocationalisation of education, problems of population education, non-formal education, y adult education development of a national system of education, religious and moral education, national integration, medium of instruction, improvement of examination system etc. Education cannot achieve progress unless k. studies the problems and finds out their solutions.

Educational Administration and Organisation:
In educational administration and organisation, we study topics like the role of central and state govt, in education, how to build and equip schools, how to organise co-curricular activities how to maintain discipline, how to classify evaluation and promote educational and vocational guidance, how to keep records, how to organise the library, how to frame time table are under the scope of education.

The technique of teaching:
The technique of teaching is also included in the scope of education. The most useful methods are employed in teaching-learning. In order to make education effective we are to study and use various techniques of teaching and learning.

Question 9.
Discuss the Nature of Education.
Answer:
The Nature of Education is as follows:

Education is growth:
Growth is the characteristic of life which- begins from birth and continues till the end of life. It is the result of the constant interaction of the organism with the environment. Experiences result from the natural interaction between the organism and its environment and learning take place in the organism. The entire process of growth and development resulting from learning is called education.

Education is the direction:
Education directs the capacities, attitudes, interests and urges, needs, instincts, tendencies etc. of the individual into the most desirable and socially accepted channels.

Education is an Art of Training:
Education is a conscious purpose to train children to fulfil the responsibilities of adult life. True education is the training of the individual to discriminate between good and evil. It is the training of the intellect, body and mind, training of cooperation, love and sympathy.

Education is influence:
Education is the influence of the environment upon the individual in order to bring about healthy change in his habits of the behaviour of thought and attitude. Through such influences, he develops those capacities which enable him to control influence and to adjust to his environment realise the possibilities and fulfil them in a socially desirable manner.

Education is the modification of behaviour:
Education changes instinctive behaviour into human behaviour. It gives a new shape to the child. Education helps this child to know the world. It enables him what he is and what he is not.

Education is a continuous reconstruction of experience:
Education has been defined as growth which is a process of transformation from the order to the new order of life. It reorganises experiences to make the child relevant to the need of life and in the process, the individual and the society grow. New ideas, new values, new attitudes and new interests develop from new experiences and the dynamism of life.

Question 10.
Discuss the process of education.
Answer:
The process of education is as follows:

Education is a lifelong process:
Education is a lifelong process and there is no end to education. It starts right from the cradle and ends in the graveyard. Education is not confined to a definite place or environment. The task of imparting education can not be limited to some definite persons like teachers or instructors. At every moment of one’s life, there are situations that provide a learning experience. Thus education is life and life is education.

Education-A.Bipolar process:
Adams in his book “Evolution of Educational. Theory” has advocated education as a bipolar process and that bipolar education has two poles. In his words – “There must always be a teacher or educator pole and a pupil or educand pole and pupil or educand pole”. We should not think of education with one pole. Thus, in the process of education, Moliere is the interaction between the teacher and the child.

The teacher tries to mould and modify the behaviour of the child so that he later” develops his personality to the full. In this way, with the active cooperation of the teacher and the child the processor’s education goes on smoothly and effectively.

Education-A tri-polar process:
Sir, A.E. Adamson proposed this tri-polar process, the theory of education. This is the modem concept of education, It is maintained that all education is taking place in the society or social environment. The total environment of the child becomes the basic source of education. John Dewey, says that education is not a bi-polar process but it is a tripolar process.

John Dewey recognises the importance of the psychological side, which includes the study of the child’s needs, interests, capacities, and talents. He has also laid great stress on the sociological side. He believes that society plays a vital role in this process of education. When the child participates in the social situation and there is an interaction between him and the social environment. So the third pole is the social environment or social fillies. Thus, the Tripolar process involves three things:

• the teacher
• the taught
• the social environment.

Education-A dynamic process:
Education is not confined to certain fixed rules and regulations. It is a dynamic process. It includes all the aspects of this fast-changing world, It is this dynamic aspect of education, which enables the individual to face future problems of life.

Education-A deliberate process:
The process of education is not only conscious but also deliberate. The educator is fully aware of the fact that his aim is to develop the personality of the child along definite lines through the modification of his behaviour.

Education-A psychological and sociological process:
According to the psychological aspect of the process, the educator. must understand the nature, interests, capacities and limitations of the child. A sociological aspect implies that the educator must also interpret the endowments of the child in a social setting.

Question 11.
Discuss the aims of Secondary Education.
Answer:
Since the inception of the modern education system in the country, the aim of education has undergone great changes. However, the aims of secondary education can be discussed in the following manner.

Development of democratic citizenship:
India is a democratic country which needs efficient citizens for smooth functioning. Education should shoulder the responsibility of providing training to children in democratic citizenship. Democratic citizenship involves many intellectual, social and moral qualities. It should develop the capacity for clear thinking and receptivity to new ideas.

It should bring about the development of all the innate capacities of the child. It should cultivate in the children an openness of mind and heart so that they become capable of entertaining of the diversities in various fields. It should include a true spirit of world citizenship in the children.

Improvement of vocational efficiency:
Our present national situation demands that the productive or mechanical and vocational efficiency of our students should be increased. This involves an appreciation of the dignity of work as well as the realization of that self-fulfillment and national prosperity is only possible through work. There is also a need to promote technical skill and proficiency so as to provide trained and efficient personnel to work out a scheme of industrial and technological advancement. This is possible through a diversified curriculum at the secondary stage.

Development of personality:
The students should be trained to appreciate their cultural heritage and to contribute in later life, to the development of the heritage. The pupil’s whole personality, emotional life, social impulses, constructive talents, his artistic talents etc. are to be looked after by education. It is therefore recommended that the curriculum should include subjects like art, craft, music, dancing and the development of hobbies which will be in the development of the whole personality of the students.

Education for leadership :
For a democracy to function successfully requires that all its people should be trained to discharge their duties and responsibilities efficiently. This involves training in discipline as well as leadership. Primary education will inculcate the capacity for discipline work in the pupils whereas university education will train leadership at the highest level in different walks of life. The special function of Secondary education is to train personnel Who Will be able to assume the responsibility or leadership in the social, political, industrial and cultural fields, in their small own group or community of locality.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Sociology Solutions Unit 4 Process, Stratification and Change Objective Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Sociology Unit 4 Process, Stratification and Change Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Who defines “Social process refers to the repetitive terms of behavior which are commonly sound in social life”?
(a) M. Ginsberg
(b) Horton and Hunt
(c) A. W. Green
(d) Maclver
Answer:
(b) Horton and Hunt

Question 2.
Does the associative social process work for the _____?
(a) Disintegration of society,
(b) Organisation of society,
(c) Integration of society.
Answer:
(c) Integration of society.

Question 3.
Does the dissociative social process work for the ______?
(a) Integration of society.
(b) Disintegration of society.
Answer:
(b) Disintegration of society.

Question 4.
The term co-operation is derived from _______?
(a) French word.
(b) Greek word.
(c) Latin word.
Answer:
(c) Latin word

Question 5.
Who said that “Co-operation is the continuous and common endeavor of two or more persons to perform a task or to reach a goal that is commonly cherished?
(a) A. W. Green
(b) Wilson
(c) Fairchild
(d) Maclver
Answer:
(a) A. W. Green

Question 6.
Tilling the fields together is an example of ______?
(a) Indirect co-operation
(b) Direct co-operation
(c) Secondary co-operation
Answer:
(b) Direct cooperation.

Question 7.
When people do different tasks towards a similar goal we call it _______?
(a) Direct co-operation
(b) Indirect co-operation
(c) Primary co-operation
Answer:
(b) Indirect co-operation

Question 8.
Which of the following is a characteristic of cooperation?
(a) Impersonal process
(b) Personal process
(c) Indirect co-operation
Answer:
(b) Personal process.

Question 9.
Co-operation found among the members of a political party is an example of a?
(a) Primary co-operation
(b) Secondary co-operation
(c) Direct co-operation
Answer:
(b) Secondary co-operation

Question 10.
When two political parties of different ideologies cooperate among themselves to defeat the third party it is an example of?
(a) Primary co-operation
(b) Secondary co-operation
(c) Tertiary co-operation
(d) Direct co-operation
Answer:
(c) Tertiary co-operation

Question 11.
Who opines “Competition is an interaction without social contact”?
(a) Horton and Hunt
(b) Maxwell
(c) Biesonz
(d) Park and Burgess
Answer:
(c) Biesonz

Question 12.
Which one of the following is the characteristic of competition?
(a) Conscious activity
(b) Intermittent process
(c) Governed by norms
Answer:
(c) Governed by norms

Question 13.
When people compete to achieve higher status, we call it?
(a) Economic competition
(b) Social competition
(c) Educational competition
Answer:
(b) Social competition

Question 14.
The competition found in the process of production distribution and consumption is?
(a) Political competition
(b) Cultural competition
(c) Economic competition,
Answer:
(c) Economic competition

Question 15.
When two political parties compete for the power it is called?
(a) Political competition
(b) Economic competition
(c) Social competition
Answer:
(a) Political competition

Question 16.
Competition between Aryans and Dravidians is an example of a?
(a) Social competition
(b) Cultural competition
(c) Economic competition
(d) Political competition
Answer:
(b) Cultural competition

Question 17.
Competition between white and black is an example of a?
(a) Racial competition
(b) Cultural competition
(c) Social competition
(d) Political competition
Answer:
(a) Racial competition

Question 18.
Who opines “Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or others”?
(a) Maclver
(b) A.W. Green
(c) Herton and Hunt
(d) GillinandGillin
Answer:
(b) A. W. Green

Question 19.
Who defines “Conflict as the total social process in which individuals or groups seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonists by violence or threat of violence”?
(a) A. W. Green
(b) Horton and Hunt
(c) GillinandGillin
(d) Ogburn
Answer:
(c) Gillin and Gillin

Question 20.
Which of the following is a characteristic of conflict?
(a) Conflict is impersonal
(b) Intermittent process
(c) Unconscious activity
Answer:
(b) Intermittent process

Question 21.
Who mentioned about four forms of conflict such as war, feud, litigation, and conflict of impersonal ideals?
(a) Maclver
(b) George Simmel
(c) K. Davis
(d) Ogbum
Answer:
(b) George Simmel

Question 22.
When one participant in conflict attempts to destroy another it is called a?
(a) Episodic conflict
(b) Terminal conflict
(c) Continuous conflict
Answer:
(b) Terminal conflict

Question 23.
The conflict regulated by rules is known as a?
(a) Terminal conflict
(b) continuous conflict
(c) Episodic conflict
Answer:
(c) Episodic conflict

Question 24.
The conflict which takes place among the members of some group is called?
(a) War
(b) Feud
(c) Litigation
(d) Racial conflict
Answer:
(b) Feud

Question 25.
When individuals fight not for themselves but for an ideal we call it is?
(a) Conflict of impersonal ideals
(b) Litigation
(c) Episodic conflict
(d) Work
Answer:
(a) Conflict of personal ideal

Question 26.
Conflict graded on physical differences is called a?
(a) Social conflict
(b) Racial conflict
(c) War
(d) Feud
Answer:
(b) Racial conflict

Question 27.
The conflict that arises among different nations is known as?
(a) National Conflict
(b) International conflict
(c) State conflict
(d) War
Answer:
(b) International conflict

Question 28.
When an individual or group does not express their feeling of conflict it is?
(a) Patient conflict
(b) Manifest conflict
(c) Personal conflict
(d) War
Answer:
(a) Patient conflict

Question 29.
Conflict among classes with different interests is ______?
(a) Economic Conflict
(b) Class conflict
(c) War
Answer:
(b) Class conflict

Question 30.
The end of conflict opens the way for ________?
(a) Competition
(b) Co-operation
(c) Accommodation
Answer:
(c) Accommodation

Question 31.
Which one is the end result of conflict?
(a) Co-operation
(b) Assimilation
(c) Accommodation
Answer:
(c) Accommodation

Question 32.
Which is not an associative process?
(a) Accommodation
(b) Assimilation
(c) Competition
(d) Co-operation
Answer:
(d) Co-operation

Question 33.
Which one is not a dissociative process?
(a) Co-operation
(b) Competition
(c) Conflict
Answer:
(c) Conflict

Question 34.
What type of process is cooperation?
(a) Universal
(b) Impersonal
(c) Unconscious
Answer:
(a) Universal

Question 35.
Which of the following is not associated with the competition?
(a) Conscious
(b) Impersonal
(c) Continuous
Answer:
(b) Impersonal

Question 36.
What type of process is conflict?
(a) Unconscious
(b) Intermittent
(c) Impersonal
Answer:
(c) Impersonal

Question 37.
What is the meaning of social stratification?
(a) Social hierarchy
(b) Universal system
(c) Ranking in society
(d) Simple society
Answer:
(d) Simple society

Question 38.
“The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less in during hierarchy of states is known as stratification”. Who defines this?
(a) Gisbert
(b) Ogbum and Nimkoff
(c) Lundberg
(d) Melvin M.Tunin
Answer:
(b) Ogbum and Nimkoff

Question 39.
“Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordination”. Who defines?
(a) Gisbert
(b) M. Tunin
(c) Lundberg
(d) Ogbum
Answer:
(a) Gisbert

Question 40.
“A stratified society is one marked by inequality by differences among people that are evaluated by them as being lower and higher”?
(a) Lundberg
(b) W. Murry
(c) Ogbum
(d) Tumin
Answer:
(a) Lundberg

Question 41.
“Sociafstratification is a horizontal division of society into high and lower society units”?
(a) Ogbum
(b) Raymond W. Muny
(c) Gisbert
(d) Tumin
Answer:
(b) Raymond W. Murry

Question 42.
Social stratification is _______?
(a) Obiquitious
(b) Privileges
(c) Differentiation
(d) Societies
Answer:
(a) Obiquitious

Question 43.
Stratification is simply a process?
(a) Interaction
(b) Hierarchy
(c) Interaction of differentiation
(d) Differentiation.
Answer:
(c) Interaction of differentiation

Question 44.
Does stratification tend to perpetuate these differences in ________?
(a) Status
(b) Stage
(c) Process
(d) Role
Answer:
(a) Status

Question 45.
Stratification in society, sorted and classified into groups?
(a) Class and Gender
(b) Caste, Class, and Gender
(c) Caste, Class
(d) All of the above
Answer:
(b) Caste, Class, and Gender

Question 46.
In the caste system occupation is _______?
(a) Fixed
(b) Charging
(c) Discontinue
Answer:
(a) Fixed

Question 47.
The word caste owes in origin to which word?
(a) French
(b) Greek
(c) Spanish
Answer:
(c) Spanish

Question 48.
Status in the caste system is _______?
(a) Ascribed
(b) Achieved
(c) none of the above
Answer:
(a) Ascribed

Question 49.
Marriage in the caste system is _______?
(a) Enogamous
(b) Endogamous
(c) None of the above
Answer:
(b) Endogamous

Question 50.
“When a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it a caste”?
(a) Risely,
(b) A. W, Green
(c) C.H.Cooly
(d) Maclver and Page
Answer:
(b) A. W. Green

Question 51.
Warmer and Lunt had not given me the following classification of classes?
(a) Lower-lower class
(b) Capitalist class
(c) Upper-middle class
Answer:
(b) Capitalist class

Question 52.
“Unstratified society with a real equality of its members is a myth which has never been realized in the history of mankind”?
(a) Maclver
(b) Tumia
(c) Sorpkim
Answer:
(c) Sordkim

Question 53.
The process which aims to destroy the opponent is called?
(a) competition
(b) Conflict
(c) Co-operation
Answer:
(b) Conflict

Question 54.
Which among the following is based on direct cooperation?
(a) Parliament
(b) Family
(c) General Assemble
(d) Government
Answer:
(b) Family

Question 55.
Which one of the following does not involve secondary cooperation?
(a) Teacher-student relations
(b) Industry
(c) Religious organization
(d) Trade union
Answer:
(a) Teacher-student relations.

Question 56.
Which of the following is a disjunctive social process?
(a) Assimilation
(b) Competition
(c) Integration
(d) Co-operation
Answer:
(b) Competition

Question 57.
The essential element of cooperation is that _______?
(a) People should belong to some nation.
(b) People should work under some roof.
(c) People should work together to gain a common end.
(d) People should progress some religious faith.
Answer:
(c) People should work together to gain a common end.

Question 58.
Which of the following statement is not true?
(a) Competition is the result of to struggle for existence.
(b) Competition is an impersonal struggle.
(c) Competition is an unconscious activity.
(d) Competition does not care for social norms.
Answer:
(d) Competition does not care for social norms.

Question 59.
The organizational trend today is towards?
(a) More co-operation
(b) More competition
Answer:
(b) More competition

Question 60.
Which of the following statement is not true?
(a) Competition is conducive to progress.
(b) Competition is a source of motivation.
(c) Competition is a prerequisite to social progress.
(d) Competition believes in achieved _ status.
Answer:
(c) Competition is a prerequisite to social progress.

Question 61.
Which of the following is not a characteristic of conflict ______?
(a) Conflict is universal
(b) Conflict lacks continuity
(c) Conflict is a conscious action
(d) Conflict is an impersonal activity.
Answer:
(d) Conflict is an impersonal activity.

Question 62.
Which one of the following is not a form of conflict?
(a) War
(b) Feud
(c) Litigation
(d) Examination
Answer:
(d) Examination

Question 63.
The conflict between capitalists and workers is an example of _______?
(a) Personal conflict
(b) Class conflict
(c) Racial conflict
(d) Political conflict
Answer:
(b) Class conflict

Question 64.
Hindu and Muslim riots are an example of _______?
(a) Personal conflict
(b) Corporate Conflict
Answer:
(b) Corporate conflict.

Question 65.
Co-operation is crossed by conflict is the famous statement of ________?
(a) Maclver
(b) Cooley
(c) Comte
(d) GillinandGillin
Answer:
(a) Maclever

Question 66.
Does social change refer to change in _______?
(a) Obsess
(b) Value system
(c) Habitation pattern.
(d) Food habits
Answer:
(b) Value system

Question 67.
Who among the following has analyzed the process of social change in terms of fluctuation between the cultural mentalities such as identical, idealistic, and sensate?
(a) O. Spengler
(b) L.Wirth
(c) P. Sorokin
(d) A.Toyntee
Answer:
(c) P. Sorokin

Question 68.
Who defines social change in the following way “By social change is meant only such alternation as occur in social organization that is in the structure and functions of society”?
(a) Jones
(b) K. Davis
(c) Maclver
(d) Ogburn
Answer:
(b) K. Davis

Question 69.
Who defines “Social change as variations from the accepted modes of like”?
(a) GillinandGillin
(b) Comte
(c) Marx
(d) Weber
Answer:
(a) Gillin and Gillin

Question 70.
Who defines “Social change as a term used to describe variations in or modifications of any aspects of social processes social patterns, social interaction of social organization”?
(a) K. Davis
(b) P. Sorokin
(c) Jones
(d) M. N. Srinivas
Answer:
(a) K. Davis

Question 71.
Who of the following sociologists views social change and culture change as one?
(a) GillinandGillin
(b) Maclever and Page
(c) K. Davis
Answer:
(a) Gillin and Gillin

Question 72.
Which of the following view that social change is different from cultural change?
(a) P. Sorokin
(b) GillinandGillin
(c) K. Davis
(d) Maciver and Page
Answer:
(d) Maclver and Page

Question 73.
Which of the following says that cultural change is broader than social change?
(a) Ogbum
(b) Max Weber
(c) Jones
(d) K. Davis
Answer:
(d) K. Davis

Question 74.
Which of the following introduced the concept of cultural log?
(a) W. F. Ogbum
(b) O. Spengler
(c) Maclver
(d) K. Davis
Answer:
(a) W. F Ogburn

Question 75.
Which of the following is the characteristic of social change?
(a) Social change is related to time.
(b) Social change takes a particular form.
(c) Social change is intermittent.
(d) Social change is caused by a single factor.
Answer:
(a) Social change is related to time.

Question 76.
Who divided the culture into material and non-material types?
(a) M. N. Srinivas
(b) W.F. Ogburn
(c) T.R. Mathus
(d) E.S. Bogardus
Answer:
(b) W.F. Ogburn

Question 77.
What is cultural change?
(a) Change in social organization,
(b) Change in social relationships.
(c) Change in housing
(d) Change in art, science, literature, and values.
Answer:
(d) Change in art, science, literature, and values.

Question 78.
Which of the following speaks about social selection?
(a) OgbumandNinkoff
(b) Maclver and Page
(c) C. Dawin
Answer:
(a) Ogburn and Ninkoff

Question 79.
What is technology?
(a) Use of ox in tilling the land.
(b) Use of inanimate power in production
(c) Use of animate power in production
Answer:
(b) Use of inanimate power in production

Question 80.
Does exogenous social change refer to______?
(a) Change due to external factors
(b) Change due to internal factors
Answer:
(a) Change due to external factors

True & False Type Questions With Answer

Question 1.
Competition is an example of an associative social process.
Answer:
False

Question 2.
Competition is an example of a dissociative social process.
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Does the associative social process work towards the integration of society?
Answer:
False

Question 4.
Does the associative social process work towards the integration of society?
Answer:
True

Question 5.
Competition is a personal struggle.
Answer:
False

Question 6.
Competition is an impersonal struggle?
Answer:
True

Question 7.
Competition is an interaction with social contact.
Answer:
False

Question 8.
Competition is interaction without social contact.
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Conflict is the unconscious attempt to oppose, resist or. coerce the will of another?
Answer:
False

Question 10.
Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another.
Answer:
True

Question 11.
When cooperating individuals do like things we call it indirect cooperation.
Answer:
False

Question 12.
When cooperating individuals do like things we call direct cooperation?
Answer:
True

Question 13.
The term co-operation is derived from the Greek word ‘Co’ and ‘operator’.
Answer:
False

Question 14.
The term co-operation is derived from the Latin word ‘co’ and ‘operator’?
Answer:
True

Question 15.
When cooperating individuals do dissimilar things it is called direct cooperation.
Answer:
False

Question 16.
When cooperating individuals do dissimilar things it is called indirect cooperation.
Answer:
True

Question 17.
Co-operation found among the members of the family is called ‘ Secondary co-operation?
Answer:
False

Question 18.
Cooperation found among the members of the family is called primary cooperation.
Answer:
True

Question 19.
When people cooperate among themselves to meet a particular situation it is called secondary cooperation.
Answer:
False

Question 20.
When people cooperate among themselves to meet a particular situation it is called tertiary cooperation.
Answer:
True

Question 21.
Competition is an intermittent process.
Answer:
False

Question 22.
Competition is a continuous process.
Answer:
True

Question 23.
Competition is interaction without social contact is the definition given by Biesanz?
Answer:
False

Question 24.
Competition is interaction without social contact is the definition given by Park and Burgess?
Answer:
True

Question 25.
The competition that occurs between cultural groups is called social competition.
Answer:
False

Question 26.
The competition that occurs between cultural groups is called cultural competition.
Answer:
True

Question 27.
Conflict is an unconscious and impersonal process.
Answer:
False

Question 28.
Conflict is an unconscious and personal process.
Answer:
True

Question 29.
A conflict is an extreme form of the associative social process.
Answer:
False

Question 30.
Conflict is an extreme form of the dissociative social process.
Answer:
True

Question 31.
The conflict which is regulated by rules is known as terminal conflict.
Answer:
False

Question 32.
The conflict which is regulated by rules is called episodic conflict.
Answer:
True

Question 33.
Conflicts in which one participant attempts to destroy another is known as episodic conflict.
Answer:
False

Question 34.
Conflicts in which one participant attempts to destroy another is known as terminal conflict.
Answer:
True

Question 35.
A judicial form of conflict is known as a feud.
Answer:
False

Question 36.
A judicial form of conflict is known as litigation.
Answer:
True

Question 37.
Four terms of conflict such as war, feud, litigation, and conflict of impersonal ideals are mentioned by Ogburn.
Answer:
False

Question 38.
Four terms of conflict such as war, feud, litigation, and conflict of impersonal ideals are mentioned by George Simmel.
Answer:
True

Question 39.
When conflict ends accommodation ends.
Answer:
False

Question 40.
When conflict ends accommodation begins.
Answer:
True

Question 41.
Does accommodation refer to a process of biological adjustment?
Answer:
False

Question 42.
Does accommodation refer to a process of social adjustment?
Answer:
True

Question 43.
Co-operation is an impersonal process?
Answer:
False

Question 44.
Co-operation is a personal process?
Answer:
True

Question 45.
The lasting strife that takes place among the members of the same group is called war.
Answer:
False

Question 46.
The lasting strife that takes place among the members of the same group is called feud.
Answer:
True

Question 47.
Tertiary cooperation is found in the second group only.
Answer:
False

Question 48.
Tertiary cooperation is found in the primary and secondary groups only.
Answer:
True

Question 49.
Competition is always a personal process.
Answer:
False

Question 50.
Competition is always an impersonal process.
Answer:
True

Question 51.
Social stratification is simply a process of interaction of difference.
Answer:
False

Question 52.
Social stratification is simply a process of interaction of differentiation.
Answer:
True

Question 53.
Social stratification is intercourse?
Answer:
False

Question 54.
Social stratification is ubiquitous.
Answer:
True

Question 55.
The term social stratification refers to the division of a population into strata one on the top of other.
Answer:
False

Question 56.
The term social stratification refers to the division of a population into strata one on top of another.
Answer:
True

Question 57.
Class is a major characteristic of stratification.
Answer:
False

Question 58.
Class is a major type of stratification.
Answer:
True

Question 59.
The caste system is a major characteristic of social stratification?
Answer:
False

Question 60.
The caste system is a major type of social stratification?
Answer:
True

Question 61.
Social change is caused by a single factor.
Answer:
False

Question 62.
Social change is caused by multiple factors.
Answer:
True

Question 63.
Social change is not related to time.?
Answer:
False

Question 64.
Social change is related to time.
Answer:
True

Question 65.
Maclver used the concept of cultural lag.
Answer:
False

Question 66.
W.F. Ogburn used the concept of cultural lag.
Answer:
True

Question 67.
Social change is predictable?
Answer:
False

Question 68.
Social change is unpredictable.
Answer:
True

Question 69.
M.N. Srinivas divided culture into material and non-material types.
Answer:
False

Question 70.
W.F. Ogburn divided culture into material and non-material types.
Answer:
True

Question 71.
Social change is a part of cultural change.
Answer:
False

Question 72.
Cultural change is a part of social change?
Answer:
True

Question 73.
Change due to natural calamities like flow is planned change?
Answer:
False

Question 74.
Change due to natural calamities like flow is unplanned change?
Answer:
True

Question 75.
Change in social relationships is called cultural change.
Answer:
False

Question 76.
Change in art, literature, values, and culture is called cultural change.
Answer:
True

Question 77.
Communication is aji example of exogenous social change.
Answer:
False

Question 78.
Communication is an example of endogenous social change.
Answer:
True

Question 79.
Does Charles Darwin speak about social selection?
Answer:
False

Question 80.
Ogburn and Ninkoffspeaks about social selection.
Answer:
True

Question 81.
The change brought out by wars is known as endogenous social change.
Answer:
False

Question 82.
The change brought out by wars is known as exogenous social change.
Answer:
True

Question 83.
The use of animate power in production is known as technology.
Answer:
False

Question 84.
The use of inanimate power in production is known as technology.
Answer:
True